Hio Niversity: Jilid 11 No 1 2009

Pengajian Media
Jurnal
Malaysia Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
Jilid 11 No 1 2009
Role-Taking: An Important Public Relations Process

HUGH CULBERTSON (Ohio University)
Perhubungan Awam dan Teknologi Baru

JAMILAH HJ AHMAD (Universiti Sains Malaysia)
The Influence of Public Relations in Business News Reporting: Opinions of Editors and
Journalists
MUHAMAD SHAM SHAHKAT ALI (Universiti Putra Malaysia)
Branding an Airline: A Case Study of AirAsia

KHOR YOKE LIM, RAMLI MOHAMED, AZEMAN ARIFFIN & GERALD GOH (Universiti
Sains Malaysia)
Malaysia’s Role in National Development: Media Policy and National Stability

AZIZAH HAMZAH (Universiti Malaya)
Regulator and Enforcement: A Case Study on Malaysian Communication and Multimedia

Commission (MCMC) Comparatively with FCC, IDA, OFCOM and Other Regulators
HASMAH ZANUDIN (Universiti Malaya)
Perception of U.S. Media Influences on Self and Others Among Malaysian Youth
EZHAR TAMAM (Universiti Putra Malaysia)
Online Newspaper in Malaysia: A Preliminary Study

MOHD YAHYA MOHAMED ARIFFIN & NOOR ISMAWATI JAAFAR (Universiti Malaya)
Asean Delights: A Study of Asean Programs on Malaysian TV

HAMISAH HASAN & ABDUL MUA’TI (Universiti Putra Malaysia)
Perspektif Penerbit tentang Isu-isu Kritikal dalam Penyediaan dan Pembekalan Buku
Teks Sekolah di Malaysia
MD SIDIN AHMAD ISHAK (Universiti Malaya)
Pengaruh Barat dalam Persuratan Melayu Awal di Malaysia

MOHAMAD SALEEH RAHAMAD (Universiti Malaya)
Menulis dengan Budaya Pascakolonial: Analisis Catatan Kembara

AWANG AZMAN AWANG PAWI (Universiti Malaysia Sarawak)
Jalinan Kesukanan Malaysia-China: Mempelajari Kejayaan China dalam Sukan

HAMEDI MOHD ADNAN & SARIMAH ISMAIL (Universiti Malaya)
Jabatan Pengajian Media, Fakulti Sastera & Sains Sosial, Universiti Malaya
Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of Malaya
Pengajian Media
Jurnal
Malaysia Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
Jilid 11 No 1 2009
Jabatan Pengajian Media, Fakulti Sastera & Sains Sosial, Universiti Malaya
Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of Malaya
Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia
Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
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PENASIHAT EDITORIAL EDITORIAL ADVISOR

PROF. MADYA DR HAMEDI MOHD ADNAN
PERUNDING EDITORIAL EDITORIAL CONSULTANT

PROFESOR EMERITUS DATUK ABU BAKAR ABD HAMID, University of Malaya
DATUK DR HASSAN AHMAD, Yayasan Karyawan
PROFESOR DREW MCDANIEL, Ohio University, USA
DR TONY WILSON, Monash University, Australia
PROFESOR DR P. KITLEY, University of Wollongong, Australia
PROFESOR DR DEDDY MULYANA, Universitas Padjajaran, Indonesia
KETUA EDITOR CHIEF EDITOR

PROFESOR RAHMAN SHAARI
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia
Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
Kandungan Contents

Role-Taking: An Important Public Relations Process

HUGH CULBERTSON (Ohio University)......................................1
JAMILAH HJ AHMAD (Universiti Sains Malaysia)..........................9
The Influence of Public Relations in Business News Reporting: Opinions of
Editors and Journalists
MUHAMAD SHAM SHAHKAT ALI (Universiti Putra Malaysia)........21
Branding an Airline: A Case Study of AirAsia
KHOR YOKE LIM, RAMLI MOHAMED, AZEMAN ARIFFIN &
GERALD GOH (Universiti Sains Malaysia).................................35
Malaysia’s Role in National Development: Media Policy and National

Stability
AZIZAH HAMZAH (Universiti Malaya).......................................49
Regulator and Enforcement: A Case Study on Malaysian Communication and
Multimedia Commission (MCMC) Comparatively with FCC, IDA, OFCOM
and Other Regulators
HASMAH ZANUDIN (Universiti Malaya)....................................59
Perception of U.S. Media Influences on Self and Others Among Malaysian
Youth
EZHAR TAMAM (Universiti Putra Malaysia)................................73
Online Newspaper in Malaysia: A Preliminary Study
MOHD YAHYA MOHAMED ARIFFIN & NOOR ISMAWATI JAAFAR
(Universiti Malaya)...............................................................83
Asean Delights: A Study of Asean Programs on Malaysian TV
HAMISAH HASAN & ABDUL MUA’TI
(Universiti Putra Malaysia).....................................................95
Perspektif Penerbit tentang Isu-isu Kritikal dalam Penyediaan dan
Pembekalan Buku Teks Sekolah di Malaysia
MD SIDIN AHMAD ISHAK (Universiti Malaya)..........................105
MOHAMAD SALEEH RAHAMAD (Universiti Malaya)...................113
AWANG AZMAN AWANG PAWI
(Universiti Malaysia Sarawak)................................................133
Jalinan Kesukanan Malaysia-China: Mempelajari Kejayaan China dalam
Sukan
HAMEDI MOHD ADNAN & SARIMAH ISMAIL
(Universiti Malaya)..............................................................................149
Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia Jilid 11
Malaysian Journal of Media Studies Volume 11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 1-8
R o l e -T a k i n g : a n I m p o rt a n t P u b l i c
Relations Process
HUGH CULBERTSON
ABSTRACT
Relationship building and maintenance are important concerns of public relations today. Two
important streams of research – on public relations roles and on relationship quality – play an
important part in the study of this realm. To date, these steams have focused on end products of role-
taking while paying scant attention to the processes leading to those ends. Drawing on the literature
of symbolic interactionism, this paper proposes increased focus on seven dimensions of role-taking
as process in light of such current concerns as religion/political extremism and the “permanent
campaign” in politics.
Key words: role, relationship, political process, extremism, terrorism, dialogue, excellence in
public relations, symmetry, permanent campaign.
INTRODUCTION
It’s been said that the journey often is more enjoyable and fruitful than arrival at a destination.
This certainly is suggested by the much-discussed “excellence model” in public relations
which emphasizes two-way symmetric – and asymmetric – communication (Grunig, 1992;
Dozier et al. 1995; Grunig et al. 2002).
The symmetric approach, in particular, indicates that process – two-way

communication with a goal of establishing and maintaining relationships – is central to
effective public relations. Pure asymmetry, in contrast, focuses largely on end product –
persuading people to accept a client’s point of view and act accordingly.
TWO RESEARCH STREAMS
Two prominent streams of literature in public relations about roles and relationships have
tended to focus on end products. This commentary argues that both streams could profit
from emphasis on the process of role-taking suggested by symbolic-interactionist sociology.
Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia/ Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
First, studies of public relations roles have focused heavily on actual and expected
behaviors associated with such roles as communication manager and communication
technician (Chen & Culbertson, 1996; Dozier, 1998; Hon et al., 1992). Little attention has
been paid to such process concerns as how much leeway practitioners have in playing roles
or on how they are played at the level of inter-personal dynamics and role-taking.
Second, an important body of research on client-public relationships has looked

at determinants of whether and why publics perceive clients as competent, trustworthy,
responsive to public input, committed to serve one’s community, and so on (Ledingham &
Bruning, 2000). The processes involved in creating, maintaining, changing and acting on
such perceptions seem to receive short shrift.
A focus on process seems especially important today in light of at least two

phenomena that have been of great concern throughout the world in recent years.
TWO CONTEMPORARY PHENOMENA
First, the so-called “war on terror” seeks to deal with political and religious extremism – a
widespread tendency to condemn enemies and alleged oppressors. This often seems to
entail an assumption that the “good guys” are entirely right while others are totally wrong
and beyond redemption. It follows that there is no room for compromise, no point in trying
to learn from and understand the “bad guys.” One must defeat or even obliterate them.
Tragic results include terrorist attacks and threats as well as intractable conflicts of
the type found in today’s Middle East. In Israel, for example, Jewish settlers have come to
regard Palestinian shepherds as subhuman creatures who occupy land that Zionists claim
as a result of God’s ancient decrees (Gish, 2000: 353-356).
Second, experts bemoan what they call the permanent campaign that has come
to dominate politics around the world. This argument portrays an ideal seen as guiding
democratic political discourse that is said to differ greatly from current reality (Orenstein
& Mann, 2000).
According to the ideal, a politician campaigns vigorously for several months prior
to an election. During that time, the candidate seeks to persuade voters that he or she is the
best qualified person for the job and possesses the best ideas and plans for moving forward.
Once elected, it is said, the office-holder should quit waging verbal war and start
governing. He or she then can engage in dialogue, listening to people with diverse points
of view before making a decision. Once the decision is made, the governor can sell and
implement it secure in the belief that the pros and cons have been fully aired – and that the
public understands and supports a policy despite arguments against it.
This, in turn, is presumed to create a loyal following, with support for government
policy based on solid linkage between programs and arguments relating to them (Culbertson,
et al., 1998). Such support, based on careful deliberation, should avoid allegations of
misleading the public, lying, covering-up, and so on (Heclo, 2000).
Unfortunately, reality often differs from this ideal. Today’s politicians feel
compelled to campaign throughout their tenure, leaving little room for genuine dialogue
and deliberation.
2
Role-Taking: an Important Public Relations Process
Take for example, President George W. Bush’s conduct of the Iraq War. According to
his disillusioned former press secretary, Scott McClellan (2008), and journalist Bob Woodward
(2006, 2008), Bush decided early on that he would take out Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
He said little in his public pronouncements about powerful down-sides to invading and
occupying a foreign country. He focused on alleged weapons of mass destruction in Iraq as
a primarily justification for going to war. When such weapons could not be found, he felt
compelled to shift gears and focus on establishing democracy in the region as his primary
goal.
This switch seemed hypocritical to many and contributed to a public relations

disaster. Bush has been ridiculed for winning the battle – quickly disposing of Saddam
Hussein – but losing the war. Unfortunately for the president, it appears that cognitive
support for the war was very thin. In a much publicized snafu, he appeared on an aircraft
carrier and announced triumphantly the end of significant combat operations in Iraq. Today,
popular MSNBC newsman Keither Olberman signs off every evening by announcing this
is the 1,950th day, or whatever, since the end of significant combat! But fighting continues.
This commentary argues that public relations scholars can profit from careful
consideration of role-taking concepts as defined by symbolic interactionists about 40 years
ago. Culbertson (1989, 1991) has reviewed these notions and suggested their applicability
to public relations. Role-taking may be defined as the process of “psyching out,”
understanding, or predicting another’s attitudes, behaviors, and points of view. We now
use several dimensions or aspects of role-taking in explicating several current developments
and issues.
DIMENSIONS OF ROLE-TAKING
1. Accuracy. This dimension scores high if one correctly grasps where another
person or group “is coming from” and why. Logically, one can understand others like him
or herself fairly well simply by assuming they think as he or she does where agreement
is high. In cross-cultural communication, of course, agreement between client and public
often is not present. In such cases, considerable effort is needed to learn about the other
group or person. This points to a second dimension.
2. Breadth of perspective. This is defined as high accuracy despite low agreement.

Obviously that requires considerable study and effort (Culbertson, 1989).
One recent project which has sought to enhance breadth of perspective has been the
South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Formed by President Nelson Mandela
soon after he came to power in South Africa, the TRC devoted much time, energy, and money
to helping victims and perpetrators understand each other. This seemed necessary to avoid
civil war in the wake of Apartheid.
The TRC invited and publicized testimony from White and Black victims as well as
perpetrators. Also, within the Black African community, it sought to promote understanding
between bitter foes such as the Xhosa and Zulu peoples – as well as between African National
Congress supporters who wished to cooperate with Whites and Pan-Africanists who wanted
to get rid of them. The jury is still out on whether the TRC succeeded in its basic mission of
reconciliation. But the process appears to have created some positive results (Shea, 2000:45-
68; Gibson, 2004). Certainly there has been no civil war in a setting where many saw such
3
a conflict as almost inevitable 20 years ago.
Whether agreement is high or low, it must be assessed by the role-taker. This leads
to consideration of a third role-taking concept.
3. Congrency or perceived level of agreement (Chaffee & McLeod, 1968). A great

deal of literature suggests very high or low congruency is apt to have negative consequences.
On the high end, simple projection of one’s own view to the other usually leads to inaccurate
perceptions because people always differ as to backgrounds and goals. In contrast, very low
congruency seemingly entails polarization, which leads to ethnocentrism or egocentrism
(Culbertson, 1983:8-9). This calls attention to a fourth dimension.
4. Method of role-taking. Projection, assuming high congruency, is one method.

Another is reading and studying – an approach which seems likely to work where role
expectations are highly codified and can thus be grasped from reading a manual. The
author, a former U.S. Marine, found he could learn to play certain aspects of the Marine role
by reading the steps required in close-order drill (turn left with a 36-inch step, at a thirty
degree angle, immediately upon hearing the command “Column Left,” for example). He
could not get very far by projecting or reading a manual as a young professor when he was
simply told to teach or do research well!!
A third method is to interact with those whom you seek to understand. The late
U. S. Sen. J. William Fulbright (1966:167-177) grasped the value of this approach when he
established the Fulbright Scholars program that made it possible for bright young scholars
and future leaders to live and study abroad for a year or two. He reasoned that understanding
among leaders is essential if we are to achieve peace and fruitful relationships across cultural
barriers. He apparently felt this could not be accomplished simply by reading and hearing
lectures!
Also devoted to interaction among diverse people are peace activists. For example,
Christian Peacemaking Teams live in trouble spots such as Israel-Palestine and war-torn
Iraq. They accompany children to school, providing protection because combatants know
they are being watched and will be condemned for committing violent acts against – or in
the presence of -- foreigners. CPT members seek through friendly, generally unstructured
conversation, to help Palestinians understand things from the viewpoint of Israeli settlers,
and vice versa. While somewhat controversial, CPT members seem to reign in violence to
a degree (Gish, 2008; Gish, 2004).
Other steps to promote interaction among diverse people include symposia, role-
playing exercises, and efforts to empower disadvantaged groups so they can speak for
themselves effectively in public.
A fifth dimension of role-taking – appreciated by savvy campaigners but seldom

studied systematically – involves the implicit messages conveyed in communication about
the sender and receiver.
5. Deference and demeanor. For example, the author tries to send thank-you notes
promptly when he receives a gift. In doing this, he labels the gift-giver a valued person – an
implication which sociologist Erving Goffman (1956) would call positive deference. He
also shows that he himself is a thoughtful person, suggesting positive demeanor.
4
As the author writes this, U.S. presidential candidate John McCain appears to
have grasped negative deference implications of certain recent pronouncements. McCain’s
campaign has questioned opponent Barack Obama’s patriotism and has condemned him
for associating with a 1960s radical named William Ayers. Recently, McCain has called
for a halt to such statements, apparently recognizing they implied he was desperate. This
negative bit of demeanor suggested he felt he was losing, a view that no candidate wants
to cultivate!
We now turn to a sixth dimension.
6. Standpoint as defined by sociologist Ralph Turner (1956). Here we consider only

one standpoint – that of interactive effect. A role-taker considers the impact of his prediction
or understanding of another’s views along with his own behavior in light of that prediction.
Two examples illustrate the need for such assessment.
First, many observers bemoan a tendency toward negative campaigning in the

modern political scene. This is seen as contributing to a discouraging tendency -- winning
battles but losing wars. Obviously strategists believe negative campaigning helps win
elections or they would not do it. However, they seem willing to achieve such short-term
gains at the expense of reducing long-term respect for politicians and institutions as a
whole. The author recalls that, 40 or 50 years ago, U.S. institutions such as the presidency
or General Motors often received favorable trust ratings from at least 60 or 80% of survey
respondents. These days, one is lucky to reach 20 or 30%.
Second, public ownership of companies sews seldom-recognized seeds of discontent.

The shareholder is king. Companies feel compelled to enhance stock prices at all costs in
order to benefit those who own the stock. However, in today’s investment structure, most
shareholders own stock through mutual and other funds in firms they’ve scarcely heard
of! The author really has very little knowledge about several firms he has invested in -- he
has left such decisions to a certified financial planner. He feels little involvement with such
companies except for their impact on his own wallet.
In contrast, employees who have created a product often get laid off because of a
need to maximize profits. Their dedication to the firm often is not recognized or rewarded
in today’s “throw-away society.” Small wonder they feel marginalized and left out (Boje,
1997).
We now turn to a seventh and final dimension.
7. Followership vs. autonomy. Once a person has taken the role of a public, does he
or she follow that viewpoint in making decisions? Or does he or she autonomously make
decisions based on what he or she believes the audience needs – whether or not it wants it?
The question of followership vs. autonomy seems to be at the core of many key
communication decisions. The appropriate point on this continuum surely varies from case
to case. However, it does seem reasonable to suggest a middle course in many instances.
Very high autonomy implies authoritarianism and autocratic leadership. When a leader
gets too far ahead of his followers, he seems likely to lose them. At the other extreme, very
high followership (low autonomy) can amount to pandering. Politicians who appear to
do this are often accused of shifting with the political winds and waffling rather than truly
leading on the basis of a core set of goals and values (Culbertson, 1983:8-9).
5
A CHALLENGE FOR RESEARCHERS
No doubt the lack of attention to role-taking in public relations research stems in part from the
difficulty of measuring the dimensions. Subtle, nuanced inter-personal processes doubtless
occur largely without conscious awareness. As a result, self-report measures may be suspect.
At a basic level, role-taking involves gauging similarity or difference between

perceptions of the role taker and those of the person or persons whole perceptions or
behaviors are being estimated or predicted. And identical marks on a sheet of paper do
not always denote identical thoughts and perceived motives by two people. Furthermore,
the process becomes even murkier when the “role-takee” is a large group of people rather
than an individual. There is bound to be variation within such a group. Thus an average
(mean, median, or mode) does not describe the group as a whole adequately. Someone
once said that a famous river is, on average, about 10 feet deep. However, the river is 30 or
40 feet deep at some points, just a few inches deep elsewhere. The average does not really
define the whole river.
Such issues pose a challenge. But researcher should strive to meet it. Perhaps it is
better to measure important concepts rather crudely than to study trivial ones with precision.
6
REFERENCES
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Culbertson, H.M., C. J. Denbow, & G. H. Stempel III. (1998). Needs and beliefs in construct
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Chaffee, S. H. & J. M. McLeod. (1968). Sensitization in panel design: A coorientational

experiment. Journalism Quarterly, 45(4), 661-669.
Chen. N. & Culbertson, H. M. (1996). Guest relations: A demanding but constrained role for
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Dozier, D. M. (1988). Breaking public relations’ glass ceiling. Public Relations Review
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Relations and Communication Management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fulbright, J.W. (1966). The Arrogance of Power. New York: Random House.
Gibson, J. L. (2004). Overcoming Apartheid: Can Truth Reconcile a Divided Nation? New York:
Russell Sage Foundation.
Gish, A. T. (2008). At-Tuwani Journal: Hope & Nonviolent Action in a Palestinian Village.
Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press.
Gish, P.F. (2004). Iraq: A Journey of Peace and Hope. Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press.
Goffman, E. (1956). The nature of deference and demeanor. American Anthropologist, 58,
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Grunig, J. E. (1992). Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management. Hillsdale,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Grunig, L. A., J. E. Grunig, & D. M. Dozier. (2002). Excellent Public Relations and Effective
Organizations: A Study of Communication Management in Three Countries. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Heclo, J. (2000). Campaigning and governing: A conspectus. In N. J. Orenstein & T. E.
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Mann (Eds.). The Permanent Campaign and its Future .1-37. Washington, D. C.: American
Enterprise Institute and the Brookings Institution.
Hon, L. C., L. A. Grunig, & D. M. Dozier. (1992). Women in public relations: Problems
and opportunities. In J. E. Grunig.(Ed.). Excellence in Public Relations and Communication
Management. 419-38. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ledingham, J. A. & S. D. Bruning. (2000). Public Relations as Relationship Management: A

Relational Approach to the Study and Practice of Public Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
McClellan, S. (2008). What Happened: Inside the Bush White House and Washington’s Culture of
Deception. Philadelphia: Public Affairs Books.
Orenstein, J. J. & E. E. Mann. (2000). The Permanent Campaign and its Future. Washington,
D. C.: American Enterprise Institute & the Brooking Institution.
Shea, D. (2000). The South African Truth Commission: The Politics of Reconciliation. Washington,
D. C.: The United States Institute of Peace.
Turner, R H. (1956). Role-taking, role standpoint and reference group behavior. American
Journal of Sociology, 61(4), 316-328.
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8
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 9-20
JAMILAH HJ AHMAD
ABSTRAK
Profesional dalam bidang perhubungan awam dewasa ini berdepan dengan kemunculan saluran-
saluran komunikasi baru yang mengagumkan. Alat-alat perantaraan yang berasaskan internet
seperti blog, podcasts, talian video dan jaringan sosial memberi peluang kepada pengguna untuk
menyuarakan pandangan. Saluran media tradisional tidak lagi menjadi saluran utama dalam
penyebaran maklumat akibat pengaruh media dalam talian. Pengamal perhubungan awam perlu lebih
bijak menggunakan komunikasi baru sebagai wadah menghadapi perubahan dalam penerimaan media
sosial ini. Artikel ini secara terperinci membincangkan bagaimana teknologi baru dapat digunakan
sebagai panduan oleh pengamal perhubungan awam untuk menjalinkan perhubungan yang positif;
memberi maklum balas dan mengukur usaha yang dirancang untuk khalayak sasaran.
Kata kunci: perhubungan awam, teknologi baru, internet, e-mel, blog.
PERHUBUNGAN AWAM DAN TEKNOLOGI BARU
Perhubungan Awam
Perhubungan awam ialah satu reputasi yang dijalinkan oleh pengamal perhubungan awam
untuk menunjukkan hubungan yang positif dengan publik dalaman yang terdiri dari
kumpulan atau individu yang mempunyai hubungan dengan organisasi samada pembekal;
pengedar; pelanggan; pengguna; kerajaan; media; pelabur mahupun masyarakat awam
(Hamdan, 1988).
Heath (2001) mendefinisikan perhubungan awam sebagai satu sains sosial untuk
menganalisa dan meramal arah aliran; perunding nasihat kepada pihak majikan dan
bertindak melaksanakan program yang terancang dan berterusan untuk kepentingan
organisasi dan khalayak sasaran.
Teknologi Baru
Teknologi ialah objek dan aktiviti yang menggunakan pengetahuan sains untuk tujuan
praktis dalam industri, pertanian, perubatan, perniagaan dan lain-lain. Teknologi dilihat
sebagai satu kaedah menangani masalah teknikal dan maklumat teknologi yang berkaitan
dengan pemerolehan, penyimpanan, pemprosesan dan penyebaran maklumat melalui
penggunaan teknologi komputer dan telekomunikasi. Teknologi juga dilihat berasaskan
kajian saintifik termaju penggunaan peralatan elektronik yang canggih (Dewan Bahasa,
2007).
Wanda (2001) telah mengkategorikan konsep teknologi baru iaitu sebagai alat
menggantikan tenaga kerja manusia; alat produktiviti yang meningkatkan kerja serta
memperluas pengetahuan individu dan institusi sosial dalam menjalani aktiviti sosial
ekonomi serta alat pemprosesan meningkatkan informasi.
Teknologi pada abad ini berkembang dengan cepat, contohnya istilah Jalur Lebar
Tanpa Wayar dan teknologi Generasi Ketiga (3G) adalah antara konsep baru dalam teknologi
komunikasi yang masih belum dapat difahami secara menyeluruh. Kemajuan teknologi
baru dilihat sebagai satu inovasi kepada pengamal perhubungan awam kerana, teknologi
baru dapat membantu dalam semua aspek kerja untuk menghasilkan perkhidmatan yang
berkualiti (Pekeliling Kemajuan Pentadbiran Awam, 1991).
PERHUBUNGAN AWAM DAN TEKNOLOGI BARU
Revolusi Perindustrian telah mengubah kemajuan manusia dalam bidang teknologi dan
komunikasi pada hari ini. Ia bukan sahaja merombak tatacara perniagaan, malah mengubah
keseluruhan konsep syarikat, organisasi, negara dan gaya hidup seharian sebagai contoh
terdapat banyak aktiviti penggabungan mega melibatkan syarikat-syarikat gergasi yang
menguasai pasaran dunia termasuklah industri kereta, tembakau, makanan, penerbangan,
perubatan dan perbankan (Janal, 2000).
Satu lagi tanda tentang persekitaran yang pesat berubah ialah sempadan antara
negara, industri dan produk yang semakin hari semakin kabur. Kuasa yang ada pada
kerajaan semakin merosot kerana aliran maklumat dan kandungan tidak mudah ditapis
oleh kerajaan (Renton, 1997). Hal yang sedemikian berlaku di Malaysia di mana laman web
dan blog digunakan sebagai medium meraih undi, mencerna pendapat dan menzahirkan
ideologi dan ketidakpuasan hati dan bagi pengamal perhubungan awam pula, internet kini
adalah satu tempat luahan perasaan kepuasan serta ketidakpuasan hati publik terhadap
organisasi.
Pasaran terbuka selepas Perang Dunia II dan perpecahan blok negara-negara timur
terutamanya kejatuhan Berlin Wall menyebabkan kemajuan terutama inovasi teknologi
dalam sektor komunikasi sepanjang tahun 80an dan bertambah baik dalam tahun 90an.
Nama-nama seperti Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, Microsoft dan Internet seperti Yahoo dan
Google menjadi faktor perniagaan terutamanya dalam kemajuan informasi dan teknologi
komunikasi (ICT). Pengaruh mereka adalah besar dan masih berterusan (Wilcox, 2005).
Bagi pengamal perhubungan awam, realiti cabaran telah mengubah cara kerja dan
cara komunikasi sepanjang menjalankan tugas mereka sebagai perhubungan awam. Jika
dulu pengamal perhubungan awam berfungsi untuk melindungi organisasi daripada krisis
negatif dan melindungi ketua mereka daripada pengasingan berita negatif kepada positif,
10
tetapi kini strategi komunikasi seperti pengiklanan dan penjenamaan yang aktif dalam
perhubungan awam memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai contoh Mobil Oil yang telah
membelanjakan berpuluh-puluh juta dolar untuk periklanan dan CIMB bank yang telah
membelanjakan 70 juta untuk aktiviti penjenamaan.
Teknologi baru menyebabkan banyak strategi dan teknik perhubungan awam

