LECTURE 1

 INSTRUCTOR:
 MAM AFRAH NAWAZ
 afrahnawaz@yahoo.com

 Contact hours:
 Email: 24/7
 Cell: only CR

 Text Book:
 O. V. Roussak, H. D. Gesser, Applied Chemistry: A Textbook for
Engineers and Technologists: Springer.
 Applied chemistry is the application of the
principles and theories of chemistry to
answer a specific question or solve a real-
world problem, as opposed to pure
chemistry, which is aimed at enhancing
knowledge within the field.
 Applied Chemistry is the scientific field for understanding
basic chemical properties of materials and for producing
new materials with well-controlled functions.

 Applied Chemistry covers a variety of chemical fields,

working on various materials including metal compounds,
inorganic and organic compounds, polymers, proteins etc,
doing basic researches and their applications.

 Applied chemistry is increasingly important in solving

environmental problems and contributing to the
development of new materials, both of which are key
issues in the 21st century.

 This major has four areas of study: physical chemistry,

materials chemistry, chemical engineering, and
environmental chemistry.
 The development of science and technology has been
giving us a lot of benefits. Chemistry is a field which has
greatly contributed to the development. The advanced
technology has often required the basic research.

 Therefore, the Course of Applied Chemistry covers a

variety of chemical fields, working on various materials
including metal compounds, inorganic and organic
compounds, polymers, proteins etc, doing basic researches
and their applications.
 This course is divided into these fields

1. Physical chemistry
2. Atomic structure and inter atomic bonding
3. Basic mechanical properties
4. Thermo chemistry
5. Electro chemistry
6. Industrial chemistry
7. Water treatment methods
 Aiming to create a novel system of knowledge by
investigating and understanding the fundamental nature of
materials and to fabricate useful materials by designing
new structures and controlling their properties.

 Materials Design:
Materials include not only industrial products but also ones
related to technologies such as medicine, energy and
environment. Such materials play significant roles in our
human future. In this frame, learning the fundamentals to
produce materials which give us a comfortable life in
harmony with environment and nature.
 Environmental Technology / Analytical Chemistry / Process
Engineering:

When we make products and use energy, we have to take

global environmental influence into consideration. In this
frame, you will obtain not only the skills to prepare new
materials and the knowledge to understand reaction
mechanisms, but also will have wide scope of green,
sustainable chemistry based on environmental conservation.

 Organic Science:

The living body consists of various organic compounds. To

clarify a biological activity and to prepare an environment-
friendly functional material, a basic knowledge of organic
chemistry is necessary.
The frame of Organic Science will provide you with an
opportunity to study the skills and intelligence of organic
chemistry for understanding natural phenomenon and the
natural environment on a molecular scale.
 Chemistry has been called the “central science” because it
is important to so many other fields of scientific study.
 So, even if you have never taken a chemistry course,
chances are good that you have seen some chemistry
before.
 The ultimate goal of introductory applied chemistry is to
help you appreciate the chemical viewpoint and the way it
can help you to understand the natural world.
 This type of perspective of the world is what enables
chemists and engineers to devise strategies for refining
metals from their ores, as well as to approach the many
other applied problems we’ll explore.
 This coherent picture involves three levels of
understanding or perspectives on the nature of chemistry:

 Macroscopic
 Microscopic
 Symbolic.

 You should be able to switch among these perspectives to

look at problems involving chemistry in several ways. The
things we can see about substances and their reactions
provide the macroscopic perspective.
 We need to interpret these events considering the
microscopic (or “particulate”) perspective, where we
focus on the smallest components of the system. Finally,
we need to be able to communicate these concepts
efficiently, so chemists or engineer have devised a
symbolic perspective that allows us to do that.
 We can look at these three aspects of chemistry first, to
provide a reference for framing our studies at the outset
 When we observe chemical reactions in the laboratory or
in the world around us, we are observing matter at the
macroscopic level.

 Matter is anything that has mass and

can be observed. We are so often in contact with matter
that we tend to accept our intuitive feel for its existence
as an adequate definition. When we study chemistry,
however, we need to be aware that some of what we
observe in nature is not matter.