bergantung kepada alat media, jadi pengamal perhubungan awam perlu membuat satu
kesesuaian memandangkan perubahan teknologi yang begitu pantas (Marlow, 1996).
Sebagai contoh dalam awal 90-an, kepesatan industri komputer menyebabkan populariti
dalam penggunaan internet bertambah dan secara langsung merubah cara pengamal
perhubungan awam berurusan dengan publik dalaman dan luaran. Komputer banyak
membantu pengamal perhubungan awam dalam menjalankan tugas harian mereka seperti
memproses maklumat; menyimpan maklumat; mewujudkan dan menulis bahan baru.
Melalui internet pula, penyebaran berita berlaku dengan cepat tanpa wujud pemisahan atau
kekangan masa untuk mendapatkan maklumat dengan cepat. Globalisasi dilihat sebagai
revolusi ilmu dan pengamal perhubungan awam kini perlu menyesuaikan diri kepada
cabaran dunia teknologi dengan melibatkan diri dan menguasai peluang dalam mengatur
aktiviti perhubungan awam.
Pengamal perhubungan awam perlu bersaing dengan kemajuan teknologi terbaru

dalam komunikasi. Menurut White (1997), pengamal perhubungan awam hendaklah sentiasa
bekerja di dalam batas teknologi terbuka manakala pembangunan teknologi dijadikan
sebagai pemudah tugas mereka. Pengamal perhubungan awam juga perlu menggunakan
taktik dan alat dalam teknologi baru ini yang telah dipertingkatkan. Antaranya seperti
teknologi Sistem Pesanan Ringkas (SMS) dan Sistem Pesanan Multimedia (MMS); Personal
Digital Assistant (PDA); Blue tooth; forum melalui internet seperti blog, membuat bantahan
dalam web, forum komuniti internet dan Internet Phones (I-Phones).
Secara kesimpulannya penggunaan teknologi baru dapat mengubah aktiviti harian

pengamal perhubungan awam antaranya dapat menyemak aduan daripada pelanggan dan
memberi tindak balas dengan segera melalui e-mel, SMS atau MMS; membaca jaringan berita
semasa dalam blog melalui internet; mengakses maklumat melalui intranet; menghantar
berita melalui siaran akhbar secara talian; membuat panggilan atau menghubungi khalayak
sasaran dengan menggunakan telefon atau menghantar e-mel; menghadiri mesyuarat
dengan menggunakan teknologi melalui telesidang; menyiapkan laporan-laporan dengan
menggunakan komputer dan menghantarkan kepada pihak yang bertanggungjawab serta
menghubungi media untuk mewujudkan perhubungan yang positif.
INTERNET DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM
Salah satu alat komunikasi yang semakin mendapat perhatian ialah internet iaitu satu
rangkaian komputer antarabangsa. Pada asasnya, internet tidak dimiliki sesiapa dan tidak
dikawal oleh mana-mana pusat kawalan. Hampir keseluruhan isi kandungan yang terdapat
dalam web itu digunakan sebagai bahan untuk pengetahuan, pendidikan dan juga hiburan.
Tiga kegiatan yang paling popular dalam internet adalah mengirim dan menerima e-mel,
membaca mesej dalam kumpulan berita (newsgroup) dan melayari world wide web (www).
Pada masa ini, dilaporkan bahawa terdapat kira-kira 25 juta orang yang mengaplikasikan
internet di serata dunia dan angka ini dijangka bertambah pada kadar 15 peratus sebulan
(Abdullah, 2004).
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Penggunaan internet telah mencetuskan perpindahan teknologi tradisional kepada

era digital yang menakjubkan. Untuk menjengah maklumat terkini dalam apa jua aspek,
pengguna internet hanya perlu menggunakan hujung jari dan menekan kata kunci pada
papan kekunci. Di perkampungan global inilah manusia bertukar-tukar informasi dan
perkhidmatan tanpa mengira perbezaan warna kulit, bangsa mahupun ideologi. Secara
ringkasnya menurut Holtz (1996), kecanggihan teknologi ini dapat mempermudah
komunikasi dua hala sesama manusia dan negara.
Perkembangan ICT telah membolehkan maklumat dihantar dan diterima dengan

pantas. Kemudahan ini telah membawa kepada peningkatan penggunaan internet dalam
aktiviti perhubungan awam. Bilangan pengguna dan kepentingan penyaluran maklumat
dan perkhidmatan dengan kadar segera meningkat dari semasa ke semasa. Bagaimanapun,
pengurusan internet yang tidak terkawal boleh menjejaskan keselamatan maklumat.
Justeru, perlindungan keselamatan yang bijak perlu diwujudkan dan disesuaikan bagi
menjamin kesahihan, keutuhan dan kebolehsediaan maklumat yang berterusan (Hill
dan Welch, 2006). Bagi pengamal perhubungan awam dalam usahanya menuju ke arah
pemodenan pentadbiran telah melihat internet sebagai satu platform untuk penambahbaikan
perkhidmatan yang disediakan.
Penggunaan internet dengan cara yang tidak bertanggungjawab adalah dianggap

sebagai pelanggaran tatacara yang boleh mengancam keselamatan, keutuhan dan kerahsiaan
maklumat; melemahkan sistem ICT dan pengurusan rekod elektronik; mengganggu sistem
rangkaian ICT dan merosakkan imej pengamal perhubungan awam (Smith, 1995). Oleh
yang demikian, bagi menjamin kemudahan internet digunakan dengan selamat, setiap
organisasi haruslah menentukan latihan yang bersesuaian, penggunaan teknologi yang
kukuh dan dasar yang menyeluruh agar pelanggaran budaya berkaitan laman web tidak
berlaku. Antara perkara yang perlu diambil perhatian dan pengamal perhubungan awam
ialah;
i. Hak akses pengguna iaitu satu kemudahan disediakan oleh organisasi untuk
membantu melicinkan pentadbiran atau memperbaiki perkhidmatan yang
disediakan.
ii. Memilih dan mengehadkan laman web yang ingin dilayari untuk memastikan
laman web organisasi tidak dicerobohi oleh virus atau individu yang tidak
bertanggungjawab.
iii. Pengesahan maklumat iaitu bahan yang diperolehi dari internet perlulah ditentukan
ketepatan dan kesahihannya.
iv. Bahan rasmi yang hendak dimuat naik dari internet organisasi hendaklah disemak
dan mendapat pengesahan pengamal perhubungan awam sebelum dibenarkan
dimuat naik oleh pelanggan.
v. Memastikan publik dalaman dilarang daripada melakukan sebarang aktiviti yang
melanggar tatacara penggunaan internet seperti memuat turun, menyimpan dan
menggunakan perisian tidak berlesen.
vi. Kandungan perbincangan awam seperti berita kumpulan (newsgroup) dan laman
buletin (bulletin board) mestilah mendapat pengesahan daripada pengamal
perhubungan awam organisasi tertakluk kepada dasar dan tatacara yang telah
ditetapkan.
Oleh itu, untuk menjadi pengamal perhubungan awam yang berjaya pada era
teknologi baru ini, kemahiran dalam penggunaan teknologi terbuka seperti internet; e-mel;
12
blog; forum komuniti dan teknologi visual seperti Youtube.com adalah satu keperluan
untuk terus seiring dan bersaing dengan perkembangan teknologi. Pada masa yang sama
pengamal perhubungan awam perlu menggunakan kemudahan internet dengan cara yang
bertanggungjawab dan konsisten (Brazell, 2007).
E-MEL DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM
E-mel merupakan antara aplikasi yang membolehkan pengamal perhubungan awam

berkomunikasi dengan pelanggan dalam bentuk mesej elektronik. Aplikasi e-mel ini
digunakan secara meluas dan membenarkan komunikasi dua hala dapat dijalankan dengan
cara yang pantas dan lebih sesuai untuk penulisan yang ringkas.
Menurut Rambeau (2005) pengamal perhubungan awam organisasi perlu

mempunyai e-mel rasmi untuk memudahkan mereka berhubung dengan publik dalaman
dan luaran bagi tujuan penjelasan lanjut, menerima aduan atau mengemukakan pandangan.
Antara kaedah penggunaan e-mel yang di cadangkan untuk pengamal perhubungan awam
ialah;
i. Akaun atau alamat e-mel yang diperuntukkan oleh organisasi sahaja yang
sepatutnya digunakan untuk urusan rasmi.
ii. Format iaitu setiap e-mel mestilah mengandungi rujukan fail, tarikh dan logo
rasmi. Penggunaan huruf besar kandungan e-mel dianggap tidak beretika. Pastikan
bahawa subjek dan kandungan e-mel adalah berkaitan perkhidmatan organisasi.
iii. Mengelakkan dari membuka e-mel daripada penghantar yang tidak diketahui atau
diragui untuk mengelakkan e-mail syarikat dicerobohi atau mendapat virus akibat
perbuatan publik yang tidak bertanggungjawab.
iv. Mengenal pasti identiti dan mengesahkan identiti sebelum meneruskan komunikasi
dan transaksi maklumat melalui e-mel.
v. Penyimpanan e-mel rasmi yang dihantar atau diterima hendaklah disimpan
mengikut tatacara pengurusan sistem fail elektronik organisasi.
Penggunaan e-mel sebagai saluran komunikasi kini dianggap penting dan menjadi
kemestian terutamanya dalam menjalankan urusan rasmi. Dengan pendaftaran dan
perkhidmatan internet oleh syarikat telekomunikasi, ia mempermudahkan bukan sahaja
organisasi untuk mendaftar dan memperolehi akaun internet malah individu juga. Namun,
infrastruktur e-mel di dalam organisasi perlu dikaji untuk mengatasi masalah penghantaran,
keselamatan dan kesahihan kandungan e-mel untuk mengelakkan kesan negatif terhadap
imej organisasi.
BLOG DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM
Selain e-mel, blog juga merupakan alat teknologi baru yang mana penggunaannya amat
menggalakkan dalam kalangan semua lapisan masyarakat. Menurut Pavlik (2007) blog
didefinisikan sebagai satu laman web dengan penyuntingan yang minimum. Blog juga
menyediakan komentar talian, dikemaskini secara berkala dan menyediakan hyperlink ke
sumber talian yang lain. Hampir semua segmen dalam masyarakat diwakili dalam blogosfera
termasuklah pendidikan, perubatan, perdagangan dan perhubungan dengan anggaran satu
blog baru dicipta setiap saat (Samantary, 2006).
Selain itu, blog didefinisikan sebagai satu istilah untuk laman web di mana catatan-
catatan dibuat dalam bentuk jurnal dan dipamer dalam satu susunan kronologi terbalik
13
(piramid terbalik). Blog sebenarnya berasal dari perkataan web log. Blog juga bermaksud
menambah kandungan pada sesuatu web log (Ayres dan Jeffrey,1999). Terdapat beberapa
jenis blog. Blog-blog ini berbeza mengikut cara ia ditulis dan disampaikan antaranya ialah:
i. Jenis media iaitu blog yang memfokuskan kepada video dinamakan vlog;
memberi lebih banyak capaian hiper rangkaian dipanggil linklog; mengandungi
banyak gambar dipanggil photoblog dan mempunyai lakaran portfolio dipanggil
sketchblog.
ii. Jenis alatan sebagai contoh untuk mobile device dipanggil moblog.
iii. Genre di mana ia mengkhususkan subjek-subjek tertentu seperti blog politik, agama,
pelancongan, fesyen, perundangan dan sebagainya.
iv. Status penerbit yang mana sesebuah blog diwujudkan sama ada untuk
kegunaan persendirian ataupun untuk tujuan perniagaan contohnya blog yang
mengembangkan komunikasi dalam pemasaran dan berunsur penerbitan talian
perhubungan awam dinamakan korporat blog.
v. Enjin pencarian blog digunakan untuk mencari isi kandungan blog, antaranya
blogdigger, technorati dan feedster.

Bilangan blog kini semakin bertambah. Ini dibuktikan dengan kenyataan oleh Pew
Internet and American Life Project (2005) yang menyatakan pada akhir 2005 terdapat 34
juta blog telah diwujudkan. Weber (2007) pula menyatakan terdapat 100 juta blog pada
tahun 2007. Kebanyakan penulis blog mengkategorikan diri mereka mengikut media
yang diamalkan, sebagai contohnya Raja Petra Kamaruddin (www.malaysia-today.net);
Ahirudin Attan (Rocky’s Bru); Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad (www.chedet.com) dan Jeff
Ooi (Screenshots) untuk memberi peluang kepada orang ramai berinteraksi secara dua hala
berkongsi pandangan, kritikan atau pendapat.
Kajian oleh Donald dan Michelle (2008) melihat kesan blog sebagai media sosial
kepada pengamal perhubungan awam. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa kewujudan media
baru ini telah mengubah corak berkomunikasi perhubungan awam secara mendadak.
Hasil kajian mendapati blog menjadi pelengkap kepada media aliran utama tradisional
dan mengubah cara organisasi berkomunikasi terutama kepada pengguna luar.
Melalui blog, organisasi dapat menembusi pasaran luar dengan menjadikan blog
sebagai pintu masuk kepada produk organisasi tersebut. Melihat senario perniagaan internet
di Malaysia, kebanyakkan usahawan internet memiliki blog sendiri untuk berkongsi aktiviti
perniagaan serta memasarkan produk keluaran mereka. Menurut Global Online Survey,
30 peratus rakyat Malaysia membuat pembelian melalui talian dan hampir 40 peratus
membuat pembelian di talian pada bulan Mac 2008 (Pauline, 2008). Kajian yang dijalankan
ke atas 500 pengguna internet di Malaysia membuktikan bahawa 16 peratus pengguna
telah membuat sekurang-kurangnya satu pembelian di dalam tiga bulan terakhir. Antara
item yang dibeli secara talian ialah tiket penerbangan dan penempahan iaitu 55 peratus,
penempahan percutian atau pelancongan iaitu 41 peratus; pembelian perkakasan komputer
iaitu 22 peratus; pembelian buku 21 peratus dan 18 peratus membeli tiket-untuk sesuatu
acara. Menurut Linda Lim, Pengarah Online Research Nielsen Company Malaysia, internet
telah dijadikan satu ruang dunia baru tempat membeli belah bagi pengguna di Malaysia.
Kajian ini juga merumuskan kebanyakan pengguna secara talian membuat keputusan untuk
membeli barangan berdasarkan kepada cadangan daripada pengguna talian yang lain.
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KESAN TEKNOLOGI BARU KEPADA PENGAMAL PERHUBUNGAN AWAM
Sejarah telah membuktikan penguasaan media memberi asas kepada proses memanipulasi
maklumat mengikut keperluan pihak tertentu. Namun, teknologi tidak bermakna
menjejaskan keupayaan pihak tertentu untuk menyalurkan khabar dan mesej. Senario ini
terbukti dalam konflik Iraq. Teknologi membolehkan pemimpin-pemimpin kanan Iraq
muncul setiap petang memberikan taklimat mengenai nasib yang menimpa rakyat negara
mereka kepada pihak media dan disalurkan kepada orang ramai melalui laman web milik
Al-Jazeera (Manimaran, 2003).
Perhubungan awam keseluruhannya dianggap dapat mempengaruhi khalayak

sasaran. Perhubungan awam boleh menjadi sebuah organisasi sebagai sumber nilai
bagi pembangunan jenama, memelihara gaya hidup dan penubuhan kredibiliti jika ia
dikendalikan dengan baik. Sesetengah ahli pemikir mengatakan bahawa kemunculan
teknologi baru akan menghapuskan amalan perhubungan awam secara tradisional tetapi
sebenarnya teknologi baru hanya menukar pendekatan pengamal perhubungan awam
daripada bersifat tradisional kepada moden. Pendekatan teknologi baru merupakan
alternatif kepada perlaksanaan aktiviti perhubungan awam (Seitel, 2004).
Pengamal perhubungan awam memainkan pelbagai peranan dengan tujuan untuk

menyampaikan objektif organisasi kepada audien terutamanya di dalam teknologi baru.
Antara peranan pengamal perhubungan awam ialah menyampaikan mesej. Untuk mendapat
kesan komunikasi yang teratur, pengamal perhubungan awam perlu menentukan strategik
publik mereka untuk mesej yang disampaikan melalui media cetak dan media eletronik
yang ditetapkan.
Pengamal perhubungan awam juga perlu mementingkan khalayak sasaran kerana

mereka merupakan golongan yang berpengaruh. Antara khalayak sasaran termasuk
penduduk di kawasan organisasi tersebut; pihak kerajaan; pelabur; pekerja organisasi;
media dan pelanggan. Ini penting kerana dialog dua hala secara langsung dengan orang
ramai, pelanggan dan media, pelabur, penganalisis industri, laman blog, penerbitan secara
talian dan laman portal lebih mudah dirancang (Carufel, 2007).
Maklumat yang disampaikan oleh organisasi akan menjadi lebih berkesan jika
organisasi boleh mendapat, memproses, mentafsir dan secara langsung menyebarkannya
dengan berkesan kepada khalayak sasaran. Melalui penggunaan teknologi, peluang untuk
organisasi menilai, menerima dan memaklumkan khalayak sasaran melalui medium
yang dipilih kesan dan kecekapan mesej-mesej korporat. Penggunaan teknologi baru juga
meninggalkan kesan kepada pengamal perhubungan awam sama ada positif atau negatif.
Ini kerana pengendalian, proses kerja dan strategi komunikasi adalah berbeza. Menurut
Argenti (2007) perkara yang paling ketara dalam perbezaan ini ialah bagaimana maklumat
cepat disebarkan oleh pengamal perhubungan awam seperti makluman perkhidmatan,
berita organisasi dan pesaing atau khabar angin.
Bagi memastikan pengamal perhubungan awam tidak ketinggalan dalam teknologi

baru, mereka perlu meningkatkan pengetahuan dan membiasakan diri dengan laman blog
disamping kreatif dalam penerbitan dekstop grafik. Pengamal perhubungan awam juga
perlu cepat mendapatkan maklumat, menjawab permasalahan dan mencipta forum dalam
blog yang menarik. Ini akan memberi mereka satu jaringan, hubungan dan pendapat dari
orang ramai kepada agenda perhubungan awam organisasi yang dirancang (Cutlip, Center
dan Broom, 2006).
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Pengamal perhubungan awam juga harus bijak menggunakan teknologi untuk

mendapatkan keyakinan pelabur. Wadah internet dan laman blog seharusnya dijadikan
forum oleh pengamal perhubungan awam untuk menyampaikan maklumat pelaburan
dan pasaran terkini organisasi. Pengamal perhubungan awam juga perlu melakukan
penghantaran maklumat organisasi menerusi blog.
Peningkatan teknologi telah mempermudahkan komunikasi digunakan untuk

menjalankan perniagaan. Sebagai contohnya bagaimana DELL menjual komputer secara
talian dan menghapuskan faktor orang tengah (Argenti, 2007). Di Malaysia pula sebagai
contoh Air Asia telah berjaya menggunakan tempahan secara talian untuk menarik
kebanyakan pasaran di rantau Asean. Kaedah tempahan secara talian ini telah diikuti
oleh Malaysia Airlines System Berhad (MAS) bermula bulan April 2008 setelah mendapati
penempahan tiket secara talian dapat memberi perkhidmatan tambahan nilai kepada
pelanggan.
Menurut Mackey (2003), pengamal perhubungan awam akan menjadi lebih produktif
dan berkesan jika mereka menggunakan kekayaan maklumat dan keupayaan komunikasi
untuk mengumpul maklumat, menganalisis, merancang dan melaksanakan aktiviti baru.
Pengamal perhubungan awam perlu seiring dengan trend dan teknologi terbaru untuk
memberi mereka kelebihan apabila berdepan dengan isu dan pengurusan krisis. Maklumat
adalah kunci utama kepada persaingan perniagaan pada hari ini dan melalui teknologi,
pengamal perhubungan awam mempunyai kelebihan untuk melaksanakan tugas mereka
dengan lebih baik, berkesan dan strategik dalam membantu mencapai objektif organisasi
(Gorelick, 1998).
CABARAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM DALAM KEMAJUAN TEKNOLOGI
Pengamal perhubungan awam masa kini perlu berwaspada dengan pandangan publik
terhadap organisasi yang diutarakan melalui laman web. Ini untuk mengelakkan daripada
timbulnya isu penipuan; salah tafsir dan tuduhan liar. Sebagai contohnya, syarikat
Silverbird iaitu sebuah syarikat yang mengeluarkan produk roti jenama High 5. Reputasi
Silverbird telah jatuh secara mendadak kerana maklumat dalam jaringan menyatakan
roti ini menggunakan minyak babi yang dilarang pemakanannya oleh orang Islam dalam
proses pembuatan roti tersebut. Walaupun syarikat ini telah membuat kenyataan semula
dan menggunakan ikon Islam (tanda halal) untuk membuktikannya, tetapi masih sukar
bagi mereka memulihkan reputasi tersebut. Bagi kes ini dengan menggunakan medium
teknologi yang sesuai, pengamal perhubungan awam dapat memulihkan dan membina
kredibiliti serta imej syarikat. Mereka bukan sahaja perlu memahami tentang teknologi baru
malah perlu tahu bagaimana untuk menterjemahkan idea kepada publik menggunakan
saluran yang sesuai.
Kemajuan teknologi baru telah mengubah corak komunikasi dan aktiviti pengamal
perhubungan awam. Renton, (1997) menyatakan bahawa kali ini melibatkan:
Komunikasi pelbagai hala. Komunikasi dahulu yang lebih berbentuk satu

hala, contohnya media cetak kini berubah menjadi dua hala seperti yang
didapati dalam laman web, blog dan internet. Ini bererti tugas pengamal
perhubungan awam bertambah kompleks dan usaha komunikasi juga
sukar diramal.
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Komunikasi dengan pelbagai publik sasaran. Pengamal perhubungan awam harus

berkomunikasi dengan pelbagai pihak dalam masyarakat yang mungkin terdiri dari pesaing
dan bukan pelanggan. Teknologi baru memerlukan mesej yang konsisten dihantar kepada
semua pihak untuk memantapkan kedudukan dan imej positif organisasi dalam masyarakat.
Komunikasi menggunakan perantara bersepadu. Satu pendekatan bersepadu diperlukan
untuk memastikan penggunaan rangkaian perantara pada tahap optimum, seperti
menggunakan khidmat pelanggan dan peti cadangan untuk mendapatkan cadangan dan
komen pelanggan. Kini, permasalahan pelanggan boleh dikemukakan dan dijawab melalui
laman web.
Komunikasi bukan formal juga harus dipertimbangkan. Ledakan teknologi

maklumat telah menyebabkan saluran komunikasi bukan formal bercambah di dalam dan
di luar organisasi. Pengamal perhubungan awam kini harus juga mempertimbangkan kesan
komunikasi bukan formal dalam usaha mempromosikan organisasi mereka.

Menurut Alexander (2004), pengamal perhubungan awam pada masa hadapan
perlu memperkembangkan kepakaran, kemahiran termasuk memahami pangkalan data
dan bagaimana untuk membina sistem yang boleh mengumpul dan menyimpan maklumat
pengurusan dan pemegang; menghasilkan laman web yang kreatif untuk menggalakkan
interaksi berkaitan perkhidmatan dan organisasi; mengenal pasti program perisian
pengurusan talian untuk mengetahui jumlah pihak yang telah dihubungi melalui e-mel;
memahami penggunaan pelbagai perisian yang membolehkan pencarian luas laman web
dan chat rooms - minat, keahlian atau pendidikan; mampu membuat kajian secara talian
untuk memantau pendapat publik, sikap masyarakat dan menguji reaksi terhadap aktiviti
dan pembangunan organisasi (Tian dan Emery, 2002).
Dalam kajian Augustine (2001), internet boleh menambah interaktif, maklum balas,
penilaian dan juga menyebarkan berita yang disampaikan oleh pengamal perhubungan
awam. Medium baru ini dapat meningkatkan sistem penghantaran maklumat yang tidak
boleh didapati sebelum ini. Kajian ini mendapati internet dapat membantu publik yang buta
huruf untuk memperolehi dan memahami pesanan melalui imej, grafik, rakaman video,
suara dan mempamerkan visual.
Teknologi maklumat dapat mencipta satu landskap baru. Ia dapat mempengaruhi

saluran-saluran komunikasi mengenal pasti audien korporat; mod dan kaedah komunikasi;
kandungan dalam bentuk mesej; maklum balas komunikasi dan korporat peribadi. Ini
adalah kesan daripada perkongsian, pengurusan dan mendapatkan maklumat serta identiti
strategik korporat. Teknologi maklumat dapat melihat bagaimana syarikat kini boleh
mengurus isu-isu umum, peranan dan tindak balas dalam menyelesaikan sesuatu krisis
(Esrock dan Leichty, 1998). Selain itu, teknologi maklumat juga telah mengubah struktur
kuasa dan hubungan antara syarikat dengan pihak awam, pemegang saham dan pihak
media.
Internet mencipta satu anjakan paradigma daripada vertikal tradisional kepada

paradigma komunikasi korporat. Pengamal perhubungan awam perlu mengkaji hubung
kait perhubungan awam dengan model-model komunikasi. Sebagai contohnya dalam aspek
kehidupan di luar negara, penciptaan teknologi baru dan teori-teori serta model dapat
dihubungkan selaras dengan perkembangan sosial yang pesat dan komunikasi landskap.
Gaya komunikasi dan paradigma dulu mungkin tidak sesuai diaplikasikan dalam pasaran
dunia hari ini.
17
KESIMPULAN
Cabaran pengamal perhubungan awam dalam era globalisasi adalah terma kepada kemajuan
teknologi yang banyak digunakan terutamanya populariti komunikasi di internet. Kesan
komunikasi melalui internet telah mewujudkan “Perkampungan sejagat” dan “Dunia Tanpa
Sempadan” menjadi satu kenyataan dalam tujuan memastikan lebih ramai masyarakat
mendapat maklumat. Perdagangan kini menjadi tempat yang utama dalam komunikasi
tanpa talian dan seterusnya dapat meningkatkan pendapatan kerana organisasi melihat
potensi yang tinggi untuk terus kepada pasaran yang lebih luas.
Kemajuan teknologi telah memberi pilihan yang lebih luas kepada organisasi untuk
melaksanakan peranan perhubungan awam dan menyampaikan mesej organisasi dengan
lebih berkesan kepada khalayak sasaran. Pendekatan aktiviti pengamal perhubungan awam
kini mempunyai alternatif dan lebih inovatif dengan kewujudan teknologi baru.
Kesimpulannya, pengamal perhubungan awam yang tidak berpengetahuan dalam

penggunaan teknologi baru akan terus ketinggalan dalam arus kemajuan yang dicetuskan
oleh zaman era digital. Walaupun kewujudan teknologi baru seolah-olah satu paradoks, ia
adakalanya memberi manfaat dan adakalanya membinasakan manusia. Justeru, kemajuan
teknologi ini haruslah digunakan dengan berhemat dan bijaksana agar terbentuk tamadun
manusia yang tinggi akhlak, sahsiah dan keintelektualannya.
18
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Lumpur: INTAN.
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Wilcox, D.L. (2005). Public Relations Writing and Media Techniques. Boston: Pearson.
20
JurnalofPengajian
The Influence Media
Public Relations in BMalaysia
usiness NewsJilid 11
Reporting
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 21-34
The Influence of Public Relations in

Business News Reporting: Opinions of
Editors and Journalists
MUHAMAD SHAM SHAHKAT ALI
ABSTRACT
The study addresses the problem of the increasing influence of public relations in business writing.
Interviews with editors and journalists at three major English business dailies were used to examine
the rationalisations behind the continuing influence of public relations in business writing and the
potential for change. The study provides several rationalisations of editors and journalists for the
coverage given to PR events. Respondents were asked why they continued to rely on PR-organised
events for news and information. Results were analysed using a constant comparative technique. It
was found that reasons given by editors and journalists tended to concur. Due to this concurrence,
the study proposed that editors were opinion leaders within the journalism field.
Key words: public relations, journalism, business news writing.
INTRODUCTION
Newspapers were once seen as “guardians of the public purse”, the public trust and the
public good (Parker, Solman, Mintz, & Shanahan, 1998). The most important role the
journalist played was that of a watchdog, holding society’s power brokers to account (Lewin,
2002). Business newspapers especially, were expected to uphold this golden reporting rule.
Unfortunately, business coverage of late seems to be discarding this rule in favour of

something that, for lack of a better word, can only be described as Public Relations reporting.
Many journalists are merely rewriting press releases and popular investor Web site The
Motley Fool (www.fool.com) has called financial journalists “folks who regurgitate press
releases for you, as if you couldn’t read them yourselves” (Jayson, 2005).
Coverage by business reporters has been said to lack depth, understanding and context
and rarely questions official figures passed down by company officials (Lewin, 2002). In
fact, business researcher Glenn S. Lewin went so far as to call the business pages of papers
“extensions of corporate PR departments” (Lewin, 2002:19). Martha Smilgis, columnist for
the San Francisco examiner, grouped the business press with “show biz reporting” and
called journalists “an arm of the PR industry” (Lewin, 2002:25).
21
Media watchers such as Lewin and Smilgis have called for a revival of watchdog
reporting among business journalists. One of the most renowned journalism foundations,
The Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard University, stressed in a 1998 report
on the problems of modern-day business journalism, the importance of persuading editors
and reporters that watchdog journalism in economics is essential in the industry (Parker,
Solman, Mintz, & Shanahan, 1998).
However, before any course of action can be pursued or change initiated, it is first
important to understand the dynamics and factors behind the deterioration of watchdog
economic reporting and the increasing power of public relations agencies in the reporting
world. To do this, it is necessary to find out what journalists think about their role as PR
writers and how they justify gaining information primarily through press conferences.
At the same time though, it must be understood that a lot of the time, decisions on
what journalists cover and which events they attend are made by editors. Therefore, the
next step to talking to the journalists would be to talk to editors and find out why they send
their reporters to PR-organised events and how they justify it.
OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
This study aims to identify why PR is allowed to play such a big role in business writing
and to investigate the rationalisations of both editors and journalists through the following
research questions:
RQ1: How do editors decide which events get covered?

RQ2: How do editors justify the role of Public Relations in their work?
RQ3: How do journalists justify the role of Public Relations in their work?
LITERATURE REVIEW
There has always been a substantial amount of discussion on journalistic ethics among media
workers, academicians and members of the public. Business journalism ethics, especially
the fine line between advertising and reporting, is one of the oft-discussed topics. In fact, it
is frequently the subject of media criticisms.
This phenomenon is far from being an old one. As early as 1973, financial writer Chris
Welles, writing in the American media monitor Columbia Journalism Review, criticised
business journalists for “regurgitating corporate press releases instead of applying their
investigative talents to the successes and failures, scandals, crises and trends in business”
(1973, cited in Powell & Self, 2003:97).
Guy L. Smith (1990) of Editor & Publisher called journalists “patsies” – people easily
taken advantage of – and accused them of giving voice indiscriminately without “giving
serious hearing to industry’s defenders” (1990, cited in Powell & Self, 2003:98).
Jane Bryant Quinn (1998) criticised reporters for not choosing often enough to challenge
newsmakers or go against the grain. She observed that most personal finance papers tended
to write stories on the predators of the business world instead of sticking up for the prey.
While business reporters were once seen as a hostile bunch to the corporations, this is no
22
The Influence of Public Relations in Business News Reporting
longer the case. In fact, reporters appear to have crossed over to the corporate viewpoint
and no longer worry about social interests.
The problem with this below-par performance by journalists is not so much the
undeserved publicity that certain corporations gain. More important is the fact that there are
readers who are being hurt by the stories these journalists write. Quinn noted that reporters
(and by extension the corporations) are successfully deceiving the public. According to
her, readers actually do believe what is told them in the papers. In her words, “It’s almost
shocking to see how much they trust the press (p. 48).” Readers expect the press to be
questioning and investigative, which of course is not always true.
Yet while Quinn found that most readers continue to trust the press, surveys have
found that the public is aware of the influence of advertising money, an interesting paradox.
In 1997, a national survey in America sponsored by the Freedom Forum’s Newseum and
Media Studies Center reported “ethically, Americans see journalists as equals of politicians,
lawyers and sales people – people with agendas” (Maier, 2000:41).
In Malaysia, we cannot deny that our media is skewed towards advertising and public
relation interests. Our media operates in much the same way as Western media does and we
are therefore subject to the same traps and snares. With the proliferation of watchdog blogs
like Screenshots (http://www.jeffooi.com) and Brand New Malaysian (http://brandmalaysia.
com), media punditry is no longer limited to journalists like Citizen Nades of The Sun
newspaper. Rather, most educated and Internet-savvy Malaysians are learning to question
the media, as can be seen by the hits and comments these Web sites receive.
However, like our foreign counterparts, we are still largely unaware of how deep the
“PR writing” runs. Malaysians in general have made no protests and are accepting of the
media. Perhaps the problem lies in the fact that readers have nowhere else to turn to.
Martha Smilgis (2002:24), who writes the column “The Outraged Investor” in The
San Francisco Examiner, was once one of those readers. She noted that the business media
usually ignore the “destructive market forces that afflict the little guy” while instead giving
time, “without scrutiny”, to the brokers, fund managers, analysts and CEOs to push their
own agendas.
Newsweek columnist Robert J. Samuelson (2002:24) wrote that business journalists,

while priding themselves on being sceptical and critical, were still in fact “suckers for fads
and fashions” and that in the quest to be exciting, often became misleading instead. “We
peddle simplicities, and sometimes stupidities... stock prices could get wildly overvalued;
speculative excesses could hurt the real economy of production and jobs.”
Well-known media pundit Norman Solomon (2002:19) also lamented that today “big
money tilts reporting and punditry” and because the media no longer writes quite as many
negative stories, certain stories and themes are repeated endlessly, becoming propaganda
and making investigative journalism less popular.
In his opinion, many newsreaders are deceived into thinking that news coverage
reflects the professional judgement of journalists when in reality, “journalists are enmeshed
in a media industry dominated by corporate institutions with enough financial sway to
redefine the meaning of functional journalism” (Solomon, 2002:18).
23
Quoting New York Times reporter Diana B. Henriques in his article, Solomon
also said that whereas in the 1980s newspapers wrote for consumers, today, they write
primarily for investors. The financial pages of the newspapers “see the world through the
eyes of bankers as opposed to through the eyes of bank customers”.
In an essay for the Columbia Journalism Review, Philip Meyer (2004) noted that
journalism was being phased out. According to him, the noble call of journalism has
become “increasingly difficult to distinguish from things that look like journalism but are
primarily advertising, press agentry or entertainment.”
The overwhelming criticism directed towards journalists and the industry appears
to suggest that the ethical standards of those in the profession have deteriorated over the
years. Yet, a relatively recent study conducted by M. David Arant and Philip Meyer found
that the moral standards of daily newspaper reporters have not declined over the years.
Instead, they even appear to have risen in some areas.
The study sent a thousand surveys to newspaper staff asking them what their
responses would be in 14 common ethical situations. The results were compared with a
similar survey conducted by ASNE in 1982. It was found that ethical attitudes at that time
and in the present showed no deterioration. In fact, in six areas, tolerance for non-ethical
behaviour actually decreased.
If it is not deterioration of principles that has led to sub-standard coverage, what

is it? And why, notwithstanding the calls by various parties, does it continue to happen?
Research on this topic is scarce and none of it is directly related to business writing.
However, some parallels can be drawn from the research accumulated in the field of media
studies. Based on review of available literature, there are four more common responses to
this question: (1) the change in ownership of newspaper companies, (2) aggressive P.R.
activities, (3) lack of trained journalists and (4) time pressures in reporting.
Firstly, Meyer (2004) claims that the management of the newspaper companies
is somewhat to blame for this shift. According to him, the shift from the privately owned
newspaper company to the investor-ownership model has led to a greater need for
newspapers to turn a higher profit. Owners no longer feel the need to create a meeting
place or public sphere for the community. Instead, there is a desire to rack up numbers
on the stock market while often, at the same time, disregarding fundamental journalistic
ethics.
Leonard Downie, Jr. and Robert G. Kaiser (2002) agree that the root of decline
lies in the newsroom’s pursuit of profit. In their report, they try to determine if economic
pressures will continue to push down the quality of journalism. They too found that
corporate owners’ preoccupation with profit – and the resulting decline in quality – is not
likely to be reversed. It appears that management is “dedicated to maintaining profit at
any cost” (Downie & Kaiser, 2002, cited in Brody, 2002).
Surveys by the American Press Institute have found that “business coverage in
most newspapers is devoid of depth and given low priority internally” (Strupp, 2003). Key
reasons cited were a lack of talented journalists willing to join the business desk, difficulty
24
in hiring seasoned business journalists and the need for programmes to train business
journalists (Selzer & Co., 2003). According to the reports, lack of training caused journalists
to refrain from asking questions that went below the surface.
The surveys are supported by Ludwig’s (2002) qualitative research regarding the
need for business journalists to obtain specialised financial training. He interviewed 18
business editors and journalists of American newspapers on their opinions as to whether
journalists needed financial training to do their jobs well.
Ludwig’s research found that all the interviewees agreed that business or economic
training was important to be able to report well as a business journalist. Classes on business
equipped journalists with tools that greatly helped journalists in their everyday reporting.
One reporter was quoted as saying:
Back in my education coverage days, I would sit down with my school

district’s budget and look for trends and mark out the statistics and that
kind of thing. I remember going out to interview a school board candidate
who was a CPA specialised in auditing, and she had done the exact same
thing I had, and the trends that I had noticed she had noticed and was
objecting to.
It can therefore be surmised that without financial training, a reporter would

be unable to ask the relevant questions, or query a source or validate information
independently. This would, in turn, affect journalistic quality.
This is especially true in Malaysia where journalism studies have yet to be developed
and industry writers are mostly newcomers unseasoned in the wiles of journalism and the
ropes of business. Also, a background in finance or journalism is not a pre-requisite for
employment in the industry.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
Event Coverage
The study found that editors from all three newspapers cited some common policies in
their decision-making when it comes to deciding which events receive coverage: investor
interest, need for comprehensive coverage, available manpower, company size & profile
and issues.
In terms of investor interest, StarBiz and Financial Daily (FD) editors said that their
papers were primarily investor-targeted papers and thus provided a focus on large, listed
companies while giving less coverage to smaller companies.
However, both added that smaller companies did receive coverage as well because
newspapers needed to provide comprehensive coverage on all aspects of the business
world, not just the investor segment. Therefore, if a small company had an interesting story
to tell, it was given coverage. The Business Times (BT) however, was described by the editor
as a general business paper and aimed mainly at comprehensive coverage. Companies
both large and small were covered, as long as stories interested the general public.
25
A third consideration was the available manpower i.e. the number of journalists
on call. Editors from StarBiz and BT stated that if they had more journalists, they would
send reporters for less important functions, such as marketing functions.
The fourth consideration was company size and profile. Both StarBiz and FD
editors agreed that large companies – both in terms of share volume and capital structure
– ranked higher on the radar for coverage. Also, companies that were showing exceptional
(either positive or negative) performance or companies that were part of trends would
elicit more interest and be given more coverage.
Finally, StarBiz and FD editors stated that outstanding issues or controversies

were covered in order to help investors make decisions.
Both StarBiz and FD editors cited four items in common while StarBiz and BT
editors cited two items in common. It is to be noted here that the editor interviewed from
StarBiz worked with The Edge, sister company of FD, before joining The Star. The BT editor
had worked with the NST from the beginning, joining Reuters for about two years in
between.
The similarities between the comments of the StarBiz editor and the FD editor
indicate that editors decide how to assign reporters based on what they have learnt
through their experience in other organisations where they have worked. Thus journalists
who work in one organisation inherit the views of that organisation.
This is reinforced by the admittance of the interview subjects themselves that daily
decisions are based on experience. As the FD editor put it, “Probably a lot of companies,
newspaper organisations, they do it by run-of-the-mill. It’s a run-of-the-mill exercise where
a lot of journalists pick up their experience in the field.”
If this theory were found to be true, then it would mean that policies of news
organisations are based on indoctrination within organisations. Following this train of
thought, the best place then to impart new policies would be within existing newspaper
organisations instead of schools of journalism or trade publications. To create change
within the existing structure, it seems the key may lie within the newspaper organisation.
It is also worth noting that when the direct question of “what policies do you
apply at work?” was posed to the editors, only one of them included advertisers on his
list. The other two editors only spoke about this topic when the question was asked if
advertising interests affected their policies.
This suggests several things. First, it could be that advertising does not play as
big a role in business writing as assumed. The FD editor stated that advertising is “very
insignificant. It’s not a major part of work.” Another possibility is editors would like to
believe that it is a minor part of decision-making and thus make an effort (consciously and
unconsciously) to reinforce this belief through statements like the one above and through
avoiding the subject. Third, editors could be aware of its role but because they dislike it
they avoid it. StarBiz’s editor called the relationship a love-hate relationship. “They love us
26
but we hate them.” This dislike of advertising interests could be causing editors to refrain
from thinking about it.
Opinions on PR Events
The second and third research questions asked how editors and journalists justified the
influence of PR over their work. This section will deal first with the opinions of the editors
and then with the opinions of the journalists.
In questioning the editors, the purpose was to find out how they justified sending
journalists to press conferences where PR companies could control information.
All three editors found the notion that PR companies could control information
flow during press conferences to be false. According to the editors, the PR companies were
there merely as organisers of the event and could not decide what information was given
out when the CEO of the company took over. According to the StarBiz editor, while PR
companies could try to obstruct the flow of certain information, “once the event starts, it’s
the CEO who does all the talking. So it’s out of their hands.”
In fact, editors felt that PR events were actually a good way for journalists to get
information, as these were opportunities for journalists to meet company officials face-to-
face and ask whatever questions were necessary as opposed to setting up interviews with
the CEOs personally. “It’s not always easy to catch the CEO of Telekom,” said the StarBiz
editor. The organised event was also seen as a good alternative to the e-mail interview
because at the event, context could be gained from the real-life situation.
On top of that, the FD editor also mentioned that most companies would also
have investor relations (IR) consultants that could be part of the PR firm, a firm on its own
or part of their own company, usually the corporate communications staff. A good IR
consultant would actually encourage companies to “face issues head on”.
Editors did however mention that the important thing when it came to organised
events was that journalists should be able to go there and get a story out of the event
other than what the PR company or the (IR) company intended. According to the StarBiz
editor, “A good reporter would actually go for an organised event but with his own idea of
what he wants from the event.” The BT editor called the event “secondary” and said that
reporters may report a little on the event but their real purpose was to chase other stories.
The FD editor posed that journalists have to do their homework before attending events.
“Journalists have to dig up the issues; by going through their profit and loss accounts, their
balance sheet, their annual report, their quarterly results”.
In addition, the BT editor also saw PR events as an opportunity for reporters to

build inside contacts. In his paper, reporters were encouraged to build relationships with
the corporate communications staff of companies in order to be able to get inside scoops.
From the responses given by editors, it can be observed that editors are placing
an increasing amount of pressure on journalists to face the tactics of the PR agencies and
the structured nature of organised events. Despite the time pressures, journalists are still
expected to do a lot of research before attending events and are expected to come back
27
with newsworthy stories. The FD editor called the job of a journalist a “donkey job” that
was never supposed to be easy. This finding has enormous implications for the journalism
industry, as will be discussed later.
In asking journalists how they justified the influence of PR in their reporting, the
focus was on how they felt about being sent out for events that were organised by PR
companies and how they justified gaining information primarily from press conferences.
All three journalists interviewed gave rather similar responses. Seven

rationalisations were identified – four of them were common among all three journalists;
two of them were cited by two of the journalists. The four main reasons provided were:
as a training ground, to maintain business relations, acceptance of the situation and the
defence that the information obtained was still business-related.
Firstly, all three journalists were of the opinion that organised events provided a
good training ground for young journalists and even a way for seasoned journalists to learn
something new. New journalists would have difficulty working up investigative pieces
without contacts and organised events served as a way that contacts could be built. Also,
by attending these events, a journalist could develop essential skills. As the FD reporter
put it, “It is good training. It helps you to build up your self-confidence, helps you to look
at different people and what they have to offer in the market.”
Referring back to the statements of the editors discussed earlier, it will be recalled
that editors required journalists to do proper research before attending press conferences.
Editors also complained that journalists sometimes lacked the proper training required
to cover press events well. Here, there is a contradiction between the viewpoints of the
editors and the journalists and there is a dilemma. If a young journalist is sent to PR
events, he or she lacks the training required to see through the organised event. However,
a journalist will find it difficult to obtain training without first attending organised events.
This predicament presents an opportunity for further study.
Also, with journalists viewing PR events as a training ground and PR companies