For example, light is not considered matter because it has
no mass. When we take a close look at matter—in this case
aluminum—we can see that various questions arise. The
behavior of the aluminum in a can is predictable. If the
can is tossed into the air, little will happen except that the
can will fall to the earth under the force of gravity
 Aluminum cans and other consumer goods like those do not
decompose in the air or undergo other chemical reactions.

 If the aluminum from a soda can is ground into a fine

powder and tossed into the air, however, it may ignite—
chemically combining with the oxygen in air.

 It is now believed that the Hindenburg airship burned

primarily because it was covered with a paint containing
aluminum powder and not because it was filled with
hydrogen gas.
 One of the most common ways to observe matter is to
allow it to change in some way. Two types of changes can
be distinguished: Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance,
but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate
mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to
separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.
 physical changes
 chemical changes

 The substances involved in a physical change do not lose

their chemical identities. Physical properties are variables
that we can measure without changing the identity of the
substance being observed.
 Mass and density are familiar physical properties. Mass is
measured by comparing the object given and some
standard, using a balance.

 Density is a ratio of mass to volume.

To determine density, both mass and volume must be
measured. But these values can be obtained without
changing the material, so density is a physical property.

 Familiar examples of physical properties also include color,

viscosity, hardness, and temperature.

 Some other physical properties, which will be defined

later, include heat capacity, boiling point, melting point,
and volatility.
 The change of one type of matter into another type (or
the inability to change) is a chemical property.
Examples of chemical properties include flammability,
toxicity, acidity, reactivity (many types), and heat of
combustion

 Chemical properties are associated with the types of

chemical changes that a substance undergoes. For
example, some materials burn readily, whereas others do
not. Burning in oxygen is a chemical reaction called
combustion.
 Corrosion—the degradation of metals in the presence of air
and moisture—is another commonly observed chemical
change. Treating a metal with some other material, such
as paint can often prevent the damage caused by
corrosion.
 Thus an important chemical property of paint is its ability
to prevent corrosion. Chemical properties can be
determined only by observing how a substance changes its
identity in chemical reactions.
 Both chemical and physical properties of aluminum are
important to its utility. A structural material is useful only
if it can be formed into desired shapes, which requires it
to be malleable.

 Malleability is a measure of a material’s ability to be

rolled or hammered into thin sheets, and metals are
valuable in part because of their malleability.