hoping that journalists attend their events, the media appears to have formed a symbiotic
relationship with the PR agencies. The media would need PR events as a means to train
journalists in the art of mastering the press conference situation. Meanwhile, the PR would
need the media to attend its events and provide coverage. If such a symbiosis occurs,
then perhaps the PR event is not such a negative thing after all. However, an important
question would be: How do PR companies feel when media organisations send young and
inexperienced reporters to their events instead of seasoned ones? In addition, none of the
editors mentioned this as one of the reasons they sent journalists for events. So do editors
feel the same way about press events?
Secondly, all three recognised that attending events was also important to maintain
relationships between the newspaper and its advertising base. Unlike editors who
only mentioned the subject when asked directly, journalists were early to acknowledge
the influence of advertisers in the decision-making of what events they covered for the
paper. The journalists were also very accepting of the fact that it was necessary to please
advertisers if the newspaper were to make money. The BT journalist phrased it this way:
In a way, newspapers have a responsibility toward advertisers. You need
28
to do them a favour because they give you something: they give you
revenue. So you cannot simply push them aside. So you have to give them
something back.
Due to the profit model of the newspapers, journalists have found it easier to
accept advertising influence in their daily work. This concept of acceptance leads to the
third point, where all journalists showed an acceptance of existing circumstances within
the industry. They felt that there was not much choice in the matter because it was a
“mandate”. Also, they felt that conflicts would always exist wherever one worked and as
long as nothing terribly wrong was done, like killing someone, it was fine and there was
nothing inherently bad.
Finally, all the journalists felt that the information they obtained at press
conferences organised by PR companies, regardless of the aim of the PR companies, would
always contain business information. So long as the information presented had a business
angle, they did not feel that there was any conflict of interest presented in it. Said the FD
journalist, “I still find that no matter what kind of PR pieces you write, you still look at
the business angle. We don’t just write about how good the product is, or how well the
company is doing.”
Several other reasons were also provided. However, because not all three of
the journalists agreed on these points, those responses are not discussed here. Table 3
provides a summary of journalists’ responses according to the four categories as well as
the remaining three categories not discussed.
Comparing Reactions
In examining the responses of both editors and journalists, it is interesting to note that there
are many instances where the responses of journalists and editors concur. Both journalists
and editors recognise the important role that advertising plays in the newspaper industry
today. Both parties realise that newspapers need to make money in order to survive and
the most important source of revenue is advertisers. In fact, both the StarBiz editor and
journalist used a similar phrase in describing the way advertising work could be perceived:
“bonus”. Journalists and editors recognise that advertisers are the best way to maximise a
company’s earnings. It appears that editors have been very successful in educating their
journalists about the necessity of advertisers.
Another thing that editors have been successful at indoctrinating into reporters
is the idea of a business angle. All three journalists justified their PR-related pieces by
saying that regardless of how information is obtained, the story that is produced is still a
business one. Editors too stressed the importance of the business angle when talking about
how journalists should handle stories at press conferences. It appears all three journalists
are aware of the editors’ requirements on non-PR pieces and have learnt to justify their
coverage of PR events using this same argument.
However, there are occasions when it appears editors have not been quite
as successful as they would hope in educating their journalists on what is required of
them. FD’s editor and reporter both had different views on the influence of advertising
on reporting. The FD editor stated that he required journalists only to report what they
saw fit, without looking to the newspaper advertisements for guidelines. However, the FD
29
reporter interviewed said that she looked at newspaper advertisements to determine what
was required of her in writing reports.
This analysis implies that despite the occasional difference, the justifications of
editors and journalists are largely similar. It is most likely that journalists are taught what
to think by their editors. As noted earlier, editors form policies based on their experiences
as journalists. Here, it appears there is a cycle of indoctrination – editors teach journalists
who in turn become editors themselves.
If this pattern is indeed true, there are important implications for ethics researchers.
If editors learn policies within organisations and from their editors, then it appears that the
starting point for change is not just within the organisation, as stated in the section before,
but with the editors. Editors are keys to the possibility of a starting point for positive
change within the journalistic industry. Further research into this idea is important in
order to make use of this possible power that editors wield.
Answering the Question of WHY
This study began by providing several reasons why public relations reporting continues
to exist today: ownership structure, aggressive PR, lack of training and time pressures.
While none of the editors used those reasons in justifying why they continued to send
their reporters for PR-organised events, two of the four reasons are applicable based on an
analysis of the responses given during the interview.
One of the questions posed to each of the editors was what they would change
in the industry if they could. It was assumed that by asking this question, the researcher
would be able to pinpoint what each editor saw as the biggest hindrance to quality
financial journalism. Two of the editors stated that they would choose to begin changes
at the level of the journalists. The BT editor said, “I would make them take tests, I would
make them buy more books, I would shout more I suppose. Basically, I would give them
more training.” The FD editor declared that journalists “need to do more research, need to
probe more, be sharper, be more investigative.”
The StarBiz editor wanted to change the ownership structure of the newspaper
from being owned by a business to being wholly owned by an institution. However he
acknowledged that it could not be done, especially not in the Malaysian context because
the Malaysian government could not be allowed to own the newspaper and there would
be a problem of choosing what institution should be given control of the paper.
It can be concluded then that, in the eyes of editors, ownership structure and lack
of training are two important answers to the question of why the problem of PR reporting
exists. This has important implications for the industry because whilst changing ownership
structure, as the StarBiz editor put it, “cannot be done”, it is possible to train journalists
in business-related subjects like reading accounts as well as in work ethics and reporting
ethics.
As mentioned earlier, training would also better equip journalists to respond to the
challenges of PR tactics and structured PR events. This training would enable journalists
to perform better as watchdog journalists. Further study into this element of training is
important if there are to be favourable changes with the system.
30
Journalists on the other hand, were found to be comfortable with the existing
system and did not propose any changes to it. As has already been discussed earlier,
journalists provided various justifications for their attendance of PR events and when
asked if they would like anything to be changed, they replied in the negative. Two possible
conclusions can be drawn. First, journalists are more likely to rationalise their roles in the
press and accept them because they cannot do anything else. They feel they have no power
and therefore have learnt to justify what they do until it is ingrained into them. Second,
journalists have already been indoctrinated into the existing system and therefore see no
reason to change what has worked so far.
Thus, a third reason can be offered in explaining why PR reporting still exists
today: journalists do not see anything wrong with it. Therefore, to institute change at a
journalist level, the harmful effects of PR reporting must first be thoroughly researched
and then presented to these journalists.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The objective of this study is to understand the reasons behind the PR-isation of business
reporting in hopes of finding ways to correct flaws within the existing system. Based on
the analysis of the responses given by the editors and journalists, the major finding of
this study presents a new possibility for further research into how those flaws may be
corrected.
The study first began by proposing three research questions. In answering the
first research question, the study identified eight criteria that editors use to decide which
events should be covered: (1) investor interest, (2) comprehensive coverage, (3) available
manpower, (4) company size and profile, (5) outstanding issues, (6) type of event, (7)
likelihood of getting information and (8) building of contacts.
In answering the second research question, the study found that editors do not
find PR-organised events controlled but instead view them as opportunities for good
journalists to get valuable information and contacts.
Finally, in answering the third research question, the study identified several
justifications journalists had for continuing to attend PR-organised functions and writing
PR-related articles: (1) as a training ground, (2) to maintain business relations, (3) acceptance
of the situation, (4) information obtained was used with a business angle, (5) fairness is
subjective, (6) a large news team and (7) as a break from heavier issues.
In searching for the answers to the research questions, it was observed that the
indoctrination of newspaper policies occurred through social learning within the structure
of a newspaper organisation. Also, within the organisations, editors were found to be
key influencers or opinion leaders in the indoctrination process. It follows then that, as
suggested by Lazarsfeld in 1943 (as cited in Baran & Davis, 2003), the best way to effect
change is to begin with the opinion leaders.
It is important that more research be conducted to investigate the proposition of

this study that organisations are key structures for change and that editors are the opinion
leaders that can bring about this change. Also, if this proposition were to be found true,
31
then it is necessary that researchers find a way to harness the power of editors as opinion
leaders and find ways to initiate change within the way the system works. Research ought
to address questions such as: In what areas do editors have influence? How can editors
have positive influence on journalists? How can the opinions and policies of existing
editors be changed? What are the important avenues for change that are within the control
of editors?
Another consideration that presents itself for research is the topic of training
for journalists. All editors strongly felt that journalist training in business matters was
extremely important in order to enable these journalists to ask pertinent and relevant
questions during press conferences – questions that delve deeper than the surface of things
and probe into company finances, questions precisely of the sort that watchdog reporters
should ask.
If this element were so important for editors, it would be important for researchers
to study exactly what sort of training should be given to these journalists. Also, what would
be the best way to impart this training – on the job within the organisation, or through
formal training at journalism schools or courses? And what are journalists’ opinions on this
issue? Do they feel that the training they have is inadequate? If not, what sort of education
would they want and how would they prefer to obtain it? More importantly, would the
training really do any good? Questions like these are important if such ideas are to be
implemented.
A third recommendation for future study presents itself based on the comments
of two editors that they tended to send journalists for PR-organised events if they had
more manpower. All three journalists also tied the likelihood of attending PR events to
the number of journalists in the organisation. This presents a theory worthy of further
investigation – that the quality of journalism deteriorates as newspaper organisations get
bigger.
In Malaysia, this theory is especially worthy of investigation because of the existing

structure of our newspaper industry. Within academia and the journalism industry, The
Star has a reputation for being a very advertising-driven paper. And since The Star is also
the biggest paper in the country, this is an implication that is worthy of investigation.
Other possibilities would be the study of the other two players in the media process
– the public and the PR agencies. Finding out how the PR-isation of business writing has
affected the public is important in order to learn which aspects are positive and which
require change. As mentioned earlier, researchers need to ask how PR agencies feel about
their seemingly symbiotic relationship with the press and how they feel about newspapers
using their events as a training ground for junior journalists. It would also be interesting to
view the idea of the orchestrated event from the perspective of the orchestrator.
In discussing the limitations of this study, it must be recalled that the design of the
study is merely an investigative one. The purpose of this study is not to provide any results
on which to base decisions or formulate regulatory frameworks. Rather, this study serves
as a foundation on which to build further qualitative and quantitative analysis on the less-
studied aspect of ethics in business journalism. It is hoped that this study will encourage
further research into this field.
32
An obvious limitation to this study would be the small size of sample used. Due to
the nature of the requirements of this study, the time allocated and the resources available
to the researcher, the study is necessarily limited in scope. It examines only three editors
and three journalists making the results of the research far from conclusive evidence. It
can be anticipated that interviews with more journalists and editors would result in more
ideas.
However, this does not mean that the study is unreliable or faulty. The close
relation among all subject responses suggests that interviewing a larger amount of people
is likely to present the same results. Furthermore, the study presents suggestions and
conclusions that can be tested in future studies. The results of this survey would best be
used to formulate questions for further analysis instead of being used to generalise across
the board regarding the viewpoints of business editors and journalists.
Secondly, because the study is a qualitative one, there are no empirical results
and rationalisations given are purely from the viewpoints of the subjects interviewed.
This methodology has been identified as unscientific by some researchers who are of
the opinion that subjects cannot be trusted to determine their thoughts independently.
Reasons given may not be the actual or important reasons or they may be reasons that the
respondents have heard other people give. (Infante, Rancer & Womack, 1997 as cited in
Dent, McKether, Williams & Simonsen, 2000; Chandler, 1994)
Thirdly, it must be recognised that the full impact of the advertising PR age on
the future of financial journalism cannot yet be fully measured. The comprehensiveness
of the interactions among the various parties – newspapers, advertisers and public – and
the dynamic nature of these interactions make it a difficult topic for research. Moreover, as
mentioned earlier, this topic is still in its infancy and will need much more research if it is
to provide constructive solutions to probable problems.
Fourthly, the methods employed in this study were selected because it was
necessary to obtain an in-depth understanding of the views of journalists and editors,
unachievable through quantitative research. Due to the lack of prior research conducted on
this particular topic, the appropriateness of this method cannot yet be determined. More
research needs to be conducted on this topic using various quantitative and qualitative
methods to obtain exact measures of the relationship between business writing and PR
relations.
The study of business journalism is a field of research that is open, inviting and
unexplored, especially with respects to the future of Public Relations and its influence on
editorial content. This study has proposed that editors as opinion leaders may be the key to
initiating change within the existing system. Thus, it is important that editors continuously
reinforce ethical considerations in the minds of their journalists. This will ensure that future
generations of journalists will pass these ideas on and keep the reputation of newspapers
as untarnished as is humanly possible. However, before this can happen, editors need to
be educated on the importance of watchdog journalism in business reporting.
In conclusion, today’s model of journalism operates within a modern economy with

greater competition and economic pressure. Journalists and editors will find themselves
making numerous judgement calls. It is thus essential that they are educated to handle
emotional pressure so they do not feel beholden to any party other than their public.
33
34
Branding Media
Jurnal Pengajian an Airline
Malaysia Jilid 11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 35-48
Branding an Airline: A Case Study of

AirAsia
KHOR YOKE LIM, RAMLI MOHAMED, AZEMAN ARIFFIN

& GERALD GOH GUAN
ABSTRACT
Based on the Brand Assets Management model by Scott M. Davis, this paper analysed the brand
vison, brand picture and brand strategy of AirAsia. The results show the clarity of brand vision on
the aspirations of the company, the understanding of consumer need and image of AirAsia in the
brand picture phase, the distinctive positioning of the brand as the leader of its product category as
well as being able to realise the brand promise and finally the achievements of the company in terms
of passenger load, sales and profits.
The framework shows the importance of a clear and resolute brand vision and values that form the
basis for management strategy and tactics. AirAsia’s brand vision to be the leader in the region
provides the direction for the development of brand strategy as well as other financial and operational
decisions to realise the brand promise.
Key words: branding, advertising, AirAsia, brand strategy.
INTRODUCTION
Building strong brands is one of the most important goals of product and brand management
as strong brands will result in the realization of higher long-term and short-term returns
for organizations (Davis, 2002b; Keller, 2002). Branding is now a key component in the
airline industry, just like any product. Deyes (2008), explains that the growing need and
importance for branding in this industry is because all flying experiences are becoming
similar, both boring and stressful with flights becoming a commodity and flying losing all
its magic. Furthermore, the launch of new budget airlines in the past decade has made it
even more crucial for airlines to differentiate themselves in their respective markets and
segments. According to research, 35 per cent of passengers choose an airline on the basis of
punctuality, while pricing comes second at around 30 per cent (Deyes, 2008). This implies
that the remaining 35 per cent of the decision making is influenced by other factors which
undeniably will include branding (Deyes, 2008). Branding plays a key role in the industry
as it helps airlines differentiate themselves from the others. It also helps airlines showcase
their strengths beyond the expected basic requirement of taking a person from one point
35
of departure to their destination. More importantly, differentiation has become a necessity

ever since low-cost airlines entered the market requiring airlines to improve the experience,
because if the passenger only made his decision based on price, low-cost airlines with the
lowest fares would always be chosen (Deyes, 2008).
The last ten years have seen the emergence of about twenty low cost carriers in
the Asia Pacific region such as Lion Air and Tiger Airways from Singapore; Air Deccan,
Air One, Kingfisher Airlines, Air India Express, Alliance Air and Spice Jet from India;
Adam Air from Indonesia; One-to-go and Nok Air from Thailand; Ozjet and Virgin Blue
from Australia; Viva Macau from Macau and Jeju Air from South Korea. Arguably, one
of the most successful in this region is Malaysia’s AirAsia. It is inevitable however, that as
competition heats up, the low cost carriers have to expand their use of marketing strategy
that goes beyond low cost fares. This paper investigates the branding strategy of AirAsia,
to find how it has been able to maintain itself as one of the most successful and innovative
low cost airlines in the region.
AIRASIA: BACKGROUND
Prior to its take-over by Tune Air Sdn. Bhd. in 2001, AirAsia was owned by DRB-Hicom, a
government-linked company (AirAsia, 2008). Its airline had not been able to take off and
was eventually sold to Tune Air, literally for a song, for a token sum of RM1.00 or US$0.26
together with an accumulated debt of RM40 million (AirAsia, 2008).
Tune Air was formed by Tony Fernandes and four entrepreneurs, some of whom
had worked with the music industry which perhaps inspired the name of the company.
According to Fernandes , it is not easy to sell the idea of operating an airline particularly
to the government. In fact, his request for a license to operate from the government was
rejected on two previous attempts. Finally, with Pahamin A Rejab, the former Secretary-
General of the Ministry of Transportation, they presented their case to the then Prime
Minister, Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, who eventually gave the green light, not for a new
company, but to take over the ailing AirAsia from DRB-Hicom. Many were sceptical that
Fernandes could succeed in transforming the ailing, capital-intensive company especially
during the travel slump soon after the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York
in 2001.
Within two years, Fernandes proved the critics wrong and was able to turn AirAsia
into a profit-making company modelled after the successful operations of the United
States-based Southwest Airlines, Dublin-based Ryanair and United Kingdom-based
Virgin Air. AirAsia was listed in the Kuala Lumpur bourse within three years of operation,
on 22 November 2004, with one of the largest IPO offer of RM717.4 million (AirAsia,
2008). In addition, AirAsia won many accolades including certification by Superbrands
International. For his achievements, Fernandes was awarded the Best Entrepreneur of the
Year by Ernst & Young Entrepreneur Award in 2006 (AirAsia, 2008).
In March 2006, AirAsia’s passenger load expanded to such a capacity that a

new low-cost terminal (LCCT) was built for it. This LCCT can accommodate 10 million
passengers annually and has 30 parking bays for the aircrafts (AirAsia, 2008).
36
Branding an Airline
THE FRAMEWORK
It is widely known that brands are a company’s prime asset. Consumers select one company
over another because of brands. By creating consumer preference, brands provide added
value, both to the company as well as the consumer. For the consumer, brands reduce
perceived risk. A brand can signify product quality. From the company’s perspective,
successful brands promote loyalty, generate price premium, form the platform for long-
term growth and have a positive effect on share performance. According to Fombrun
(1996) brands closely reflect the true value of a firm and a source of competitive advantage.
Blackett (2004:18), in quoting the Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English, said that
the word brand which originated from an old Norwegian name of brandr, means a piece
of smouldering wood, torch, sword or iron stamp used red-hot to leave an indelible mark.
It was of course used by farmers to distinguish their livestock. Regardless of the context
of usage, the word ‘brand’ means a distinctive mark to differentiate one product from
another. As the marketplace becomes more competitive and crowded, brand becomes
increasingly more significant to cut through the clutter and differentiate from the rest of
the crowd.
A review of literature shows that there are differences in the definition of brands.
Some defined it in terms of name, logo or any form of visual identifications given to a
product or service (Temporal, 2000). According to Noble (2006), while trade marks are
important to protect those aspects of the communication that trigger stored memory, brand
is the “sum of understanding” in the individual’s mind. Individuals express their thoughts
by their actions, to buy or not to buy the product/service. Hence, successful branding wins
trust and creates a preference in the mind of the consumer (Noble, 2006).
From the company’s point of view, brand, as mentioned by Landor (www.

buildingbrands.com), is a promise that it makes to its customers. Defined in this manner
it implies that brand comes with responsibilities and the inability to fulfil the promise
can have severe negative effects. A brand must be able to deliver and make a positive
contribution to be able to sustain itself. The challenge to brands is to remain relevant with
changing expectations of consumers due to changes in lifestyle, access to technology and
proliferation of product choice. As such even successful brands have to constantly innovate
and improve in order to remain relevant to the market. One of the indicators of successful
branding is when consumers use the name of a brand synonymously to refer to a product,
such as Pampers for diapers or Kleenex for tissue papers, Colgate for toothpaste.
Keller (2002) suggested that there are four stages to follow in planning a branding
strategy. First, undertake a review of the product in order to identify and strengthen its
value which can be used to position its branding. This includes an effort to maximise the
branding value of the product by convincing the consumers the ‘extras’ that can be found
in the product as opposed to its competitors. Second, plan for a comprehensive marketing
approach of the product by promoting the branding value through a combination and
integration of brand elements and aggressive marketing activities. Third, assess and
interpret the brand performance as a result of the earlier steps. Finally, promote and
sustain the brand equity, that is, the asset and strengths linked to the brand that can add
value to the product.
37
According to Davis (2002a) the best branding strategy which has garnered a large
market share for a product is when an organisation treats its brand as the most important
asset for the company’s long term survival. In other words, the organisation must be
active in promoting the brand and is willing to make substantial investment in promoting,
strengthening and sustaining the brand in the market place (Aaker, 1998). Such investment
should include the task of ensuring that the whole organisation understands its brand and
uses this understanding to channel its value directly or indirectly to the consumers (de
Chernatony, 1996).
In his book on brand asset management, Davis (2002a) proposed a model on how
an organisation can manage its brand investment and asset through four major phases:
development of brand vision, determining the brand picture, developing brand strategy,
and measuring the brand asset management culture.
Figure 1: Brand Asset Management
First Phase Second Phase Third Phase Fourth Phase
Developing Determining Developing Measuring

Brand Vision your Brand Brand Asset Brand Asset
Picture Management Management
strategy Culture
(Source: Davis, 2002a: 18)
As shown in Figure 1 above, Davis (2002a: 18) suggested that initially we need to
develop a brand vision which incorporates what the brand stands for, the brand benefits
and the strategic goals. Brand vision is based on the corporate strategy and vision. The
task of articulating the brand vision needs to be done by an inter-departmental team
comprising top management, marketing, human resource and finance to ensure that it
reflects the corporate vision, objective and strategy.
The second phase is to determine the brand picture that is to understand the
customer perceptions about your brand vis-à-vis your competitors. It includes determining
how the brand is currently perceived by the customers and what to do in order to improve
on it. There are three steps in this phase. First is to determine the brand image. “The more
positive they are, the stronger your brand image, and the more leverage you most likely
will have in growing the brand” (Davis, 2002a:21)
According to the Davis (2002a:53) brand image comprises two components: the
brand associations that customers attribute to the brand, and the brand ‘persona’. Brand
associations refer to how customers understand the benefits of the brand. One way to
assess a brand image is to use the Davis’s Brand Value Pyramid. According to the Brand
Value Pyramid, there are three levels of benefits, namely (i) features and attributes, (ii)
benefits, and (iii) beliefs and values. Based on a ladder approach, it is assumed that the
38
Branding an Airline
customers’ image of higher level benefits is more valued and has greater sustainability.
The Brand Value Pyramid is similar to that described by Keller (2002) who identified three
dimensions of brand associations: attributes, benefits and attitudes. Examples of attributes
are durability, cheap, clean, trendy, etc. Benefits refer to the perception that the brand fulfils
a need which can be functional or emotional such as being associated with informative,
friendly, dependable, etc. Attitudes refer to the overall evaluation of the brand based on
certain values or beliefs such as trustworthy, confidence, self-esteem, etc. Understanding
the brand associations “helps you better understand the brand’s strengths and weaknesses
as well as the best ways to position it”. (Davis, 2002a:53)
Figure 2: Brand Value Pyramid
Beliefs
and Values
Benefits
Features
and Attributes
(Source: Davis, 2002a)
Brand persona refers to the human characteristics that consumer associate with the brand
such as feminine, energetic, friendly, sophisticated, cool, etc. An example of brand persona
is Chartered Bank’s slogan, “big, strong and friendly”. Together with brand association,
brand persona forms the brand image for a product/service.
The second step is to compare the customer perceptions to the promises that the
brand makes, both positive and negative. The third step within the second phase is to craft
a brand-based customer model. Based on customer perceptions, identify the opportunities
and barriers for brand growth.
The third phase of the model is to determine the appropriate strategies to achieve
the brand vision. This involves determining the positioning of the brand, extending the
brand, communicating the brand’s position, leveraging the brand to maximise channel
influence, and pricing the brand at a premium. The fundamental task here is to define the
target market, identify the competitors and identify the key differences and benefits of
your brand in the market.
39
The fourth and final phase is to support a brand asset management culture, which
is to ensure that strategies recommended are implemented. The first step in this phase is to
measure the return of brand investment (ROBI) and the second step is to establish a brand-
based culture. ROBI is measuring the impact of branding efforts such as brand awareness,
brand image recognition, number of customers as a result of the brand efforts, and price
premium. According to Davis (2002a), ROBI is measured along three dimensions; on brand
objectives and strategy, brand financial arrangements and commitment of management to
the brand.
BRANDING OF AIRASIA
Phase 1: Brand Vision
How does the company seeks to identify itself? What is its value to the consumers and
the other stakeholders? A company’s identity can be seen through its vision, values and
logo. AirAsia’s vision is to be the leading low cost carrier in the region, through “offering
the lowest airfares at a profit” (AirAsia, 2008).The tagline that encapsulates the brand
vision is “Now everyone can fly”. The word ‘now’ emphasises that if in the past, air travel
was considered a luxury, nowadays with the availability of AirAsia, money will not be a
hindrance to travelling. The other crucial word ‘everyone’ denotes that AirAsia enables
everyone regardless of class and status to fly.
The AirAsia logo is written in big red cursive letterings against a white background.
The colour and font used denote boldness, simplicity and fun. Located next to the brand
name is the tagline “Now everyone can fly” which clearly captures the company’s vision
of offering the lowest fare to everyone. As a comparison, the new logo of AirAsia is more
vivid and dynamic as compared to its previous logo.
The new logo The old logo
The corporate values that AirAsia holds are to be efficient and prudent, maintain
simplicity, safety and transparency (AirAsia, 2008). AirAsia needs to be efficient and prudent
in order to maintain a lean cost structure. Some measures implemented to reduce costs
are the no-frills flights which do not include meals and lounge facility, a lean ground staff,
an online reservation system and high aircraft utilization as the airline practices a quick
turnaround time of 25 minutes between flights (AirAsia, 2008).
40
Branding an Airline
AirAsia’s Chief Executive Officer, Tony Fernandes, believes that every aspect of the
business must be simplified so that the whole philosophy, vision, mission and objectives can
be understood by all the stakeholders, especially the staff and customers (AirAsia, 2008).
His management style upholds transparency on decision-making and high accessibility
to media and investor community. In addition, he reiterates that management must keep
talking to the staff about the brand. In his daily interactions with the staff, he tries to promote
a sense of loyalty, dedication and commitment of the staff to the company and the need to
be vigilant at all times to protect its image. This sentiment is promoted through (i) a good
staff and customer relations, (ii) available and approachable for consultations at anytime,
and (iii) an air of friendly atmosphere.
Safety is another significant value to long-term success. As a new airline, the safety
issue poses a big challenge. Given that low cost flying is a new concept in this region and
that AirAsia is a new enterprise, the question that is uppermost in the mind of the public
is, is it safe? Whilst people want to pay less, they would also like to be assured that the
planes meet aviation standards and the pilots are trained and experienced. Measures to
boost its credibility include the setting up of its own pilot training simulator facilities and
the purchase of new aircrafts so that by year 2009, all its carriers flying out of Malaysia
will be new.
Phase 2: Brand Picture
Brand picture is akin to the brand image or the consumer’s perception of the brand. It is
not about a single product attribute but the total impression in the minds of the consumer.
Clearly, a consumer forms an impression based on the associations they remembered from all
forms of communication as well as direct and indirect experience with the product/service.
Consumers ascribe a persona or image to the brand based on subjective perception. For
example, Intel Inside refers to assurance of quality, McDonald’s is a fast-food place where
children have fun, and Apple computer is associated with creative technology.
In terms of building brand image, AirAsia is highly aware and conscious of the
need to project itself through the numerous services it provides, in line with its vision and
values of being low-cost and affordable, no-frills, efficient, convenient, simple and safe. A
brand image is formed based on the ‘brand contract’, what the company promises to do
(Davis, 2002a:77). In this connection, AirAsia agrees to the following: to provide the lowest
air fare in the region, easy and convenient reservation system, warm and friendly staff, wide
network of routes and destinations especially to places not covered by regular airlines, and
a safe flight. One aspect that AirAsia needs to reduce the degree of flight delays due to its
tight flight schedules and maximisation of aircraft usage.
Phase 3: Brand Strategy
Positioning is to locate the brand in the minds of the people. What image do you want the
consumers to think of your brand? O’Guinn, et al.(2000) identified five essential elements in
developing effective positioning strategies. Firstly, on substance, that positioning strategies
are based on “meaningful commitments of organisational resources to produce substantive
value for the target segment”. Secondly, it must be consistent internally as everything must
work together to reinforce a distinct perception in the mind of the consumer. Thirdly, it
must be consistent over time, while specific messages can change, the thematic core usually
41
remains for a few years as it takes time for a brand to build its reputation. Fourth, is simplicity
which means that the message to the consumer is clear, focused and easy to remember. Fifth,
refers to distinctiveness, to differentiate from other products in the marketplace.
In addition, Davis (2002a:117-118) recommends five principles of effective