 It is a physical property because the substance remains

intact—it is still the same metal just in a different shape.
 An aluminum can is formed during its manufacturing
process, but its shape can be changed, as you have
perhaps done many times when you crushed a can to put it
into a recycling bin. Similarly, the chemical properties of
aluminum are important.
 Pure aluminum would be very likely to react with the acids
in many popular soft drinks. So aluminum cans are coated
inside with a thin layer of polymer—a
plastic—to keep the metal from reacting with the
contents.
 This demonstrates how knowing chemical properties can
allow product designers to account for and avoid
potentially harmful reactions.
 When we observe chemical reactions macroscopically, we
encounter three common states, or phases, of matter:
solids, liquids, and gases.
 At the macroscopic level, solids are hard and do not
change their shapes easily. When a solid is placed in a
container, it retains its own shape rather than assuming
that of the container.
 Even a powdered solid demonstrates this trait because the
individual particles still retain their shape, even though
the collection of them may take on the shape of the
container.
 Liquids can be distinguished from solids macroscopically
because unlike solids, liquids adapt to the shape of the
container in which they are held.
 They may not fill the entire volume, but the portion they
do occupy has its shape defined by the container.
 Finally, gases can be distinguished macroscopically from
both liquids and solids primarily because a gas expands to
occupy the entire volume of its container.
 Although many gases are colorless and thus invisible, the
observation that a gas fills
 The available volume is a common experience; when we
walk through a large room, we are not concerned that we
will hit a pocket with no air.
 The aluminum that we encounter daily is a solid, but
during the refining process, the metal must become
molten, or liquid.
 Handling the molten metal, pouring it into containers, and
separating impurities provide both chemical and
engineering challenges for those who design aluminum
production plants.
 .
 Often, chemical and physical properties are difficult to
distinguish at the macroscopic level.
 We can assert that boiling water is a physical change, but
if you do nothing more than observe that the water in a
boiling pot disappears, how do you know if it has
undergone a chemical or physical change?
 To answer this type of question, we need to consider the
particles that make up the water, or whatever we observe,
and consider what is happening at the microscopic level
 The most fundamental tenet of chemistry is that all matter
is composed of atoms and molecules. This is why chemists
tend to think of everything as “a chemical” of
one sort or another.
 In many cases, the matter we encounter is a complex
mixture of chemicals, and we refer to each individual
component as a chemical substance. All matter comprises
a limited number of “building blocks,” called elements
 Atoms are unimaginably small particles that
cannot be made any smaller and still behave like a
chemical system. When we study matter at levels smaller
than an atom, we move into nuclear or elementary
particle physics.
 But atoms are the smallest particles that can exist and
retain the chemical identity of whatever element they
happen to be.
 Molecules are groups of atoms held together so that they
form a unit whose identity is distinguishably different from
the atoms alone. Ultimately, we will see how forces known
as “chemical bonds” are responsible for holding the atoms
together in these molecules.
 The particulate perspective provides a more detailed look
at the distinction between chemical and physical changes.
 Because atoms and molecules are far too small to observe
directly or to photograph, typically we will use simplified,
schematic drawings to depict them. Often, atoms and
molecules will be drawn as spheres to depict them and
consider their changes.
 If we consider solids, liquids, and gases, how do they differ
at the particulate level? Figure provides a very simple but
useful illustration.
 Note that the atoms in a solid are packed closely together,
and it is depicted as maintaining its shape—here as a block
or chunk.
 The liquid phase also has its constituent particles closely
packed, but they are shown filling the bottom of the
container rather than maintaining their shape.
 Finally, the gas is shown with much larger distances
between the particles, and the particles themselves move
freely through the entire volume of the container.
 These pictures have been inferred from experiments that
have been conducted over many years.
Many solids, for example, have well-ordered structures,
called crystals, so a particulate representation of solids
usually includes this sense of order
 How can we distinguish between a chemical and a
physical change in this perspective? The difference is much
easier to denote at this level, though often it is no more
obvious to observe.
 If a process is a physical change, the atoms or molecules
themselves do not change at all. To look at this idea, we
turn to a “famous” molecule—water.
 Many people who have never studied chemistry can tell
you that the chemical formula of water is “H two O.” We
depict this molecule using different sized spheres; the
slightly larger sphere represents oxygen and the smaller
spheres represent hydrogen.

In Figure, we see that when
water boils, the composition of
the individual molecules is the
same in the liquid phase and
the gas phase.

Water has not been altered,

and this fact is characteristic of
a physical change.
Contrast this with Figure 1.5,
which depicts a process
called electrolysis at the
particulate level; electrolysis
occurs when water is exposed
to an electric current.

Notice that the molecules

themselves change in this
depiction, as water molecules
are converted into hydrogen
and oxygen molecules. Here,
then, we have a chemical
change.
 If we observe these two reactions macroscopically, what
would we see and how would we know the difference?
 In both cases, we would see bubbles forming, only in one
case the bubbles will contain water vapor (gas) and in the
other they contain hydrogen or oxygen.
 The third way that chemists perceive their subject is to
use symbols to represent the atoms, molecules, and
reactions that make up the science.
 The famous “H two O” molecule we have noted is never
depicted as we have done here in the quotation marks.
Rather, you have seen the symbolic representation of
water, H2O.
 Simply note that this symbolic level of understanding is
very important because it provides a way to discuss some
of the most abstract parts of chemistry.
 We need to think about atoms and molecules, and the
symbolic representation provides a convenient way to keep
track of these particles we’ll never actually see. These
symbols will be one of the key ways that we interact with
ideas at the particulate level.
 How can we use these representations to help us think
about aluminum ore or aluminum metal? The macroscopic
representation is the most familiar, especially to the
engineer.
 From a practical perspective, the clear differences
between unrefined ore and usable aluminum metal are
apparent immediately. The principal ore from which
aluminum is refined is called bauxite, and bauxite looks
Al2O3.H2O
pretty much like ordinary rock.
 There’s no mistaking that it is different from aluminum
metal. At the molecular level, we might focus on the
aluminum oxide (also called alumina) in the ore and
compare it to aluminum metal, as shown in Figure.
 This type of drawing emphasizes the fact that the ore is
made up of different types of atoms, whereas only one
type of atom is present in the metal.
 (Note that metals normally contain small amounts of
impurities, sometimes introduced intentionally to provide
specific, desirable properties.asthisdoping.
process is known

 But in this case, we have simplified the illustration by

eliminating any impurities). Finally, Figure also shows the
symbolic representation for aluminum oxide—its chemical
formula.
 Fundamental Concepts of Atoms:

 Our current model of the structure of atoms has been

accepted for nearly a century, but it took great creativity
and many ingenious experiments to develop. The atom is
composed of a small, compact core called the nucleus
surrounded by a disperse cloud of electrons.
 The nucleus is composed of two types of particles:
protons and neutrons. There is so much space between
the electrons and the nucleus that it is impossible to show
it to scale in an illustration .
A better model of atomic structure views the electrons as
clouds of negative charge that surround the nucleus, as
opposed to particles that orbit around it in an orderly way
 Electric charge provides an important constraint on these
numbers. Protons are positively charged, electrons are
negatively charged, and neutrons are neutral.
 Atoms themselves are also electrically neutral, so the
numbers of protons and electrons present must be such
that their charges will cancel each other.
 You may know from physics that the SI unit of charge is the
coulomb (C).
 Experiments have shown that the electrical charges on a
proton and an electron are equal and opposite.
 Every electron carries a charge of -1.602 × 10-19 C,
whereas every proton carries a charge of +1.602 × 10-19 C.
So for an atom to remain neutral, the numbers of electrons
and protons must be equal.
 Because neutrons have no charge, the number of neutrons
present is not restricted by the requirement for electrical
neutrality. For most elements, the number of neutrons can
vary from one atom to another, as we’ll see
 The number of protons in a particular atom, referred to as
the atomic number, identifies the element.

 Carbon atoms make up the backbone of nearly all

polymers, so we will consider them first. The atomic
number of carbon is six, which tells us that a neutral
carbon atom has six protons. Electrical neutrality requires
that a carbon atom also must
have six electrons. The great majority of carbon atoms—
roughly 99%—also contain six neutrons.

 But some carbon atoms contain seven or even eight

neutrons. Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes
 the combined total of protons and neutrons is called the
mass number of the atom. Because isotopes are atoms of
the same element with different numbers of neutrons they
will have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.

 Atomic Symbols
All the information about the structure of the atom, which
we have just discussed, can be written in scientific
shorthand, using atomic symbols. The general atomic
symbol can be written as

E represents the atomic symbol for the element in

question, the superscript A is the mass number, and the
subscript Z is the atomic number.
 When the number of protons and the number of electrons do
not match, the result is a species with a net charge, called an
ion. Such species are no longer atoms, and their behavior is
markedly different from that of atoms.
 Ions can also play important roles in many chemical
processes, including several that are important in the large-
scale production of polymers.
 When an ion is derived from a single atom it is called a
monatomic ion.
 When groups of atoms carry a charge they are called
polyatomic ions.
 Monatomic or polyatomic ions may carry either negative or
positive charges. Negatively charged ions are called anions,
and they contain more electrons than protons. Similarly, an
ion with more protons than electrons has a positive charge
and is called a cation
 The behavior and interaction of electrical charges are
important we will point out just two fundamental ideas
about electric charge.
 First, opposite charges attract each other and like charges
repel one another
 And second, electric charge is conserved.
 These two ideas have important implications for the
formation of ions in chemical processes. First of all,
because charge is conserved, we can say that if a neutral
atom or molecule is to be converted into an ion, some
oppositely charged particle—most likely an electron or
another ion—must be produced at the same time.
 Moreover, because opposite charges attract one another,
some energy input is always needed to convert a neutral
atom or molecule into a pair of oppositely charged
particles.
 The statement that “opposites attract and likes repel” can
be quantified mathematically. Coulomb’s law, which you
may recall from a physics class, describes the interaction
of charged particles. The attraction of opposite charges
and the repulsion of like charges are both described
mathematically by one simple equation:

Here q1 and q2 are the charges, e0 is a constant called the

permittivity of a vacuum, and r is the distance between
the charges.
F is the force the objects exert on one another as a result
of their charges. Looking at this expression, when both
charges have the same sign—either positive or negative—
the resultant value for the force is a positive number.
When the charges are opposite, the value is negative.
 Now consider the effect of varying the
distance, r, between two ions.

 If two positively charged particles are

initially very far apart (effectively
infinite distance), the r 2 term in the
denominator of Equation will be very
large. This in turn means that the
force F will be very small, and so the
particles will not interact with each
other significantly.

 As the two like charges are brought

closer together, the r 2 term in the
denominator shrinks and so the
(positive) force grows larger: the
particles repel each other. If we
somehow force the particles closer
together, the repulsive force will
continue to grow.
 Atoms combine to make compounds by forming chemical
bonds. Several different types of chemical bonds are
possible, and once we learn to recognize them, these
types of bonds will help us to understand some of the
chemical properties of many substances.
 All chemical bonds share two characteristics. First, all
bonds involve exchange or sharing of electrons.
 Second, this exchange or sharing of electrons results in
lower energy for the compound relative to the separate
atoms.
 A chemical bond will not form, or will have only a fleeting
existence, unless it lowers the overall energy of the
collection of atoms involved
 Chemical bonds can be divided
into three broad categories: ionic,
covalent, and metallic.

 Some compounds are composed of

collections of oppositely charged
ions that form an extended array
called a lattice. The bonding in
these compounds is called ionic
bonding.
 To form the ions that make up the
compound, one substance loses an
electron to become a cation,
while another gains an electron to
become an anion.
 We can view this as the transfer of
an electron from one species to
another.
 Ionic compounds form extended systems or lattices of
alternating positive and negative charges. Although the
formula NaCl correctly indicates that sodium and chlorine
are present in a 1:1 ratio, we cannot really identify an
individual “molecule” of NaCl.
 To emphasize this distinction, we sometimes refer to a
formula unit, rather than a molecule, when talking about
ionic compounds. The formula unit is the smallest whole
number ratio of atoms in an ionic compound
 Metals represent another type of extended system, but
here the chemical bonding is totally different. In metals,
the atoms are once again arranged in a lattice, but
positively and negatively charged species do not alternate.
Instead, the nuclei and some fraction of their electrons
comprise a positively charged “core” localized at these
lattice points, and other electrons move more or less
freely throughout the whole array.
 This is called metallic bonding. Metallic bonding leads to
electrical conductivity because electrons can move easily
through the bulk material.
A metallic bond is the sharing of many detached electrons between many
positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a
definite structure. It is unlike covalent or ionic bonding. Metals have low
ionization energy. Therefore, the valence electrons can be delocalized
throughout the metals
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These
electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive
forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding

 When electrons are shared

between pairs of atoms rather
than donated from one atom to
another or mobile across an
entire lattice, we have
covalent bonds.
 In covalent bonds, electrons are
usually shared in pairs. Two
electrons are located between
two nuclei and the sharing
leads to an attraction between
the nuclei.
 The long chains in all polymers
are formed by covalent bonds
in which electrons are shared
between adjacent carbon
atoms. Smaller, more familiar
molecules such as water, carbon
dioxide, and propane are
simpler examples.
 One of the most recognizable tools of chemistry is the
periodic table . the periodic table summarizes a wealth of
Periodic law:
information about the behavior of elements, organizing the law that the
them simultaneously in ascending order of properties
elements are
of the