positioning:
• Value – focus on the perceived benefits that customers

value.
• Uniqueness – go where the competitors are not
• Credibility – is it credible in the marketplace?
• Sustainability – maximise the length of time the
positioning will be valid in the context of competition
• Fit – does the brand positioning fit within the overall
organisational objectives?
According to Fernandes, the tagline Now Everyone Can Fly is a promise for low-
cost air travel which is affordable to everyone. He added that, “if the airline dies, it will
die as a low-cost airline”. He steadfastly maintained that AirAsia will remain a brand for
low cost and will not change from this concept. Whilst the promise to its customers is that
AirAsia will provide the lowest airfares, to its investors, it will be the most profitable low
cost carrier in the region.
AirAsia’s brand positioning:
Target: Individuals looking to travel at an affordable

rate.
Business Definition: Low cost and no frills airline.
Point of Difference: Lowest airfare and widest network of
destinations in Asia.
Convenient and safe
Airasia’s tagline is a powerful sentence as it provides a clear image on the service’s

core idea. It is easy to remember and it is seen wherever the logo can be found. The tagline
is sufficiently broad to incorporate its brand extension activities such as the Tune Hotels,
Go insurance and Go Holidays as they are related to core idea of enabling people to travel
economically.
Effective positioning should aim to be at the top of the brand value pyramid (Davis,
2002b), that is, people should relate not only to the brand attribute, but also to the brand’s
beliefs and values. If a brand image is only about its attributes, it can be easily overtaken by
competitor brand with a strong position. In applying this idea to AirAsia, it is insufficient
for the airline to offer low cost fare. There are many LCCs in the region that also offer low
fares and competing at that level will only entail a price war that could be financially costly
to all parties. It is necessary for AirAsia to show its leadership position, by being able to offer
the lowest airfare, to the largest number of routes and destinations and still be profitable.
To show that it delivers its promise, AirAsia conducts regular campaigns that
offer free or very low cost seats. According to Fernandes, this promotion does not affect
the company financially because these free seats are actually offered on availability since
42
Branding an Airline
aircrafts have to depart even if there is only one passenger. On an average, free seats offered
to the public accounted for only one percent of total passenger load while the remaining 99
percent are paid passengers. The campaigns, not only provide publicity for AirAsia, but it
adds to its credibility for making good its brand promise by enabling everyone to fly.
Since its inception, AirAsia has increased the number of routes and destinations. Its
network now covers Malaysia, Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, Macau, China, Philippines,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Hong Kong and Myanmar. Its first regional destination was to Phuket,
Thailand in November 2003. In January 2004, it went into partnership with Shin Corporation
which has enabled it to expand to more domestic routes within Thailand. In April 2004,
it started its operations to Bandung, Surabaya and Jakarta and later to Bali, Medan and
Padang. As in Thailand, it went into a joint venture operation with AWAIR in Indonesia in
November 2004, in order to expand its fleet and domestic destinations within Indonesia.
In line with its growth, the company has placed order to purchase 150 Airbus 320,
and by 2009, all flights from Malaysia will be using the new airbus. Certainly the use of new
aircrafts would enhance the safety and credibility image of the airline.
To further strengthen its leadership position and differentiate against its competitors,
AirAsia is expanding its product offerings. Davis (2002b: 6) explains:
There is no better way to fuel growth, close out the competition and grow
your brand than by extending your brand’s equity. Brand extensions
leverage and integrate the strengths inherent within a brand to an identified
but unmet market need. The new product or service comes with instant
credibility and a built-in endorsement, since the brand has already been
accepted in the marketplace.
A new company, Fly Asian Xpress (FAX), is being formed through a partnership
between AirAsia (20% ownership) and the directors of AirAsia, including Fernandes (60%).
FAX will offer long-haul budget flights to Europe and the United States (The Star, 23 June
2007). This long-haul service has commenced in 2008 ferrying passengers from Kuala Lumpur
to Perth and Gold Coast, Australia (AirAsia, 2008). Another addition of brand extension is
the provision of budget hotels called Tune Hotels, where the room rate may be as low as
US$3.00 a night.
Other brand extensions created as part and parcel of travelling by AirAsia include
GO-Holiday, an online travel portal, GO-insure, an online travel insurance and travel credit
card that provides convenient flight reservation and AirMile award programme. On credit
card, AirAsia has been able to forge a partnership with Mastercard to introduce AirAsia
Mastercard as well as AirAsia cash voucher. AirAsia’s recent tie-up with Citibank has also
further strengthened AirAsia’s brand in Malaysia. Apart from that, Air Asia has also teamed
up with a transit bus service that provides airport transfer service to AirAsia passengers at
the LCC at very attractive rates. In his own words, Fernandes said “Any brand must have
a value and we need to plan and promote AirAsia as a brand that has a value.”
Through the strategies mentioned above, AirAsia aims to be a leader in the product
category of low cost carrier in this region. The airline aims to be the best LCC by providing
the lowest fares, widest network of destinations, newest aircrafts and professional crew
and service. In terms of the laddered Brand value pyramid, the brand position would be as
follows:
43
Figure 3: AirAsia’s Brand value Pyramid
Beliefs
and Values Best LCC
in the region
Benefits
Affordable fares, many
destinations, affordable
hotels, convenient and safe
Features
and Attributes Lowest airfare, easy online
reservation, wide network of routes
and destinations, new aircrafts
COMMUNICATING THE BRAND

In developing a brand in this era, it is impossible not to communicate. The fact that nowadays
there are so many products and services that are extremely similar, consumers need to
be constantly reminded to tip the favour of one brand against another. Even well-known
brands like Coca-Cola, continuously advertise to ensure that the brand stays in the mental
agenda of its consumers. In explaining the way brand communication influence behaviour,
Feldwick (2004), identified three strands; by providing information for people to make
decision, creating ‘salience’ as people tend to choose things they are familiar with, and by
creating associations or evoking thoughts, feelings, emotions and memories.
Davis (2002a:115) recommends five principles in communicating a brand’s

positioning. First is to use all communication strategies to help achieve the corporate
strategy and brand vision. Second, develop the communication strategy based on the brand
picture and brand positioning. Third, use integrated marketing communication strategy.
Fourth, execute the communications strategy across the organisation. Fifth, create internal
involvement, education and metrics. This means that the employees need to get involved
and be educated about the brand to prevent misunderstanding.
Fernandes’ stand with regard to brand communication is to get the widest

publicity to create awareness not only in the region but from all over the world. As such the
communication strategy of AirAsia is to go for impact such as its sponsorship of the two
global sports icons, namely, Manchester United and the Williams Formula 1 racing team.
As a result of the sponsorship of Manchester United, the name AirAsia is brought to the
homes of millions of viewers all over the world. Through this strategy, many people, without
44
Branding an Airline
being consciously aware of it, would now be familiar with the brand AirAsia when they
think of budget travel in Asia. Theoretically, many authors have written on this issue of low-
involvement processing (Heath, 2001; Krugman, 1965), whereby advertising can influence
people’s attitudes without them being able to consciously recall seeing the advertisement.
In addition, the association of AirAsia with the two globally renowned corporate brands
will also help to elevate its credibility and status.
Advertising in the print media and Internet is also widely used especially during
its sales campaigns on free or low cost seats. The best way to convince people is to allow the
brand experience to speak for itself. Another avenue for advertising is through its customer
database which it uses to develop loyal customers by providing them with privilege
information about new events and promotions.
It has often been said that the most important channel of advertising is through
company employees who are the most direct and foremost link between the brand and
the customers. Based on the interview with Fernandes, he agreed that mobilising the
organisation’s staffs behind the brand is the key to brand success. No matter how widespread
the communications, it is impossible to ensure a positive brand image if the people in the
organisation do not ‘walk the talk’. The idea is to maintain brand integrity across as many
touch points as possible, the telephone operator, check-in counter, flight announcer, flight
attendants, pilot as well as the people operating the brand extension points such as AirAsia
commuters, Tune hotels and tour guides.
Phase 4: Supporting a Brand Asset Management Culture
According to Fernandes, AirAsia’s brand objectives is considered a success based on the fact
that the company is able to maintain its competitive edge, in terms of airfares, number of
routes and destinations and the number of new large capacity aircraft. As mentioned earlier,
the company is undergoing tremendous expansion especially for long-haul budget travel
and budget hotels. The target date for the operations of long-haul destinations is September
2007 and over the next two years, it will jointly open 30 budget hotels in Southeast Asia
(The Star, 27 June 2007).
In terms of the return on financial arrangements and objectives, the company is

able to show a positive balance sheet within two years of operations. In the second quarter
of 2006, the company made a healthy profit of RM93.3 million (AirAsia, 2008).
Air Asia has successfully managed to develop a brand-based culture that is supported
and embraced by all levels of the organisation. Fernandes explains that the top management
dresses down as he believes that if managers wear a suit, they will put a distance between
themselves and the employees (AirAsia, 2008). Furthermore, everyone at Air Asia goes on
a first-name basis and Fernandes believes that instilling the Air Asia culture needs to come
deep down from the heart and not from memos or top-down directives (AirAsia, 2008).
According to Fernandes, ‘Once a month, I carry bags with the ramp boys, or I'm
cabin crew, or at the check-in. I do this to get close to the operation. I also want to know
my people’ (AirAsia, 2008). Air Asia also believes in developing human capital to motivate
employees further. A befitting example would be its Cadet Pilot programme which saw
11 out of 19 cadets in the pilot programme coming from within the company. In addition,
some of these ‘home-grown’ cadets got the highest marks ever in the flying academy. ‘There
was one kid who joined us to carry bags, and 18 months later he was a First Officer of a 737’
45
adds Fernandes (AirAsia, 2008). Over a short period of time since taking over Air Asia,
Fernandes has been able to instill a strong brand-based culture that is practised by the entire
organisation and is definitely the envy of other airlines.
CONCLUSION
This paper has discussed the branding process based on Davis’s Brand asset management.
As shown in the discussion above, a successful brand starts from a clear brand vision. The
brand vision is not the work of the marketing department alone but the involvement of all
strategic departments and top management to ensure internal consistency and congruency
between the brand vision and corporate vision and strategy.
Consistency is a key element in brand building because consumer perception is

based on the sum of impressions that consumer received from many sources. As O’Guinn
et al. (2000) mentioned that to build positive brand image, brands should be consistent
internally and over time. Based on the Brand Asset Management model, the paper shows
that the brand AirAsia has been developed in an innovative, focused and consistent manner:
1. Brand Vision – to be the leader in the low cost carrier category in the region by
offering the lowest airfare at a profit. This is reflected in its tagline “Now Everyone Can
Fly”.
2. Brand Picture – AirAsia has been able deliver its promise, to enable everyone to
fly. To date it has “carried over 23 million guests” (www.airasia.com, accessed on 24 June
2007).
3. Brand strategy – AirAsia positioned itself as the leader in its product category in Asia.
It demonstrates its capability to lead and innovate by investing in modern technologies, new
aircrafts, sponsorship of global brands and joint venture and strategic alliances to expand
its brand offerings. As a result, AirAsia is able to provide a wide network of routes and
destinations in the region as well as worldwide, convenient online booking and payment
facilities, innovative travel packages and budget hotels. Its use of online facilities for
reservations and payment of airfares is one of the most successful in the region. It is also
the first airline to introduce Short Messaging System (SMS) to book seats and obtain the
latest promotions through the mobile phones.
4. Return on Brand Investment – AirAsia has consistently recorded tremendous growth

in terms of its passenger load, command of market share and financial returns. As of 2007,
AirAsia commands 51% of the Malaysian domestic market share, 21% in Thailand and 6%
in Indonesia. Its passenger load for the first half of year 2007 is expected to exceed that of
the same period by 60% (www.airasia.com).
Several lessons can be learnt from here. First, have a relevant product which meets
the needs the consumer. Second, have a clear brand platform comprising brand vision and
values. Third, have a distinctive and consistent brand positioning based on a clear vision
and management support. Fourth, have the ability to provide superior products and services
through continuous investment in new technologies and skills. Fifth, have the ability to
deliver the brand promise which is to enable everyone to fly. Sixth, have the ability to
differentiate from the competitors through provision of innovative and relevant product
offerings.
46
Branding an Airline
REFERENCES
Aaker, D. (1998). Strategic Marketing Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
AirAsia. (2008). AirAsia.com. Retrieved 10 June, 2008, from http://www.airasia.com
Blackett, T. (2004). What is a brand. The Economist Series: Brands and Branding. New Jersey:
Bloomberg Press.
Davis, S. M. (2002a). Brand Asset Management: Driving Profitable Growths through Your Brands
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.
Davis, S. M. (2002b). Brand asset management: How businesses can profit from the power
of brand. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 19(4).
de Chernatony, L. (1996). Integrated brand building using brand taxonomies. Marketing

Intelligence & Planning, 14(7).
Deyes, R. A. (2008). Branding a key component for development of airlines. Emirates Business
24/7.
Feldwick, P. (2004). Brand communications. The Economist Series: Brands and Branding. New
Jersey: Bloomberg Press.
Fombrun, C. J. (1996). Reputation: Realising Value from the Corporate Image. Boston: Harvard
Business School Press.
Heath, R. (2001). Low involvement processing – A new model of brand communication.

Journal of Marketing Communications, 7(1).
Keller, K. (2002). Strategic Brand Management (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Krugman, H. E. (1965). The impact of television advertising: learning without involvement.

Public Opinion Quarterly, 29.
Noble, J. (2006). Branding: From a commercial perspective. Brand Management, 13(3).
O’Guinn, T. C., Allen, C. T., & Semenik, R. J. (2000). Advertising. Cincinnati: South-Western
College Publishing.
Temporal, P. (2000). Branding in Asia: The Creation, Development and Management of Asian
Brands for the Global Market. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.
47
48
Malaysia
Jurnal ’s Role in N
Pengajian Media DevelopmentJilid 11
ationalMalaysia

Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 49-58
Malaysia’s Role in National Development:

Media Policy and National Stability
AZIZAH HAMZAH
ABSTRACT
The role of the Malaysian media in shaping public opinions and perceptions about political, economic
and social issues has long been the subject of study, speculation, accusations and debate. This is an
area in media studies that may be problematic because it is an area where we are caught in between
neat Western theories of freedom and democratization and the realities and demands of the local geo-
political situation. With such a complex and colourful socio-political background, the journalistic
theories of the West are at times at odds with the nation’s media practices. This research attempts
to clarify the Malaysian media system and its role in shaping the perceptions and opinions of the
people. Alongside that, the advent of New Media and its impact and influence, on said opinions and
perceptions will be looked into in depth, with an aim to determine the direction that the Malaysian
Mass Media will be charting following this modern phenomenon.
Key words: media policy, national development, media roles, Malaysian press systems.
INTRODUCTION
The Ministry of Information in conjunction with the celebration of the World Development
Information Day has requested a presentation that would describe the role of the media
in national development. Media scholars and teachers would immediately register the
preference for the terms “role of media and national development” as the representative
model for the media system in Malaysia in accordance with the four theories of the Press,
the seminal work of Siebert, Peterson and Schramm in 1956. Maybe, observers and critics of
the Malaysian press would also see this choice of words as a defense mechanism against a
general but a number of opinions about the state of the media in Malaysia and the country’s
position in the various ranking systems by the international media watch groups.
Any newspaper reader in Malaysia would by now realize that Malaysians have
an obsession with knowing where they are in the international ranking systems, the most
recent being the world rankings in the higher education sector. The media world too has
a world class ranking system and in almost all, such as the Reporters without Borders and
The Freedom House, Malaysian media is considered not quite free.
49
ROLE OF THE MEDIA AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF AUTHORITY AND

NATIONAL ORDER
The role of the Malaysian media in shaping public opinions and perceptions about political,
economic and social issues has long been the subject of study, speculation, accusations and
debate. It is widely recognized that what we know, suspect, think and reflect about the
world around us is shaped by how events around the globe and at home are reported,
constructed in the newspapers and communicated through the medium of radio and
television.
This is an area in media studies that may be problematic because it is an area

where we are caught in between neat Western theories of freedom and democratization
and the realities and demands of the local geo-political situation. Media education in
Malaysian institutions of higher learning would be pursuing a curriculum that would
consist of the study of the global ethic of journalistic theories and ideology introduced by
Western scholars evolving from the ivory towers of European and American academia,
which are often laden with Western prescriptions of new journalism discussing theories,
models and paradigms that would sometimes be difficult for media educators in their
attempt to describe local realities to fit into the moulds of Western theories and concepts.
The relationship between the media and national politics and the media’s role in
the national agenda remains a crucial and popular subject for media research. Educators
would often try to teach students how to access, analyse and act on information urging
them to think critically about information.
WESTERN PRESS THEORIES AND MALAYSIAN PRESS SYSTEM
An academic study of the theory of the press would discuss the seminal work of the four
theories of the press developed by Western media scholars based on their philosophy and
their historical, political and cultural environments.
From such frameworks, media educators would then try to project such values
into their discussions of the various press systems in the Asian contexts. Ongoing studies
amongst postgraduate students in the Media Studies Department University of Malaya
would include research on the Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Chinese, Iranian, Nigerian,
Saudi, Oman, Yemen and Algerian press systems, media organizations and media
industries of those countries. Most of the time the central question is trying to define the
relationship between media and politics. Another area of concern is whether the media
system is free from government control or is it actually a servant of the state.
Needless to say our discussions, coming from such a diverse tower of Babel
often slips into discussions about how cultural traditions often tended to contradict the
Western concepts of media freedom and democracy. The relationship between media and
the role of media in national affairs forms a central research question in the Department.
Discussion almost always would touch on the role of the media as an instrument of policy
by the Government and how the media continues to shape and reshape opinions and
perceptions.
In Malaysia, the media system is an important agent of socio-political, economic

and cultural change in our society. We are aware that its power, influence and impact has
no limits and if wrongly managed may disrupt and destabilize our society. Therefore,
50
Malaysia’s Role in National Development
we in Malaysia must think hard and creatively about the role of media in bringing about
stability and pushing towards making Malaysia a developed, strong and prosperous
nation.
PAST LEGACIES
The question of the role of the media system, especially in the print and broadcast news
media dominated discussion at both national and international levels. Granted that the
Malaysian media is still within the state-owned and state-controlled domain but to think
that it is totally lacking in the efforts to strengthen our socio-cultural and ideological
foundations is not doing justice to the state. The Malaysian media has to a certain extent
assisted us to build confidence in the economy and faith in our values. The Malaysian
Cultural Policy emphasizes the importance of producing cultural contents that enhance
national identity, promote national integration and unity and maintain racial harmony.
The media’s role in building up pride in our history and our culture has generated respect
and stature amongst the international community and especially among the developing
countries.
With Independence in 1957 the Malaysian government seeks directions for ethnic
management and as an independent country the young Malaysian nation had to come to
terms on all aspects of inter-community relations as well as the commitment to nation-
building and in ensuring peaceful co-existence of the multiracial population.
There is an urgent need to form a consensus among the ethnic groups about the
character of the nation. There is also a need for consensus among all communities for the
spirit of give and take, sharing of power and empowering all ethnic and religious groups.
Thus much of our early history is about how our government and society seeks to
address and manage our diversity and we all are too well aware of the fact that managing
a society with different ethnic groups, religions and cultures is a demanding task.
Researchers have often referred to this management of the demanding political

situation in Malaysia as one that appears similar to the consociational model. Development
plans in Malaysia are often drawn up with a nagging and obsessive reminder of the
objectives of maintaining political stability and managing the divisive nature of the
heterogeneous society. It was pretty daunting and the subject of ethnic relations remained
as an obsession until this very minute.
Thus it may be concluded that throughout the 1990s and well into the millennium,
impressive progress has been charted and delivered in terms of the transformation of
the structure of the economy and the betterment of life of every Malaysian regardless of
ethnicity.
However, despite a promising start, it is noted that Malaysians are now exhibiting
signs of polarization along ethnic and religious lives. There are social movements triggering
a change in our thinking. This may be detected in the media, in the interaction between
our minds, transforming us all in what was referred by Castells (2000) as “mass self
communications.” Half of the world’s population is now connected through the wireless
communication, forming a mass self-communication.
51
MODELS IN THE MEDIA SYSTEMS
There are various ways to typify the roles of media. Scholars such as Currans (2000)
identified four types. The first type is represented by Russia, a system of media domination
by the economic elite who control private media and fund political candidates while the
second model is represented by countries such as South Korea, Taiwan and Malaysia
(Chan, 2002). In this model, the leading group is the political elite who have considerable
influence through the media. The third model in represented by the media system in some
Latin American countries while the fourth model belongs to the typical liberal corporatism
in contemporary Europe, especially Sweden and Britain. As mentioned earlier, the main
school of thought describes the four theories of the press to describe the media systems
in the West. More and more scholars (Merrill, Neuron, and Hachten) have problems in
trying to fit the Asian media systems into such moulds especially when Asia is undergoing
such tremendous change, especially in political and economic reforms. De Beer and Merrill
(2004) raised the importance of the family in the Asian ideology, quoting the former
Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew who attributed the success of countries like
Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia to the fact that the societies there have the “obedience
to authority, hard work, and family savings and education…” (Fukuyama, 1999).
One particular attempt introduced the concept of developmental journalism

where the media is seen as a prime mover in nation-building. The problem is that this
theory outed the government’s role in controlling the media by claiming that all is done
for the sake of nation-building. The international media watch group, The Freedom House
identified the Japanese and the Korean presses as two role models of the libertarian press
within the western concept of free and liberal press. Japan and Korea received very good
rankings and it is thought as that it represent proof of Asian nations reflecting the concepts
of Western democracy.
A South Korean PhD candidate in the Department is currently working on the

press systems of South Korea and Malaysia and this thesis is eagerly awaited mainly with
the intention of putting the Korean system through the magnifying glass. Does it really
reflect a Western-style democracy or does it exhibit what is speculated as a hybrid form,
a sort of a harmonization between the Western and Asian models. De Beer and Merrill
(2004) observed that Japan and South Korea may have the best trained journalists but they
“would rather choose to respect the government and big business…”
However Malaysia and Singapore are seen as countries that are not high scorers
in the global press freedom ranking. As a matter of fact the media systems in Singapore,
Brunei and Malaysia have been identified as the authoritarian presses in Asia. Means,
(1996), uses the term, Soft Authoritarianism. The Malaysian government has maintained
that Malaysia is a unique case due to its challenges as a nation with different ethnicities,
religions and languages. Former Prime Minister Tun Mahathir Mohamed described the
demanding nature of the Malaysian scenario is his book (2001:38):
Malaysia had been independent for 43 years – not a very long time for a
country. During that time we had managed to keep the country peaceful
despite the explosive mix of Malays, Chinese and Indians each professing
incompatible religions.
52
It is therefore not surprising that the former Prime Minister believes in the social role of
the media.
The Malaysian government had on many occasions recalled the need to respect
the Asian values and cultural traditions as well as the demands from the geo-political
realities of the nation, thus dismissing the labels given by the international media watch
groups.
According to the late Tan Sri A Samad Ismail, who was appointed as Guest Lecturer
in the Department of Media Studies from 1986-1989,
Adalah mudah sekali memperkatakan bahawa hanya akhbar yang bebas sahaja
yang berkemampuan menjadi akhbar yang berkesan. Soalnya, adakah akhbar
sahaja yang telah menjamin kestabilan dan kemakmuran yang kita nikmati
semenjak tahun 1957? Yang sebenarnya, yang menjadikan negara kita stabil
selama 32 tahun ini ialah intipati politik kita ataupun “watak kebangsaan” kita,
bukan akhbar bebas per se.
(It is easy to claim that only a free press would be able to become an
effective press. The question to ask here is whether only a free press would
be able to ensure stability and peace that we had enjoyed since 1957? The
truth of the matter is that our country had been stable for the last 32 years
due to our intrinsic political values, or our “national character”, not the
free press per se).
MALAYSIAN SOCIETY AND MEDIA SYSTEM IN TRANSFORMATION
Society is always undergoing a state of constant change. Therefore there is never a state of
a fixed relationship between any one social group and the mass media (Throwler, 1999). In
Malaysia too we witnessed the time when the country faces the onslaught of the waves of
globalization of the media and anxiously monitored the impacts on the audience and the
market-place. We saw the transformation of and the fluid nature of identity as well as the
social construction of meanings. Some may choose to see it as the world is getting smaller
and cultures are beginning to be homogenized while others rejoice in the plurality of forms.
Some feared for the people, especially the young who are exposed to huge bombardment
of foreign media content, images and politics.
The Government needs to think about these new kinds of transformations, maybe
by reinventing a new kind of politics to deal with new challenges in all its complexity.
Another form of transformation in the Malaysian context is the rapid development

of communication technology which supports the development of the mass media. From
an earlier role of providing news, media is now an educational tool, strengthening the needs
of an information and knowledge society. In the universities, the media contribute to the
transformation of society to advance stages of knowledge and scholarship. We just need to
continuously remind ourselves that in order for the media to continue to contribute to the
development of the Malaysian society, and the transformation to an Infocomm society, the
media must remain true to the spirit of the freedom of the press, free-flow of information
and pro-social content and freedom to access and acquire information in order to create
and disseminate knowledge.
53
WHAT IS IN THE FUTURE?
After WWII, television became a powerful new media and broadcast television became a
powerful political apparatus, used to garner support and deliver the votes. Today, Malaysia
has again entered a new and important era, the introduction of the Internet which is more
transformative than earlier forms of broadcast journalism. We heard so much about media
convergence and the fact that the Internet, satellite television, transmission to cell phones,
MP3 players and email brings so many capabilities to media that has never been seen
before.
It is able to capture individual viewers, bringing interaction and instant feedback

from the audience, an important subject of this Forum too. This thus presents a challenge
to the media industry. Google, as an example, sold more than USD6 billion advertisements
and in 2007, Goggle’s advertising revenues is estimated at USD11.8 billion.
Therefore the new media has the ability to displace the old status quo through its
avenues of open communication, just like Castell’s mass self-communication amongst the
people, empowering them with the ability to be outside the control of the power centre or
dominant ideology, or the elite owners of the media.
CONCLUSION
For the first time, the Barisan Nasional (National Coalition) lost two-thirds parliamentary
majority and the control of five state assemblies. Despite this loss and the recession
that is believed to hit all of us, Malaysia’s economic prospects remain healthy. Since
Independence, Malaysia has achieved a number of national development goals as well as
the Millennium Development Goals set by UN.
Today, Malaysia’s development is still guided by the Vision 2020. Our Prime
Minister has added on new growth corridors, the NCER, IDR and ECER to the MSC.
Alongside all these blueprints, the Malaysian media too play a leading role in
building the Infocomm society. The Malaysian conventional print, audio and visual media
play a crucial role in developing the transmission of data and information to the Malaysian
public.
But change, transition, transformation and shifts in the status quo appear to be
words that stay on in our minds and the government knows that Website servers move
and shift about all over the globe. The power centre should then think about how the
new media and civic journalism is taking a firm grip in the urban centres and might be
eventually powerful enough to capture the imaginations of the masses.
More and more choices in the information landscape are offered to the masses. What then
should the government agencies do to ensure a continuing presence and acceptability in
the landscape? To remain in terms of engagement with the masses, the government should
be mindful of at least the following current demands:
i. Provision of real-time information on demand, from anywhere and any time.
ii. The Internet provides open content and open communication, transparency.
54
iii. To reach and focus on the individual at any time at any place.
iv. Be the first to provide real–time and latest deadlines, old news are dead news!
But at the same time too, the two well-known international media watch groups
that provide ranking of media freedom has consistently regarded Malaysia as an offender
of press freedom as shown in the following tables:
Freedom of Press World Ranking
Free 74
Partly Free 58
Not Free 63
Total: 195
Malaysia : 150 out of 195
The Freedom House, 2007
Reporters without Borders for Press Freedom, 2006