atomic number and in groups according to chemical periodic functions

of their atomic
behavior. numbers. Also
called
 Mendeleev had published his first periodic table and Mendeleev's law.
enumerated the periodic law: when properly arranged, (originally) the
statement that the
the elements display a regular and periodic variation in chemical and
physical
their chemical properties. properties of the
elements recur
 The most significant and impressive feature of Mendeleev’s periodically when

work was his prediction of the existence of undiscovered the elements are
arranged in the
elements. He left holes in his proposed table at positions order of their
atomic weights.
where no known element seemed to fit. Later, when the
elements to fill in these holes were identified, the
scientific community accepted Mendeleev’s work.
 The modern periodic table simultaneously arranges
elements in two important ways:
 the horizontal rows of the table, called periods, and the
vertical columns, called groups. The term “period” is used
for the rows because many important properties of the
elements vary systematically as we move across a row.

 Each color represents a period (row) in the table. Because

the elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, moving across each segment of
the graph corresponds to moving from left to right across
the corresponding row of the periodic table.
 Horizontal rows are called periods.
 There are 7 periods.
„
 Periods represent the electron energy levels.
 Elements are placed in columns by similar properties.
 Vertical columns are called groups also called families.
 The groups are 18 in number.
 The elements in the A groups are called the representative
elements
 The group B are called the transition metals .
 Group 1A are the alkali metals.
„
 Group 2A are the alkaline earth metals
„
Very reactive
 „ ot found alone in nature because react to form
N
compounds
 Have one valence electron
 Easily lose their valence electron to form a +1 ion

Alkaline Earth Metals

 Less reactive then Alkali metals family
„
 Have two valence electrons
 „Lose their valence electrons to form ions with a +2 charge
 Group 7A is called the Halogens
 Group 8A are the noble gases

 Halogen Family
 „Very reactive
 „Have 7 valence electrons
 „They gain one electron to form a -1 ion
The atoms of noble gases already have complete outer
shells, so they have no tendency to lose, gain, or share

 Noble Gases electrons. This is why the noble gases are inert and do not
take part in chemical reactions. ... atoms of group 0 elements
have complete outer shells (so they are unreactive)
 „Do not react
 „Will not form compounds (except under very rare
circumstances)
 They are inert gases because inert means non -reactive
„
 A zigzag line separates the metals from the nonmetals.
 Lanthanide and Actinide Series elements (ones at the
bottom) are Metals „
 Metalloids, which straddle the line, are considered non –
metals.
‰
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity ‰
 Metals are malleable ‰
 Metals are ductile ‰
 Metals have high tensile strength
 Metals have luster
‰

Examples of Metals
 Potassium, K reacts with water and must be stored in
kerosene
 Zinc, Zn, is more stable than potassium
 Copper, Cu, is a relatively soft metal, and a very good
electrical conductor.
 Mercury, Hg, is the only metal that exists as a liquid at
room temperature
 Brittle materials with extremely low
plasticity, in which cracks can initiate
without plastic deformation and can soon
 Dull „
„ evolve into brittle breakage.

 Brittle „
 Nonconductors
 Insulators

Properties of Nonmetals:
 Carbon, the graphite in “pencil lead” is a great example of
a nonmetallic element.
 ƒNonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 ƒNonmetals tend to be brittle ƒ
 Many nonmetals are gases at room temperature
 Sulfur, S, was once known as “brimstone”
 Microspheres of phosphorus, P, a nonmetal
 Graphite is not the only pure form of carbon, C.
 Diamond is also carbon; the color comes from impurities
caught within the crystal structure
 Properties of both „
 Semiconductors

 Properties
 Metalloids straddle the border between metals and
nonmetals on the periodic table.
 They have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
™
 ™ etalloids are more brittle than metals, less brittle than
M
most nonmetallic solids ™
 Metalloids are semiconductors of electricity ™
 Some metalloids possess metallic luster
 Silicon has metallic luster ‰
 Silicon is brittle like a nonmetal ‰
 Silicon is a semiconductor of electricity

 Other metalloids include:

 Boron, B
 Germanium, Ge
 Arsenic, As
 Antimony, Sb
 Tellurium, Te