169 Countries
Malaysia: 92
Singapore: 168
Reporters without Borders, 2006
So, coming back to an earlier point of the hybrid nature of the Malaysian profile
and as a final reminder to all I would like to present an international ranking that may
show the dichotomous nature of development of the Malaysian media and the socio-
politico-economic scenario.
KOF Index of Globalization 2007
1. Belgium
16. Singapore
23. Malaysia
59. Thailand
78. Indonesia
KOF Economic Globalization Index 2007
1. Luxembourg
2. Singapore
35. Malaysia
66. Thailand
55
80. Albania
KOF Political Globalization Index 2007
1. France
27. Malaysia
37. Indonesia
49. Thailand
76. Singapore
KOF Social Globalization Index 2007
1. Austria
2. Singapore
36. Malaysia
78. Thailand
96. Indonesia
122. Myanmar
* The KOF Index of Globalization was introduced in 2002 and was created by
Konjunkturforschungsstelle der ETH Zürich ETH Zentrum WEH. It measures economic,
social, and political dimensions of globalization providing free access to country rankings
and data on economic flows, economic restrictions, personal contact, information and idea
flows. The three dimensions above are indicators for:
i. Economic globalization, characterized by long distance flows of goods, capital

and services, information and perceptions that accompany market exchanges.
ii. Political globalization, showing the diffusion of government policies.
iii. Social globalization, indicating the flow of ideas, information, images and
people.
This paper has attempted to show the interplay between media, social, political, cultural
and economic structures in the local Malaysian flavour. There are winners and there are
losers. Malaysian history is replete with legacies of the past and Malaysian mass media
policy makers and opinion formers need to make enlightened responses to the new
demands.
56
REFERENCES
Abdul Samad Ismail. (1989) Siri Kuliah, Jabatan Pengajian Media, Fakulti Sastera & Sains
Sosial, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Castells, M. (2000). The Information Age, Economy, Society and Culture, Volume 1 – The Rise of
the Network Society, London: Blackwell Publishing.
Chan, J. M. (2000). No Culture is an Island In Wang, G, Servaes,J & Goonasekara, A. (eds).

The New Communications Landscape Demystifying Media Globalisation. Routledge: London
and New York
Currans, J and Gurevich. (1991). Mass Media and Society. London: Edward Arnold.
Fukuyama, F. (1999). The Great Disruption. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Hachten, W. A. (1999). The World News Prism: Changing Media of International Communication.
Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Konjunkturforschungsstelle der ETH Zürich ETH Zentrum WEH.
Mahathir Mohamad. (2001). Islam and the Muslim Ummah, Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk
Publications.
Means, G. P. (1996). Soft authoritarianism in Malaysia & Singapore, Journal of Democracy

Vol 7, No 4, October.
De beer, A. S., Merril, J. C. (2004). Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems, Pearson
Education.
Nerone, J. C. (1995). Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press. Urbana and Chicago, Il:
University of Illinois Press.
Reporters without Borders, Reporters sans Frontieres- International Website:http://www.

rsf.fr
Siebert, F. S., T. Peterson & Schramm, W. (1956). Four Theories of the Press. Urbana, Il:
University of Illinois Press.
The Freedom House, The Freedom of the Press Survey. 2007.
Throwler, P. (1996). Investigating Mass Media. London: Collins International.
57
58
Jurnal Pengajian Media
Regulator and Malaysia Jilid 11
Enforcement
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 59-72
R egulator and E nforcement : A C ase S tudy on

Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission
(MCMC) Comparatively with FCC, IDA, OFCOM
and Other Regulators
HASMAH ZANUDDIN
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates regulators and its enforcement powers, practices and procedures within
Malaysian communication systems. It aims to specifically draw comparisons and evaluate said
practices and procedures implemented by the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia
Commission (MCMC) to that of those carried out by FCC, IDA, OFCOM and other relevant
regulators.
Key words: regulator, telecommunication regulations, enforcement practices, enforcement

procedures, MCMC, FCC, IDA, OFCOM.
ENFORCEMENT
One of the main attributes of effective regulation is the power to enforce compliance
with sector policy, laws and regulatory decisions, including dispute resolution decisions.
Today, very few regulators do not have enforcement power.1 The differences in market
and regulatory maturity, as well as legal and judicial practices, affect the enforcement
practices and procedures of individual countries. However, it is generally agreed that an
effective enforcement system is essential in any economy in order to give effect to those
rules necessary for maintaining order in the sector, maintaining and facilitating stability,
growth and development of the sector, deterring wrongdoing, protecting consumers, and
maximizing social and corporate welfare (Domestic Enforcement of Telecommunication
Laws, 2005:4). In summary, an effective enforcement system should be (Lima Declaration,
2005):
i. Fast - enforcement decisions must be made quickly, decisively, and clearly to

reduce uncertainty in the market and deter future violations;
ii. Firm - penalties must be severe enough to deter violations;
iii. Fair - the enforcement system should be perceived as fair and transparent, and
decisions for enforcement action must be based on objective facts and evidence
and made publicly available; and
59
iv. Flexible – the regulator should have other means aside from formal litigation
or regulatory adjudication, such as alternative dispute resolution, to resolve
complaints and disputes, as well as a wide variety of enforcement tools to ensure
that the severity of the punishment matches the severity of the violation.
Additionally, in order for the regulator to enforce its rules effectively, an

enforcement regime should include the following minimum attributes (Lima Declaration,
2005):
i. Adequate resources for carrying out enforcement activities;
ii. An efficient mechanism for dealing with complaints of non-compliance with

rules and regulations;
iii. A regulator with the authority to conduct investigations and enforce laws,
rules, regulations, and decisions;
iv. Transparent procedures for investigations, judgment criteria, sanctions and

appeals, as well as options for dispute resolution; and
v. An appeal mechanism to appeal a decision to a higher level, whether within the

regulatory body or to the court system.
ENFORCEMENT PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES
Numerous regulators have developed detailed procedures to facilitate and verify

compliance of the telecommunications legal framework. Such procedures are generally
based on the powers given to regulators under their respective telecommunications
laws and related implementing regulations.2 Other regulators, such as the Tanzania
Communications Regulatory Authority have included provisions in the licence specifying
the power of the regulator to investigate breaches of the terms of the licence or violation
of national laws.3 Clear and published enforcement procedures are needed to ensure
transparency and accountability, for example, that sanctions are issued after adequate
investigation, and that the accused party is provided with proper notice of the alleged
violation and an opportunity for defense. Transparency also facilitates and encourages
voluntary compliance with rules and regulations, minimizing the need for intervention
by the regulator and reducing regulatory costs for the government and industry players
(APEC Tele communications and Information Working Group, 2005:4-5).
ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES
To fully exercise their enforcement powers, regulators first must have the necessary
organizational infrastructure and resources to support their activities. Enforcement
activities require the regulator to have:
i. A sufficient number of skilled staff responsible for monitoring compliance and

conducting investigations;
ii. Adequate technical capacity such as spectrum management and radio

monitoring systems; and
60
Regulator and Enforcement
iii. The necessary funds. Regulators often devote a significant amount of their
financial resources to support enforcement activities.
For example, Anatel in Brazil, spends almost half of its financial and human
resources on monitoring and enforcement activities (ITU, 2002:46). In the United States,
approximately 20 per cent of the FCC’s staff works on enforcement issues (Domestic
Enforcement of Telecommunication Law, ITU, 2005:43). In Lithuania, in 2003, approximately
56 out of the 135 employees at the Communications Regulatory Authority (CRA) staff
were involved in enforcement work (Lithuania Contribution, 2003:2). For new regulators,
the resources required for enforcement purposes are sometimes underestimated and
require modification. In Uganda, for example, only one person was initially responsible
for enforcement. Between 2002 and 2004, the regulator installed a spectrum management
system for monitoring spectrum usage and hired engineers and other trained professionals
to supplement its staff in undertaking enforcement activities (Uganda Contribution, ITU,
2002).
Regulators, however, must not only have sufficient staff for enforcement, they also
need staff with the proper authority and training to perform monitoring and enforcement
duties, such as conducting inspections, searches and seizures, inquiries, and requesting
the cooperation of police or judicial authorities as necessary. Many regulators have given
broad powers to their officers allowing them to perform their enforcement functions
appropriately. In Jordan, employees of the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission
(TRC) are empowered under Articles 62 to 64 of the Telecommunications Act to act as
“judicial police officers” when authorized to conduct searches and seizure of any unlicensed
or illegal telecommunications equipment (Jordan Telecommunication Law, 1995:62-64).
In Singapore, the Telecommunications Act grants the Infocomm Development Authority
(IDA) and its officers the power to require information, have full and free access to all
buildings and documents and to inspect, copy and take possession of such documents
or equipment, to arrest and search without warrant in respect of certain offenses, and to
compound offenses. Furthermore, any person who obstructs IDA officers in the execution
of their duties is guilty of an offense (Singapore Telecommunication Law, 1999).
However, due to the intrusiveness of these investigatory powers, in some countries

regulatory officials must sometimes obtain judicial warrants before exercising their
search and seizure powers. In Jordan, TRC officers must obtain a warrant from the Public
Prosecutor before entering private residence (Jordan Telecommunication Law, 1995). In
Lithuania, the Communications Regulatory Authority inspectors must obtain a warrant
from the Vilnius Regional Administrative Court before inspecting a vehicle, premises
or territory (Contribution by Lithuania, ITU 2003:2). In Nigeria, officials and inspectors
authorized by the NCC must obtain a warrant from a magistrate or judge before seizing,
detaining or sealing off any building or premises when carrying out an investigation
(Nigerian Communication Act, 2003 (2004).
ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE
Enforcement procedures generally include the following stages: (i) initiating enforcement
procedures and investigations; (ii) providing notice of the alleged violation; (ii) providing
an opportunity to respond; (iii) issuing interim decisions or orders; (iv) imposing sanctions;
and (v) providing opportunity for appeals.
61
Initiating the process
There are several ways that a regulator can become aware of an alleged breach or violation of
laws and regulations – regulator initiated investigations, consumer complaints, or operator
complaints. A regulator-initiated investigation can be started by the regulator for various
reasons. For example, routine inspection of licensees’ premises may reveal a violation, or a
violation can be identified when objections are filed to license applications. Some licensees
also may voluntarily report their violations (i.e., as part of industry self-regulation). In
many countries, regulators have the authority to inspect facilities and equipment, and to
request the submission of specific information or documentation to ensure compliance
with legislation and license conditions. In the United States, for example, the FCC can
request information directly from a licensee through a letter of inquiry or through a legal
order, or court-issued subpoena.4 Many regulators also have fixed and/or mobile spectrum
monitoring systems to monitor and enforce compliance with spectrum usage and non-
interference requirements. In Hong Kong (SAR), OFTA also proactively gathers market
information through monitoring media reports, advertisements, and sales literatures
(Hong Kong, OFTA, 2002).
A second mechanism for regulators to become aware of a possible violation is

through the receipt of consumer complaints, usually submitted as “informal complaints”
via telephone calls, letters or e-mails in order to allow for ease and simplicity in the filing
of consumer complaints. In Brazil, consumers can submit complaints directly to Anatel,
but also have the option of submitting complaints via Anatel’s toll-free call centers5.
Although in many fully liberalized telecommunications markets the operators are given
primary responsibility for addressing consumer complaints,6 almost all regulators have
some vehicle for consumer complaints, allowing consumers another avenue of redress for
complaints that are not resolved directly with the operators. Furthermore, operators are
less likely to ignore a consumer complaint knowing that the regulator also may pursue the
matter on its own motion. The level of complaints received against a particular operator
or service provider also provides the regulator with a good indication on whether to
undertake enforcement action.
In addition to consumer complaints, operators and service providers often file

complaints with the regulator seeking enforcement action. These complaints often take
the form of “formal complaints” and are similar to a lawsuit in the information it requires
and in the fact that complainants can also pursue individual relief. Typically, a formal
complaint is submitted in writing, and requires, in addition to the name, contact details
of the complaining party and allegations of the violation, that the complaining party cite
the specific provisions of the law or regulation that is contravened, provide supporting
evidence of the allegations made, and submit a signed statement that the facts alleged are
true and whether any steps were taken to address the complaint with the party against
whom enforcement is sought. See example of the submission requirements for the IDA in
Box 1. Some regulators, such as the FCC in the United States, also may charge a filing fee
for formal complaints (FCC: Complaint Filing Regulation, retrieved from: http://esupport.
fcc.gov/complaints.htm).
62
Box 1: Submission of a Written Request for Enforcement

Action with the IDA
In Singapore, any party that requests the IDA to take enforcement action must submit a
Request for Enforcement in writing, citing the specific provisions of the Code of Practice for
Competition in the Provision of Telecommunication Services 2005 (Telecom Competition
Code) that have been contravened, and attaching any relevant supporting documents
to prove the allegations made. The Request for Enforcement must also include a signed
statement that:
i. The requesting party has used reasonable diligence in collecting the facts;
ii. The facts alleged are true to the best of the requesting party’s knowledge;
iii. The requesting party believes in good faith that the facts alleged, if proven, would
constitute a contravention of the provisions of the Telecom Competition Code;
iv. Describes the manner in which the requesting party has been harmed, or is likely to be
harmed by the alleged contravention; and
v. The requesting party has made an effort in good faith to resolve the underlying dispute
through direct negotiations with the licensee against whom enforcement action is being
sought.
Source: Code of Practice for Competition in the Provision of Telecommunication Services

2005, Section 11.4.1.1
To encourage the timely filing of complaints, some regulators have included a

statute of limitations within which a complaint can be brought requesting enforcement
action. For example, in Singapore, the IDA will not initiate any enforcement action if more
than two years have lapsed since the date of occurrence of the action that constitutes the
alleged offense (Singapore Code of Practice, 2005). In France, the Telecommunications Act
of 1996 mandates that “matters dating back more than three years may not be referred
to the telecommunications regulatory authority if no action has been taken in view of an
inquiry, verification or penalty (France Telecommunication Act, 1996).
Due process consideration
The enforcement procedure generally provides for a certain degree of due process before
sanctions are issued. The regulator usually provides notice of the alleged violation after
it receives a complaint or before it undertakes an investigation on its own motion and
allows an adequate time period for a party to provide a response or defense. Generally,
the notice of alleged violation notifies the parties that a complaint has been filed, specifies
the provisions of legislation that have allegedly been breached, and provides details of the
regulator’s intended actions. Notices may also contain instructions on how the respondent
may remedy the situation or provide instructions on how it may present its defense. In
the event that an enforcement action is pursuant to a complaint, a copy of the complaint
submitted to the regulator is usually sent to the respondent.
Typically, respondents are given an opportunity to file a response to the allegations

in the complaint, and regulators consider the response before making a final determination
on sanctions. For example, the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission
(MCMC) will not make a finding adverse to a complainant or respondent in an investigation
unless the parties are given a minimum of 30 days to make submissions in their defense
(MCMC Act, 1998). In Brazil, ANATEL gives the respondent 15 days to present its defense.
In the United Kingdom, OFCOM will inform the complainant within 15 days whether it
63
intends to open an investigation into the complaint, and the respondent is allowed 10 days
to respond to OFCOM’s notice of investigation (OFCOM, 2004).
Timeliness in enforcement is critical to the promotion of competition and to maintain

the credibility of the regulator. Some regulators, such as OFCOM in the United Kingdom,
have additional authority under the telecommunications legislation to act urgently when
necessary to resolve the complaint. Where OFCOM considers a violation as urgent, it may
specify that any action taken by the alleged offender be taken sooner than would otherwise
be the case. Generally, a case is regarded as urgent when the contravention has resulted in,
or creates an immediate risk of: (i) serious threat to public safety, public health or national
security; (ii) serious economic or operational problems for communications providers or
providers of associated facilities; or (iii) serious economic or operational problems for users
of electronic communications networks, electronic communications services or associated
facilities (UK- Communication Act, 2003). Figure 1 illustrates a summary of enforcement
procedures and timelines for some countries.
Figure 1: Enforcement procedures and timelines
Country Notice Provided to Offender’s Defense/ Final Decision Publication of Final

Offender Response Decision
Brazil yes 15 days 30 days from yes

conclusion of
investigation
Malaysia yes 30 days minimum not specified yes, if Minister

decides it is in the
national interest
Singapore yes 15 days 60 days yes
4 months for yes

United Kingdom yes 10 days disputes, 6-12
months for
complaints
Source: Telecommunications Management Group, Inc.
Interim measures
During the course of conducting investigations, some regulators including the FCC in
the United States, the IDA in Singapore, and Ofcom in the United Kingdom also have
authority to impose interim measures to protect the public interest and prevent any serious
or immediate harm that may result from the alleged violation. For example, the IDA has
authority under the Telecom Competition Code to issue an interim cease and desist order
at any time during an enforcement proceeding if it concludes that: (i) there is prima facie
evidence if a contravention; (ii) continuation of the contravention is likely to cause serious
harm to other licensees, end users or the general public; (iii) the potential anticompetitive
harm from allowing the licensee to continue its conduct outweighs the burden on the
licensee; or (iv) issuance of the order is in the public interest.
64
Sanctions
Regulators should have a variety of sanctioning tools to enforce compliance, and to ensure
that the severity of the sanction matches the severity of the violation. When determining
the appropriate sanction to impose, regulators should consider aggravating and mitigating
factors such as the severity of the violation, the resulting harm to users and service provision,
the benefits that the offender derived from the violation, prior violations, repetition of
violations, early admission of the violation, cooperation or refusal to cooperate with the
investigation, and the economic and financial situation of the offender.
Almost all regulators impose monetary sanctions, or fines. Most regulators have
a specific schedule of fines, while other regulators in Peru, Poland, Portugal, and Turkey
levy fines based on a percentage of the offending party’s revenues Telecommunication
Development Bureau, 2005). The variety of sanctions available to a regulator may be
constrained by the limits on the regulator’s authority, in particular with regard to the ability
to issue penal (criminal) sanctions. In some countries such as Burkina Faso (Burkina Faso,
ITU, 2005), Egypt (Eygpt, Telecommunication Regulation Law, 2003), Hong Kong (SAR)
(Hong Kong, Telecommunication Ordinance, 2000), India (ITU World Communication
Regulatory Database, 2005), Jordan (Jordan, Telecommunication Law, 1995), Malaysia
(MCMC Act, 1998), and the United States (US Enforcement of Telecommunication Laws &
Regulation, ITU, 2002), the telecommunications legislation allows for criminal sanctions,
and the regulators have the authority to impose prison sentences or refer violations for
criminal prosecution to the courts or the proper authorities. Other sanctions used for
enforcement include issuance of warnings, remedial orders or specific directions to do or
refrain from doing specific activities, public apologies, seizure of illegal equipment, and
suspension or revocation of licenses.
Appeals
To ensure that an enforcement system is fair, parties affected by a dispute resolution or

enforcement decision should be able to seek an appeal of the initial decision to a higher
level, even after the sanction has been issued. Appeals can be filed within the regulatory
body to the next level in the hierarchy, or to outside bodies such as courts or an appropriate
Ministry. In Singapore, parties appealing an IDA decision have 14 days to request the
IDA to reconsider its decision or direction, or appeal to the Minister within 14 days of the
IDA’s decision on reconsideration (Singapore, 2005). Some regulators, such as the MCMC
in Malaysia, also may require parties to first exhaust all other remedies available with the
regulator before seeking judicial review (MCMC Act, 1998). An ITU survey on the right of
appeal has identified that in a majority of countries (127 countries out of 165 surveyed),
parties have the right to appeal regulatory decisions (ITU World Telecommunication
Regulatory Database, 2005).
The appeal procedure, however, should not be so extensive as to diminish the

effectiveness of the enforcement decision. To this effect, many countries prohibit the parties
from raising new arguments during an appeal process. New Zealand, for example, limits
appeals of the regulator’s decisions to questions of law (New Zealand Telecommunication
Act, 2001). Generally, appeals procedures do not impede the sanction entering into effect,
although in many countries whether an enforcement or dispute decision is stayed or
remains in force depends on the particular case.
65
INDUSTRY SELF-REGULATION
As a complement to an enforcement regime, some regulators are encouraging industry

self-regulation by requiring the use of alternative dispute resolution to resolve disputes,
as discussed in above. Some regulators, particularly in more liberalized and competitive
economies, are also engaging in more light-handed regulation and encouraging voluntary
compliance with industry codes and standards to minimize the need for regulatory
intervention (Telecommunication Development Bureau, 2005). For example, in Malaysia,
the MCMC is expressly required under the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia
Commission Act to promote and encourage industry self-regulation. The MCMC has acted
accordingly by establishing industry self-regulatory bodies, such as the Consumer Forum,
Content Forum and Technical Standards Forum, composed of industry and consumer
representatives working together to produce voluntary industry codes (MCMC Act, 1998).
Such voluntary compliance frameworks are not substitutes for regulatory enforcement,
as the regulator still may be required to intervene and enforce compliance where parties
fail to comply with voluntary rules and where the interests of consumers and competition
in the sector are adversely affected (APEC Telecommunication and Information Working
Group, 2005).
Another aspect of industry self-regulation is the encouragement of self-reporting

by operators of possible infractions of telecommunications law and regulations. Self-
reporting can be induced by lowering the sanctions for parties that disclose their own
infractions. For example, in Hong Kong (SAR), OFTA considers early admission of the
breach a mitigating factor in determining sanctions (OFTA, 2002). Similarly, in the United
States and in Singapore, the FCC and the IDA encourage parties to voluntarily disclose any
violations, and the regulators may consider such voluntary disclosure when determining
the appropriate enforcement action (Singapore, Code of Practice, 2005).
ENFORCEMENT OF DISPUTE RESOLUTION DECISIONS
The enforcement procedure described in the above section is focused on the regulator’s
authority to enforce its own “official” decisions and the national telecommunications laws.
However, as described above, parties also rely on alternative “non-official” approaches
to resolve disputes, such as arbitration and mediation, which may or may not involve
the regulator’s participation. All dispute resolution processes require some level of
enforcement support from the official sector, whether from the regulator or from the courts
(World Bank / ITU, 2005). Consensual processes such as mediation and negotiation rely
upon courts to enforce settlement agreements.
Decisions resulting from regulatory adjudication rely upon the enforcement power
of the regulator, and sometimes the courts as well, depending on how enforcement powers
have been allocated, and which entity has the ultimate authority to overturn the regulator’s
decision. Many countries’ telecommunications laws give regulators authority to enforce
regulatory decisions resolving disputes. In addition, regulators may use their enforcement
powers as an alternative to ordinary civil enforcement mechanisms, such as courts and
police systems, to support less official dispute resolution initiatives, such as performing
functions similar to a court in arbitration cases (World Bank / ITU, 2005). Generally, after
parties have started court proceedings and reached a negotiated settlement agreement, the
court will stamp the agreement, giving it the force of a court order. Regulators can perform
a similar role by giving voluntary settlement agreements the force of a regulatory order,
making the regulator’s enforcement powers available to ensure the implementation and
compliance with the agreement (World Bank / ITU, 2005).
66
ENDNOTES
1. According to the survey on enforcement on licensees in the ITU World Telecommunication

Regulatory Database 2005, the telecommunications regulators in Colombia and Suriname
indicated that they do not have any enforcement power. The Colombian regulator, the
Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos, enforces compliance by local and long-distance
public telephony operators, and the Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio enforces
compliance by mobile operators and Internet service providers. Although the Colombian
regulator does not have enforcement power, it does have the authority to require
information from licensees, and can impose fines for non-compliance with such order.
2. For example, the Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) (2005) has authority
under the Uganda Communications Act, licence provisions and UCC regulations to receive,
investigate and act on complaints, and to impose fines for violations. The UCC has the
power to appoint inspectors to verify compliance with the Uganda Communications Act,
and to criminally prosecute offenses pursuant to permission from the Uganda Director of
Public Prosecutions. In the United States, the Communications Act of 1934 (amended by
Telecom Act of 1996), as amended, gives the FCC broad authority to conduct investigations
and take enforcement action. Domestic Enforcement of Telecommunications Laws:
Guidelines for the International Community – Report on ITU-D Question 18/1, Section I,
(2005) 22 September.
3. The Tanzania Communications Regulatory Authority (2002) may initiate investigations

where the licensee fails to comply with installation and service requirements, fails to
provide information to the TCRA or when there has been a partial or total interruption
of services for a continuous period of time. See Four Steps to Enforcement, Contribution
From Tanzania to ITU-D, Question 18/1, (2002) 19 September.
4. See Enforcement of Telecom Laws and Regulation in the United States, contribution
from the United States to ITU-D Question 18/1, (2002) 30 August: 9-10. A letter of inquiry
can be used to initiate an investigation into a matter or to determine whether to continue
a proceeding beyond the preliminary stage of investigation or to gather more information
during an ongoing investigation. The recipient of a letter of inquiry is given a specific time
period in which to respond. Under 18 U.S.C. Section 1001, a person who makes a knowing
and willful misrepresentation or omission in response to a letter of inquiry is subject to
possible criminal penalties. Subpoenas require the recipient to release all information related
to a particular matter under investigation. The FCC uses the information obtained through
a subpoena as basis for further enforcement action or referral to the U.S. Department of
Justice for criminal prosecution.
5. Undertaking monitoring and enforcement activities are costly to the regulator,

and recently on 26 August 2005, Anatel had to close its call centers temporarily while
waiting for additional funds to maintain operation of the centers. The call centers, which
provided 24 hour service, were reopened on September 6, 2005 with diminished hours of
operation, operating only between 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. from Monday to Saturday. Central de
Atendimento da Anatel volta a funcionar, Anatel press release, 6 September 2005, retrieved
from: http://ww.anatel.gov.br.
6. In Hong Kong (SAR), OFTA does not have statutory responsibility for consumer
67
protection since it relies wherever possible on market forces and competition to safeguard
consumer interests in a fully liberalized and competitive market. However, OFTA will
receive consumer complaints when consumers cannot resolve problems with operators or
are not satisfied with the solutions proposed by operators, investigate into a complaint and
take regulatory action if there is sufficient evidence to establish a prima facie case of breach
of the provisions in the Telecommunications Ordinance. See Know More About how OFTA
Handles your Complaint against a Telecommunications Operator, OFTA, retrieved from:
http://www.ofta.gov.hk/en/enq_help/complaints.html.
68
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72
Perception
Jurnal U.S. Media Influences
of Pengajian on Self and O
Media Malaysia Jilid
thers11
Among Malaysian Youth
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 73-82
Perception of U.S. Media Influences on

Self and Others Among Malaysian Youth
EZHAR TAMAM
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the third-person perception effect of mediated U.S. culture and violence
on self and others among Malaysian youth. A total of 425 university students participated in the
survey. As expected, most respondents believed that the U.S media have negative effects on people
in Malaysia and that others are more heavily influenced than the respondents themselves. The
third-perception effect of U.S. media was not influenced by respondents’ level of exposure to U.S.
media. The third-person perception effect of mediated U.S. culture seemed to be more pronounced
among Muslim than non-Muslims. However, no differences emerged between the Muslim and non-
Muslim on perception of third-person effect of mediated U.S. violence. Overall, the findings support
the conclusion that the third-person effect hypothesis observed in studies in the west can be applied
to perceptions of U.S. media influence abroad.
Key words: U.S. culture, U.S. media influences, Malaysian youth
INTRODUCTION
Davison’s (1983) third-person effect hypothesis states that people attribute greater media
effects to others rather than to themselves. This hypothesis has been tested and supported
in the west. The present analysis attempts to validate the third-person effect hypothesis
beyond what has been observed in studies in the west by examining how young Malaysian
perceived the impact of United States media on themselves and others. Perception of impact
of western media on non-western audience is an important issue because the perception
has an influence on audience opinion and attitude regarding the foreign (western) country
and culture (Chapin, 2008).
Much attention has been given on the media effect. Emmers-Sommer and Allen
(1999), based on their meta-analysis of media effect studies, reaffirmed the claim that
mass media are a significant source of learning and can influence attitude and behaviour.
The media effect issue is even more pertinent in the context of trans-cultural media
consumption and cultural imperialism debate. Cultural Imperialism Theory asserts
that foreign media products can inflict deleterious effects on indigenous culture, and the
73
negative elements from the foreign products challenge or undermine traditional values
and beliefs of individuals. Proponents of this theory (see e.g., Hamelink, 1983; Schiller,
1991) contend that the one-way flow of Western cultural products and the supposedly
undesirable, foreign values embodied in those products often challenge or undermine
traditional cultural and ideological beliefs in non-Western communities.
The growing influx of western media programs in non-western countries has raised
the issue of trans-cultural impact of media system (Shigeru, 1998; Park, 2005). In Malaysia,
the government has set a broadcasting policy of targeting a certain minimum percentage
of local contents in media programs. While the government has established guidelines for
media organizations to follow, in practice much improvement need to be made. American
programs still dominate Malaysian television programming. The concern on the negative
effect of western programs to the society, perceive or real, is continuously debated. The
contention is most of the western movies promote lifestyle, values, morals and belief
system that are truly foreign; the news programs are based on the western conception
of truth, freedom and democracy which may not resonate with the Malaysian cultural
values, and the music videos are based on changing western taste devoid of spiritual
values (Mohd Yusof Hussain, 2006). Those who are concern of the negative influence of
western programs, logically, would refrain themselves and their families from exposure
to such programs. Some, on the contrary, would view that exposure to western programs
is source of learning about foreign cultures and help broaden audience outlook and world
view.
In trans-cultural media systems, Park (2005), for instance, found that perception of
foreign culture was more strongly affected by media use. Media effect studies conducted
in the west found support for the third-perception hypothesis which postulated that
perception of the negative effect media has been attributed more to others than self (Duck,
Hogg & Terry, 2000; Paul, Salwen & Dupagne, 2000). Studies that specifically examined
the impact of foreign media programs particularly U.S. entertainment and news programs
on non-western audience, however, are not many and the findings were mixed (see e.g.,
Elasmar & Hunter, 1997; Lee, 1998; Willnat, Takeshita & Lopez-Escobar, 2002).

Malaysia offers an ideal place to test perceptions of U.S. media effects because of
its cultural diversity (60% Malay, 30% Chinese, and 10% Indians) and its close economic
ties to the United States—both of which left it relatively open to the importation of U.S.
media products such as television series, movies and music. More importantly, Malaysia
is different from the United States in terms of culture. Malaysia is generally described as
collectivistic country, while the United States is individualistic country (Abdullah, 2001;
Bochner, 1994; Tamam, Hassan, & Yadi, 1997). As a moderate and predominantly Muslim
country, Malaysia is also considered a close political ally of the United States a fact that
has increased in importance because of the growing rift between Muslim and Western
nations. While Malaysia is a multi-religious society, Islam is the country’s official religion
and is practiced by more than 60 percent of the populations. Other dominant religions are
Buddhism (19%), Christianity (9%) and Hinduism (6%). Thus, the unique mix of ethnicity
and religion in Malaysia, which juxtaposes more traditional values and beliefs with modern
influences that come through close economic and political ties with the United States and
other Western nations, make Malaysia a unique testing ground for perceptions of U.S.
media effects. Accordingly, this study investigates how young audiences in Malaysia
evaluate the effects of the U.S. media on themselves and others.
74
Perception of U.S. Media Influences on Self and Others
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
This study is based on the argument that the widespread perceptions of negative effects
that might result from exposure to the U.S. media and the argument that people attribute
greater negative effect of media on others than on themselves as explained by Davison’s
(1983) third-person hypothesis (Cohen & Davis., 1991; Gunther, 1991; Perloff, 1999). While
the third-person effect has been documented in a large number of studies with a variety
of messages and in different cultural settings (see: Paul, Salwen & Dupagne, 2000, Perloff,
1999; Peiser & Peter, 2000), it has not been studied locally.
Based on the assumption that the (perceived) dominant message of “sex &
violence” in the U.S. media is believed to have a powerful negative impact on audiences in
Malaysia, most should be psychologically predisposed to believe that U.S. media content
affects others more than themselves. This might be particularly true when the U.S. media
are perceived to carry persuasive messages with deleterious effects on culture or society,
or if those messages are believed to be biased toward a U.S. point of view. Based on the
preceding discussion, we predict that:
H1: Respondents will perceive the effect of the U.S. media to be stronger on
others than on themselves.
H2: There will be a significant different in the degree of third-person perception

effect by level of U.S. media exposure.
H3: There will be a significant different in the degree of third-person perception

effect by religion.
METHODOLOGY
Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to undergraduate and graduate

students enrolled in communication and business classes at various large universities in
Kuala Lumpur. The questionnaire was originally written in English and then translated
into Bahasa Malaysia.
A total of 425 students completed the survey on a voluntary basis. The final sample
contained slightly more females (51%) than males and a fairly representative distribution
of ethnicity (49% Malays, 32% Chinese, and 13% Indians) and religion in Malaysia (51%
Islam, 13% Christian, 11% Hindu, and 22% Buddhist). The average age of respondents in
this survey was 21.4 years (SD = 2.6).
Measure of exposure to U.S. media was done by asking respondents (1) to indicate
on a four-point scale how regularly (1 = “never” to 4 = “regularly”) they watched any
of nine popular television shows (e.g., CSI, Medical Investigation, Apprentice, Desperate
Housewives, Fear Factor), (2) whether they saw any of 12 movies that were shown in
Malaysian cinemas at the time of this study (e.g., The Da Vinci Code, X-Men: The Last
Stand, Pirates of the Caribbean 2), (3) the number of videos or movies watched “per week,”
and (4) how much time they spent each day listening to American music (1 = most of
the music listen are U.S. music, 2 = some of the music are U.S. music, 3 = do not listen
to American music). A composite score was computed based on the responses to the
questions. A higher score indicates higher level of exposure to U.S. media programs.
75
Respondents were asked how much influence (1 = “no influence” to 4 = “a lot of

influence”) they thought the U.S. media have on (a) their own cultural values, and (b) the
cultural values of other people in their country. A similar set of questions asked how much
influence they thought that U.S. media containing a lot of violence have on (a) themselves,
and (b) other people in their country. Each question about the perceived strength of
U.S. media effects on self and others was followed by a question asking respondents to
evaluate whether these effects were positive (score = 1), negative (score = -1) or neutral
(score = 0). Each respondent’s score for the perceived strength of U.S. media influence on
self and others was then multiplied by the perceived direction of U.S. media influence
(-1 = “negative influence”; 1 = “positive influence” or “no influence”). The resulting score
measures the perceived strength and direction of U.S. media content (culture and violence)
on self and others on an eight-point scale ranging from -4 (= “strong negative influence”)
to +4 (= “strong positive influence”).
To test the third-person effect, each respondent’s score for perceptions of U.S.
media effects on self was subtracted from his or her score for perceptions of U.S. media
effects on others. The resulting score measures the degree of the third-person effect for the
topic of culture and violence on a 15-point scale ranging from –7 (more influence on others
than self) to +7 (more influence on self than on others). In other words, negative scores on
either of the two third-person effect measures indicate that respondents believe that U.S.
media influence others more than themselves.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
On the general question how the respondents think about the United States, the survey
revealed 58.4 percent of all respondents had a “negative” or “very negative” overall opinion
about the United States, suggesting that the samples are quite divided in terms of opinion
about the United States with substantial percentage of them are quite conservative. On
their perception on the amount of American media available in Malaysia, a majority of
the respondents (48.0%) felt that it was “just the right amount,” while only 15.8 percent
thought that there was “too little” U.S. media available. However, more than a third of the
respondents (36.2%) said that there was “too much” American media available—indicating
a sizable resistance to the U.S. media presence in Malaysia. As expected most subjects
perceived the effects of the U.S. media to be negative on self and others in both measured
dimensions (culture and violence). While 40.7 percent of the respondents though that the
U.S. media affect the cultural values of others more than their own (29.7% no effect, 19.6%
others less affected than self), 53.9% thought that mediated U.S. violence is affecting others
more than themselves (34.3% no effect, 11.8% others less affected than self).
The first hypothesis of the study (H1) predicted that respondents will perceive the
effect of the US media to be stronger on others than on self. A strong support was found
for the first hypothesis, which proposed that respondents will perceive the negative effects
of the U.S. media to be stronger on others than on self. As shown in the Table 1, the means
perceived effect of US media on others are significantly higher than the means perceived
effect on self on both measures cultural values and violence. The means of perceived
impact of the U.S. media on self and other’s cultural values are -.78 and -1.66, respectively,
[t (422) = 8.138, ρ = .000]. The means of perceived impact of mediated U.S. violence are
-1.31 and -2.29 on self and others, respectively, [t (422) = 12.119, ρ = .000]. Drawing from
the psychology literature, this finding is expected because people have the tendency for
optimistic bias. As pointed by Chapin (2008), people believe that they are less likely than
others to suffer the negative consequences of their behavior.
76
Table 1: Mean Scores of Perceived U.S. Media Effect on Self

and Others
Self Others Difference

Perceived U.S. media -.78 -1.66 -0.88*
effect on cultural (2.33) (2.35)
values
Perceived effect -1.31 -2.29 -.98*

of mediated U.S. (1.64) (1.78)
violence
Note:
The perception of U.S. media’s effects on self and others is measured on a four-point scale
ranging from 1= “no influence” to 4 = “a lot of influence.” This scale is then multiplied by
the perceived direction of U.S. media’s effects (-1 = “negative influence”; +1 = “positive
influence”). Standard deviations are listed in parentheses. * p < .000 based on paired-
sample t-tests.
The second and the third hypothesis investigated whether degree of third-person
perception effect varies by level of exposure to U.S. media and religion. The Table 2
summarizes the results of independent t-test of mean scores on third-person perception
for the low and high exposure to U.S. media group, and by Islam and non-Islam. The
H2 predicted that the level of exposure to U.S. media has influenced on the strength of
the third-person perception effect. As shown in the Table 2, no significant different was
observed on the third-person perception effect on both dimensions of culture, mediated
U.S culture (mean different = -.05, t = .198, ρ = .847) and mediated U.S. violence (mean
different = -.14, t = .616, ρ = .568), indicating that the tendency to perceive the effect of
the U.S. media on others to be stronger than on oneself (third-person effect) is not more
pronounce among subjects with higher level of US media exposure. Thus, the H2 was not
supported. Irrespective of the level of exposure to U.S. media, the respondents generally
see that the effect of the U.S. media to be stronger on others than on themselves.
Table 2. Mean Scores of Third-Person Perception Effect of US Media by Media Exposure

and Religion
Perceived effect of Perceived effect of

mediated U.S. culture mediated U.S. violence
U.S. media exposure
Low -1.02 -1.23
High (2.57) (2.15)
Mean Different -1.07 -1.09
(2.50) (1.53)
-.05 -.14
77
Religion
Islam -1.48 -1.25
Non Islam (2.63) (2.01)
Mean Different -.58 -1.16
(2.46) (2.15)
-.90 * -.09
Note:
Third-person effect is measured on a seven-point scale ranging from -7 = “more influence
on others than self” to 7 = “more influence on self than others.” Standard deviations are
listed in parentheses. * p < .000 based on t-tests.
H3 predicted that there will be a significant different in the degree of third-person

perception effect by religion. As shown in Table 2, the third-person perception effect of
mediated U.S. culture is significantly more pronounce among the Muslim respondents
(M = -1.48) than that of the non-Muslims (M= -.58), t (421) = 3.623, ρ = .000. Similarly, the
third-person perception effect of mediated U.S. violence is also more pronounce among
the Muslim respondents (M = -.125) than that of the non-Muslims (M= -1.16); however, the
mean score different was not significant. The findings suggest that the Muslim respondents,
as compared to the non-Muslims, are more likely to perceived that other are more affected
by U.S. mediated culture. This could be attributed to the fact that the Muslims see their
cultural and religion values are in sharp contradiction to the values of the west. The non-
significant different in the third-person effect perception for mediated violence between
Muslim and non-Muslims means that Muslim and the non-Muslims see themselves and
others are relatively equally affected by the U.S. media.
CONCLUSION
Overall, the findings of present study support the conclusion that the third-person effect
hypothesis can be applied to perceptions of U.S. media influence abroad. In the context of
the present study, while Malaysian youth in general are concerned of the negative impact
of the U.S. media program, they tended to perceive others to be more affected compared to
themselves. If they perceived that they are not likely to be much influenced as others, they
might become less critical and become a more passive consumer of U.S. media programs.
This could lead to a problem because many of the U.S. media programs particularly
entertainment programs contain negative elements that challenge or undermine traditional
values and beliefs of individuals. Hence, to confront this third-person effect bias more
media literacy programs need to be implemented so that they are made aware of the how
media influence audience and in particular the influence of imported media programs.
The survey also shows that perception of third-person media effect is not related
to level of exposure of U.S. media. However, the study seems to show that the third-person
perception effect is more pronounce for mediated U.S. culture rather than mediated U.S.
violence among the Muslims youth.
The findings of this study are, of course, limited by the fact that data were
collected from a non-representative student sample. While we acknowledge that such a
sample cannot be representative of the general population, we do believe that university
students are good subjects to test the effects of the U.S. media because they are arguably
the most affected by the collision of foreign culture that arrives through the mass media
and traditional culture which is represented by their parents and families. Nevertheless,
78
future studies should investigate the third-person perceptions of foreign media effects with
demographically more diverse audiences to confirm the positive evaluation of cultural
effects with people who might be less open to social and cultural change than university
students.
Another limitation is the cross-sectional nature of our data, which does not allow
us to make any conclusive statements about causality. While this is a problem in most
media effects studies, it would have been extremely useful to be able to determine whether
exposure to the U.S. media actually creates beliefs about the cultural impact of U.S.
media products, or whether pre-existing beliefs about the U.S. media actually determine
media exposure. Finally, more studies need to be carried out to further understand what
contribute to the third-person perception.
79
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81
82
JurnalOPengajian
nline Newspaper in Malaysia
Media Malaysia Jilid 11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 83-94
Online Newspaper in Malaysia: A

Preliminary Study
MOHD YAHYA MOHAMED ARIFFIN &

NOOR ISMAWATI JAAFAR
ABSTRACT
With the emergence and advances of the Internet technology, the traditional media such as newspapers
have to reassess their role in the Internet age. Not only newspapers have to compete with each other
locally, but also with foreign newspapers from all over the world and other information providers
choosing to deliver news on their websites. This paper presents the findings of an initial study on
the changing trends of newspaper distribution in Malaysia. It examines the trends and outlook of
selected traditional and online newspapers using data from various secondary resources from the
years 2001-2007. The study also looked at some of the possible challenges facing online newspaper by
conducting an interview with the Editor, Online Services from Utusan Melayu (M) Bhd. From the
study, it was found that the availability of online newspaper does not affect the readership of print
newspaper although there is a declining trend. What can be concluded is that online newspaper does
not substitute the role of print newspaper. In fact newspaper companies that have their news on the
Internet are seen as providing an added value to their readers especially when it comes to accessing
news away from work places. Nevertheless, newspaper companies that provide online versions of
their newspapers face several challenges in attracting more readers to stay reading news online.
Key words: Online newspaper, newspaper readership, media distribution, Internet, online
newspaper challenges.
INTRODUCTION
The Internet is rapidly evolving into a universal conduit that is overturning the media
status quo. Traditional media such as newspapers and magazines have to reassess their
role for the Internet. Newspapers are no longer just competing with each other. They are
in an entirely new arena, where the old boundaries of publishing have changed beyond
all recognition. Newspapers not only have to compete with other papers in their locality
or country, but with newspapers from all over the globe. The newspaper industry
is bewildered by the speed and scale of the changes that it faces. In the light of these
developments newspapers will have to reshape their core business, to take advantage of
new distribution opportunities. Indeed, newspaper proprietors who fail to recognize the
power of the Internet face a very uncertain future. Nonetheless, the requirement of making
83
latest information available for access has undeniably put intense pressure for newspaper
to have Internet presence. In many ways, new electronic communication technologies have
brought about unprecedented changes to the newspaper industry. Computerized tools
such as word processing, computerized typesetting, production technologies and desktop
publishing have brought about higher efficiency in the newsroom and changed the roles
of newspaper editors and designers (Fillmore, 1994).
In addition to improving the quality, the entrance of computers has helped lessen
the problems of lack of space for news, high production costs and low profits, although
the basics of good journalism which is good writing skills, still apply whether or not new
technologies are employed. Since content is king, online product cannot be a print replica.
To make the electronic edition different and interesting, some value-added services
such as sidebars, extensive background pieces not in the print newspaper, photographs,
graphics, sound, video, archival links, links to other resources or other online papers, and
interactivity found in e-mail and e-conference were suggested to be made available on the
Web newspaper (Erlindson, 1995)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PRINT AND ONLINE NEWSPAPER
Steve Outing of Editor& Publisher thinks that electronic newspapers are supplemental
services, with little in common to print newspapers and they would not replace the print
(Erlindson, 1995). Many people regard it as a cultural document that provides a real,
tangible link to history and “an aesthetic experience of time” while the computer is more of
a device to help people find things (Anthony, 1996). The newspaper is portable and easier
to read, but the online connection process can be tedious and often produces encounters of
e-error messages and slow loading (The Economist, 1996). Many people still prefer the feel
and touch of the tangible and portable newspapers delivered to their doorstep every day.
While the videotext industry failed due to the lack of audience in the 1980s, the
growth of the Internet since then, especially the development of WWW in the 1990s,
gave new impetus to online publishing (Erlindson, 1995). The interactivity, immediacy
and limitless space provided by the Internet have rendered the Internet an ideal medium
for online publishing. In addition, the low starting cost, ease of transmission across
geographical boundaries and capability of incorporating multimedia elements are also
attractive to the publishers. Major contentions about Internet publishing include given the
short concentration span of Internet users, concise text captures more attention, forums
create an environment where people entertain people, making the media a sideshow,
feelings expressed in the forum cannot be matched by journalistic interpretation and
writing skills, the online community is just a fad and lacks responsibility and the Internet
contains an untapped generation of non-readers who will try everything, only once, which
makes sourcing them out not worth the effort.
The newspaper industry has long been facing several challenges to its role.
Newspaper circulation has been in decline for several years. For example in Britain,
according to The Economist, the circulation has been falling for the last 35 years (Black,
2000). Newspaper editors are particularly concerned about the demographics of newspaper
reading. The young are reading much less than those in middle age. This has serious
implications, as newspaper reading is thought to be a habit acquired at an early age. The
increase in other mediums such as television, computer games and the Internet has meant
that the newspaper is competing in a completely new arena.
84
Online Newspaper in Malaysia
As such, many news providers have already taken steps to enhance or add value to
their printed product by exploiting the potential of the Internet. The technology allows for
enhanced and improved information provision not possible in a printed, or, indeed, passive
broadcast medium. Williams and Nicholas (1999) had suggested that Web newspaper
offers the potential for comparatively unlimited space availability – permitting greater
depth/coverage of news stories, the provision of large archives and the mounting of added
value reference services, currency/immediacy, hyperlinking, multimedia, customization
and interactivity.
Although the Internet can help online publishers save the cost of printing and
delivering the hardcopy newspaper, online newspapers have yet to generate sizeable
revenues by charging their readers. Will subscription charges work on the Internet, given
its culture of free information? The filtering of worthwhile information is an important
function to be fulfilled by the newspaper. In other words, the basics of journalism have to
be present in both the print and electronic versions (Runett, 2000).
Newspapers boast of their editorial content and community traditions, but few are
expanding their content offerings or using the tools of the Internet to cultivate communities
of online interest (Runett, 2000). News alone is not going to propel the newspaper
community into the star ranks of Internet companies in terms of readership or revenue.
Internet observers are agreed that simply posting the printed version of the newspaper on
the website is a mistake. Online users are promiscuous. If one story is missed or there is a
slow download, users can quickly drop a once favored website. The Internet has infused
an attitude that everything should be available ‘here and now’. Newspapers and the future
despite the uncertainty and predictions of the death of newspapers, there is considerable
opinion that newspapers are in a prime position to succeed online if they recognize the
Internet’s potential and follow various strategies. In this era of overwhelming cascades of
information and entertainment from a proliferation of websites, newspapers have a wealth
of experience in aggregating information.
ONLINE NEWSPAPER READERSHIP
A number of earlier studies have been carried out among online newspaper readers in other
parts of the world. Figures produced by ZDNet showing a decline traditional newspaper
and news weekly consumption attributable to the Internet (William & Nicholas, 1999).
Another part of the study reveals conflicting evidence that using the web for news or
current affairs information is not listed in the top 12 uses cited by respondents. In fact, the
only ‘news’ like activities listed are finding sports scores, cited 31% of respondents, and
‘local information’ – although this may well be o a general nature such as addresses of
organizations, library opening times etc. Even among news reading web users, priorities
were not with hard or breaking news (William & Nicholas, 1999).
Another survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, found that the most
popular type of news on the Net was the weather, with 64% of readers accessing such
information. Neither finding is likely to offer much solace to investors in web newspapers
(William & Nicholas, 1999). Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC), the established audit
company which monitors hardcopy sales, set up an electronic arm in 1996. It regularly
gives figures of over seven million ‘page impressions’ for papers such as The Electronic
Telegraph and four million for The Times. It also assesses actual user numbers for a
minority of organizations, with ITN attracting he highest figure of these with 153,000 users
85
per month in 1998. Papers make their own claims too. The Electronic Telegraph calculates
that more than 60,000 people every day log on to its site from 200 countries around the
world (William & Nicholas, 1999).
One early investigation found that Internet newspapers were preferred by readers
for world information and traditional newspapers were preferred for local news (Mueller
& Kamerer, 1995). Elsewhere though, readers’ perceptions of the central qualities of online
and hard copy news have exhibited remarkable similarity terms of their overall structure.,
Thus, the news value attached to a story was grounded in its perceived credibility
impartiality and objectivity), how much it was liked, its “quality” (accuracy, clarity,
comprehensiveness), and its representativeness (importance, relevance, timeliness),
whether it was read online or in hard cop (Sundar, 1999).
Survey of online newspaper by William & Nicholas (1999) clearly shows the
seriousness with which news providers are taking the new medium and the efforts being
made to attract the online new reader. The New York Times’ educational supplement and
‘Euronet’ for example, initiative in The Electronic Telegraph, the amount of information
included on the web version of the papers is impressive. Unlike the US, in UK according
to William & Nicholas (1999), the Net is still regarded as a passive medium, another
outlet for news providers to tout their wares. Many papers, including The Times and The
Independent, are even reluctant to exploit that most fundamental aspect of web technology.
The presentation format of news content on the Internet is another vital feature
linked to reader opinion. Appearance and ease of navigation around a Web site are
essential attributes for success in e-commerce (Rosen 2000). Such features are likely to
generate favorable responses from readers of online newspapers (Schierhorn et al., 1998).
Readers were found in one American study to exhibit mixed reactions to story
summaries in electronic newspapers that also provided access links to more detailed
information in each case, but required readers activity to seek out those resources There
was a need for story summaries to be long enough to serve as effective appetizers, such
that readers would want to learn more, and not to be so long that readers would have no
incentive to activate links to archives (Vargo et al., 1998).
In a study of media consumption in the USA, a market increase was observed in

the proportion of adults who went online at least once a week between 1995 (4%) and 1998
(20%). Men (25%) were more likely than women (15%) to go online this often, with young
adult (30% going online at least once a week) emerging as the biggest users. Internet users
(54%) in the USA claimed to go online to get more information about a story they first
saw or heard about from a more traditional news source (Pew Research Center, 2000). A
survey conducted by AlShehri and Gunter (2002) shows that most readers or Arab online
newspapers were male, students, professionals or business persons residents overseas,
and were established, regular users of the Internet. For most, the Internet was regarded as
an important news source and more that half the respondents claimed to read Arab online
newspapers everyday. They also found that 72% were satisfied with online newspapers.
OBJECTIVES
There are no similar studies done previously more specifically on online newspaper in
Malaysia resulting in limited literature review. Nevertheless, the authors feel that it is just
timely and necessary that a study be conducted to find out the current status of online
86
newspaper development in the Malaysian newspaper industry. As such, the aim of the
study is to identify the changing state and future of the Malaysian newspaper as a media
distribution channel. In particular, this study attempts to answer two (2) key questions:
i. What is the readership trend of online newspaper in Malaysia?
ii. Does online newspaper substitute the services and information provided by
print newspaper?
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted using a case study method where data were collected from
various secondary resources. This includes data available and printed in the Media Guide
book from researches done by AC Nielsen Media Index from the years 2001-2007. Data were
also collected from the Utusan Online from the years of 2005-2007 provided the company
itself. In addition, we also conducted an in-depth interview with the Online Services Editor
of Utusan Melayu (M) Bhd which the first newspaper company that established its online
version in Malaysia.
ONLINE NEWSPAPERS IN MALAYSIA
The Internet offers many publishing capabilities which include delivering up-to-date
information, offering interactivity features and reaching more readers. As such, many
newspaper companies in Malaysia have taken a step ahead in publishing their news on
the Internet to healthily compete with not only local competitors but foreign newspapers.
Kumpulan Utusan was established in 1983 to publish the nation’s first local newspaper. The
group’s two (2) key newspapers, Utusan Malaysia and Mingguan Malaysia have consistently
achieved and maintained the highest circulations ad readerships.
Utusan Online (www.utusan.com.my), is Kumpulan Utusan’s and Malaysia’s first

electronic newspaper. Since its inception, the public has shown great interest and support
to this new endeavor of Kumpulan Utusan. The current database of the website recorded
an average of 15-20 million hits with over four million pages viewed every month. Utusan
Online is now available in both Bahasa Melayu and English. In line with the Utusan
Group’s step into ICT is the launch of the Utusan Education portal (www.tutor.com.my) in
July 2001. The portal, at present is one of the most visited education sites in Malaysia with
over 140,000 visitors per month. The portal providing information on schools’ curriculum
and syllabus for students, teachers and as well as parents and; Creating learning modules
covering notes, exercises, references, examination tips and a question bank for students
sitting for the Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR), Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR),
Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil Tingggi Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM) examinations.
While the number of Internet dial-up and broadband subscribers has increased
tremendously for the last 3 years (Table 1), not many Malaysians are using the Internet to
read news. This is supported by a study done by Nielsen Media Research (2004) where
Malaysian were found to use the Internet for communication more than reading the online
newspaper. In the study where 8000 Internet users participated, reading news from the
Internet scored much lower compared to other activities such as e-mail, information
gathering and general surfing. Majority of Malaysians surveyed, use the Internet at home
87
as compared to other locations such as office, Internet Cafes and schools or universities.
In terms of time, majority spend 3 hours or more daily surfing the Internet (Media Guide,
2005).
Table 1: Selected Information and Communication

Technology Indicators 2002-2006
Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Population (mil) 24.5 25.3 25.7 26.4 26.9
Household (mil) 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8
Fixed lines (mil) 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.3
Cellular Phone (mil) 9.1 11.1 14.6 19.5 19.5
Internet Dial-up 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.7 3.8
(mil)
B r o a d b a n d 19.3 110.4 252.5 490.6 897.2
Subscription (‘000)
Payphone (‘000) 118 114 105 95 87

Sources: Media Guide 2005, 2006 & 2007
However, a recent survey of 5000 household Internet users conducted by the

Malaysian Multimedia Commission (2005) revealed the five most popular activities while
on the Net are e-mail (73.7 percent), education/research (46.8 percent), finding information
about goods and services (40.5 percent), participation in chat rooms (25.9 percent) and
reading online newspapers (20.2 percent). In addition, they are spending on average
around 9 hours per week accessing the Internet mostly from home (Media Guide 2005).
In the next section, we will look at size of readership of Utusan Malaysia newspaper for us to
understand whether the Internet has become an alternative way for newspaper companies
to attract their readers.
CIRCULATION AND READERSHIP OF UTUSAN MALAYSIA NEWSPAPER
In the following section, the daily circulation and readership of the Utusan Malaysia
newspaper are presented.
Table 2: Daily Circulation Trends for Utusan Malaysia and

Mingguan Malaysia Newspapers in Malaysia Year
2002-2007
Name of 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Newspaper
Utusan Malaysia 239,385 246,006 247,165 228,802 213,445 197,033

Mingguan Malaysia 543,323 570,824 561,495 529,176 483,240 459,793
Sources: Media Guide 2005, 2006 & 2007, Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) 2007.
88
From Table 2, it is found that in 2002 the daily circulation for Utusan Malaysia
was 239,385 and for Mingguan Malaysia were 543,323 respectively. In 2003 and 2004, the
figures for Utusan Malaysia had increased to 246,006 and 247,166. In contrary, the figures
for Mingguan Malaysia had increased to 570,824 in 2003 but decreased slightly to 561,495 in
2004. However, the figures for both newspapers form 2005-2007 showed decreasing trends
in their circulation.
Table 3: Readership Trends for Utusan Malaysia and

Mingguan Malaysia in Year 2001-2005 (in ‘000)
Name of 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Newspaper
Utusan Malaysia 1460 1476 1489 1277 1207 1190

Mingguan Malaysia 2676 2604 2387 1994 1810 1750
Sources: Media Guide 2005, 2006 & 2007, Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) 2007.
Table 3 shows that the readership trends for Utusan Malaysia increased from
1,460,000 in 2002 to 1,489,000 in 2004. However, the figures dropped to 1,277,000 in 2005,
1,207,000 in 2006 and 1,190,000 in 2007 respectively. Interestingly the readership trends
for Mingguan Malaysia were decreasing from 2002-2007. In 2002, the readership for the
newspaper was 2,676,000. It decreased to 2,387,000 in 2004 and 1,750,000 in 2007.
Table 4: An Average of Utusan Online Unique Visitors on

Daily Basis from2005-2008
Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 (until
April)
Mondays – 27,970 30,342 35,328 48,175
Fridays
Saturdays & 13,985 15,171 17,664 24,087
Sundays
Source: Utusan Online Services
Table 4 shows that the Utusan Online visitors on Mondays to Fridays (working
days) had increased from 27,970 in 2005 to 30,342 in 2006 and 35,328 in 2007. In addition,
for the first four months in 2008, the trend is similar to the previous years where it reached
48,175. Similarly, the average visitors Saturdays and Sundays for Utusan Online had an
increasing trends from 2005-2008. The average visitors were 13,985 in 2005, 15,171 in 2006
and 17,664 in 2007. As for the first four months of 2008, the figure was 24,087.
However, the online visitors on Saturdays and Sundays dropped to almost half
of the working days’ visitors. According to the Utusan Online Editor, the drop could be
contributed by the non-working days where regular visitors were unable to access the
online version of the Utusan Malaysia newspaper from places other than work places. In
total, 85-90% of the online visitors are locals while the remaining 10-15% is Malaysians
who reside overseas including countries like Indonesia, United States, Japan and United
Kingdom.
We further made a comparison between the print newspaper readership and

online visitors for Utusan Malaysia and Mingguan Malaysia during normal working days
and Sundays. From Figure 1, it is shown that the trend of the print newspaper readership
89
has declined since 2004. On the contrary, the online visitors of Utusan Online have increased
since 2005. Similar trends were found for Mingguan Malaysia and Utusan Online on Sundays
(Figure 2).
Figure 1: Print Newspaper Readership versus Online Visitors

during Working Days (in ‘000)
Figure 2: Print Newspaper Readership versus Online Visitors

on Sundays (in ‘000)
90
DISCUSSION
From the study, it has been found that there is a change in the landscape of newspaper as
media distribution channel. The readership of the Utusan Malaysia and Mingguan Malaysia
had been decreasing since 2004. According to the Editor, Online Services of Utusan Melayu
(M) Bhd, it could be due to readers switching from the print newspaper to the online
version. This can be shown from the statistics in Table 3 and Table 4 which had been
increasing from year to year.
The decrease of readership of Utusan Malaysia newspaper can further be

contributed by the upward trends of Internet dial-up and broadband subscriptions from
years 2002-2006 in Table 1. For example in 2002, there were 2.6mil users of Internet dial up
and 193,000 of broadband subscribers. However, the figures surged to 3.8mil for Internet
dial-up and 8,972,000 for broadband in 2006.
From the findings of the study, there were declining trends of readership as far
as the print Utusan Malaysia newspaper is concerned. The authors are in the opinion that
some of the readers are switching to Utusan Online to read daily news. This could be due
to the fact that more and more Malaysians are having access to the Internet in offices and
homes. In Table 1, there are increasing trends in terms of Internet dial-up and broadband
subscriptions from 2002-2006. Thus, we can consider there is a growing increase in the
general public interest and awareness of reading online newspaper in Malaysia. In
addition, the cost of printing newspaper is increasing which result in increase in the selling
price newspaper. As a result, more readers may switch to the online version.
It further can be discussed that the total readership of the Utusan Malaysia
newspapers was not affected by the emergence of the online versions. In fact, the downward
trends of the print newspaper were complimented by the upward trends of the online
versions. The Editor had confirmed that it was part of the company strategy to attract the
Internet users to read online versions of their newspapers. Thus, the company is promoting
their online version to readers by putting up advertisements in the print newspaper. At the
same, the online version has included latest news to ensure its more advance than other
competitors.
This initial study also provides some valuable information to newspaper

companies. While the role of online newspaper has been recognized as a compliment
rather than substitution, there is a need for these companies to work on their strategies of
making their Internet presence more significant and noticeable. This is especially important
for them to attract more Internet users to visit their websites and read the news contents
thus increasing the widespread of newspaper as media distribution channel. Nevertheless,
the move will narrow the information-rich and information-poor gap as a result of ICT
development. With online newspaper, more people form the ICT disadvantaged groups
can have equal access to information.
For Utusan Online to remain competitive in the future, it has to establish interactive
element such as blog and myspace. It will provide news as well as an interactive experience
for visitors to interact with the news provider. Therefore, Utusan Online is planning
towards providing interactive space for their loyal visitors. It hopes to become the pioneer
of online newspaper.
91
CHALLENGES AHEAD
With the prevailing influence of the Internet, more newspaper companies are putting their
presence noticeable on the Internet so that they can reach wider readers. Online newspaper
does not replace the role of the traditional newspaper. In fact, the online version provides
an added value of services to readers that may not be able to read the newspaper during
daytime or at predetermined physical locations such as offices. The online newspapers
also provide readers with an avenue of keeping in touch with local development when
they are away such as on overseas business trips. Similarly, the online newspaper is taking
the lead role of providing access to information in the Internet age. Readers are able to
access information on the online versions with interactivity and quicker responses that can
encourage readers to read online.
Also, online newspapers provide new services that could not be a part of traditional
newspapers. The searchable archive and classified ads can help each newspaper become
an information databank in addition to its role as a deliverer of news. The hyperlinks have
changed the newspaper from a single source of information into a hub of information
networks without a clear ending point. And, as a leader as well as a servant of a community,
the newspaper plays an important role in crystallizing public opinion. The forums, chat
facilities and e-mail contacts allow greater interactivity among the community members
and between the readers and editors than the traditional print newspaper.
The success of online newspaper thus, depends on a few factors such as strong
compliance with the information requirements and services needs of the readers. In
addition, high actuality of the news provided on the Internet will influence Internet users
to read form online versions of newspaper. If the online versions are easy-to-use and easy-
to-handle especially for non-experienced readers, they will be more motivated to read
from the Internet. Not forgetting the clear overview and comprehensive layout, logical and
documented navigation and link structure of the newspaper itself. High performance and
good compliance with transfer of information would definitely become another success
factor of online newspaper.
CONCLUSION
This paper presents the findings of an initial study on the changing trends of newspaper
distribution in Malaysia. The study found that the availability of online newspaper does
not affect the readership of print newspaper although there is a declining trend. What can
be concluded is that online newspaper plays as a complimentary role of print newspaper
in Malaysia. In fact newspaper companies that have their news on the Internet are seen
as providing an added value to their readers especially when it comes to accessing news
away from work places. Nevertheless, newspaper companies that provide online versions
of their newspapers face several challenges in attracting more readers to stay reading news
online.
92
REFERENCES
AlShehri, F and Gunter, B. (2002). The market for electronic newspaper in the Arab World.
Aslib Proceedings, vol. 54, No 1.
Anthony, T. (1996). Paper tells tales of the past, but what of the digital future? 29 June,
Associated Press viewed 2 April 2007. retrieved from: http://www.ap.com.
Black, C. (2000). Don’t Write Newspapers Yet. The Guardian. 27 April.
Erlindson. A. (1995). Online Newspapers: The Newspaper Industry’s Dive into Cyberspace.
paper presented at the University of Western Ontario, April.
Fillmore, L. (1994). Internet publishing in a borderless environment: Bookworms into

butterflies. Speech delivered at the Electronic Media Conference at the Frankfurt Book Fair.
Frankfurt, Germany. 7 October.
Media Guide Malaysia. (2005). Kuala Lumpur: Perception Media Sdn. Bhd.
Mueller, J. & Kamerer, D. (1995). Reader preference for electronic newspapers. Newspaper
Research Journal, Vol.16, No.1.
NUA. (2000). How Many Online-Internet Surveys. Dublin, New York: Nua: Internet
Consultancy & Developer.
Pew Research Center. (1996). The 1996 Pew Research Center Survey of Technology.
Runett, R. (1998). Communities present promise for newspaper sites. The Digital Edge.
July/August, viewed 15 August 2006, retrieved from: http://www.digitaledge.org/
connections98/gardener.htm.
Rosen, J. (2000). The E-Commerce Question and Answer Book: A Survival Guide for Business
Managers. New York: AMACOM.
Schierhorn, C. et al. (1998). Digital formats for the future: the web vs paper vs a vertical-
screen, page based design. Paper presented to Newspaper Division of the Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Annual Convention.
Sundar, S.S. (1999). Exploring receivers’ criteria for perception of print and online news.
Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Vol.76 No.2.
The Economist. (1996). Brave new medium: Same old message, 29 June, Dow Jones News
Retrieval.
Utusan Malaysia, viewed 10 January 2008, retrieved from: http://www.utusan.com.my.
93
Vargo, K. et al. (1998). Readers’ Response to Digital News Stories Presented in Layers and Links.
Atlanta: AEJMC, Newspaper Division.
Williams, P. & Nicholas, D. (1999). The migration of news to the web. Aslib Proceedings, vol.
51, No. 4, April.
INTERVIEW
An interview was conducted with Encik Hasani Hassan, the Editor of Online Services of
Utusan Melayu (M) Bhd on 22 May 2008.
94
Asean Media
Jurnal Pengajian DelightsMalaysia Jilid 11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 95-104
A sean D elights : A S tudy of A sean

Programs on Malaysian TV
HAMISAH HASAN &

ABDUL MUATI @ ZAMRI BIN AHMAD
ABSTRACT
Asean has been recognized as a regional pact with tremendous economic and political influence since
its inception in 1967. However, the formation of Asean is not solely for economic development but
also to promote social synergy among the member countries. It is without a doubt that mass media
has the ability to promote a climate of change to the Asean countries as well as to bridge the gaps.
The mass media is an important channel to disseminate messages that help the masses to adopt new
ideas. Very often the mass media particularly the broadcast media is used as a source of providing
entertainment and promoting the Asean cultures. As such, it should be interesting to examine
the profile of Asean program aired on Malaysian TV. This will help us understand the types of
Asean programs aired and the frequency of its airtime. The paper will also identify the countries
of origins of these programs. The study will focus on the program schedule over the government-
owned Televisyen Malaysia (RTM 1 and RTM 2), Sistem Televisyen (M) Berhad (TV3), Natseven
(NTV7) and TV8 and the paid channels (ASTRO).
Key words: Asean, mass media, Asean programs, Asean cultures.
INTRODUCTION
Asean or The Association of Southeast Asian Nations was established on 8th of August
1967 in Bangkok. There were originally five founding member countries, i.e. Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam later joined the pact
on 8th of January 1984, Vietnam on 28th of July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23rd of July
1997, and Cambodia on 30th of April 1999. The pact is significant since the region has a
population of about 500 million, covers a total area of 4.5 million square kilometers, and
yields a combined gross domestic product of US$737 billion, and posses a total trade of
US$ 720 billion.
The association was established to realize two purposes. Firstly, to accelerate the
economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint
endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for
a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations. Secondly, to promote
95
regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the
relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United
Nations Charter. In accomplishing the purposes, Asean has formed a few subsidiaries to
initiate political and economic cooperation amongst the member countries. For instance,
the Asean Security Community was established to bring Asean’s political and security
cooperation to a higher plane to ensure that countries in the region live at peace with one
another and with the world at large in a just, democratic and harmonious environment
(Kotler et al., 2007).
In 1997, the Asean Vision 2020 was launched. It paves the way for establishing
Asean Partnership in Dynamic Development, aimed at forging a closer economic
integration within the region. The vision statement also resolved to create a stable,
prosperous and highly competitive Asean Economic Region, in which there is a free flow
of goods, services, investments, capital, and equitable economic development and reduced
poverty and socio-economic disparities. Subsequently, The Hanoi Plan of Action, adopted
in 1998, serves as the first in a series of plans of action leading up to the realization of the
Asean vision.
At any rate, Asean cooperation has resulted in greater regional integration. Today,
Asean economic cooperation covers the following areas: trade, investment, industry,
services, finance, agriculture, forestry, energy, transportation and communication,
intellectual property, small and medium enterprises, and tourism. Eventually, The
Framework for Elevating Functional Cooperation to a Higher Plane was adopted in
1996 with a theme: “Shared prosperity through human development, technological
competitiveness, and social cohesiveness.” Functional cooperation is guided by the
following plans:
i. Asean Plan of Action on Social Development;
ii. Asean Plan of Action on Culture and Information;
iii. Asean Plan of Action on Science and Technology;
iv. Asean Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment;
v. Asean Plan of Action on Drug Abuse Control; and
vi. Asean Plan of Action in Combating Transnational Crime.
In realizing social cohesiveness through plan of action on promoting culture

and information, Asean should utilize available media in the region. One of the means
is through broadcasting media particularly TV programs. Malaysia for instance has been
trying to promote understanding of the culture of Asean people by airing programs
especially drama from various member countries via its national and paid TV channels.
Amongst the popular drama aired on Malaysian TV are ‘Cinta Terbagi 5’ (Indonesia),
‘Cinta Berkalang Noda’ (Indonesia), ‘Cinta SMU III’ (Indonesia), Bawang Putih Bawang
Merah (Indonesia) which was also the highest rated Asean program with some 3.8 billion
viewers (Mingguan Malaysia, 28 Jan. 2007), Malim Kundang (Indonesia), ‘Phua Chu Kang’
(Singapore), ‘Holland Village’ (Singapore), ‘Gentlemen’ (Thailand), ‘The dark Night’
(Thailand), ‘Sana’y Wala Ng Wakas’ (The Philippines), and ‘Habang Kapiling’ (The
Philippines). But how effective are the programs in achieving its aims? Do the programs
96
Asean Delights
succeed in promoting the understanding of ASEAN culture amongst the viewers? Thus,
this study attempts to identify factors that influenced the viewers to watch such programs
and their perceptions of the effect of the programs.
THE STUDY
A survey was conducted using a set of self-administered questionnaire as instrument

to elicit information on the respondents’ perception of the programs aired through the
national and paid TV channels. The respondents were randomly selected among those
residing in Selangor. In this manner, they represented all walks of life, a combination of
various races, genders, age groups and professions. The distributed questionnaires were
collected several days later. A total of 200 questionnaires were circulated. However, only
193 useable questionnaires were returned. The study instruments comprised of two parts.
The first part was designed to obtain information on the respondents’ demographic profiles
whereas the second part was to extract their perceptions and views on the TV programs
aired.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
The study finds that the younger audience were more attracted to the Asean programs and
from the demographic profile of the respondents in the study nearly half of the respondents
were in the aged group of 25 years and younger with 40 percent representing the aged
group of between 20–25 years old and 25 percent of whom were 25 years and younger. It
was also suggested that more female (56 percent) than males (44 percent) watched these
programs. They were mostly still single (70 percent).
As these were programs bought by the local television stations from different
Asean countries therefore both the Malays (43 percent) and the Chinese (45 percent) were
found to be equally interested in watching the program. As both races were of equal
number, therefore this was also reflected in their religious belief with Muslims (47 percent)
and Buddhists (40 percent) that were also representative of these two races. However,
there was only a small group of Indians (9 percent).
The airtime of these programs which was during the daytime may be the
contributing factors that attracted nearly half of the respondents who were students (54
percent), a small group of 21 percent who worked in the private sectors and about 10
percent were working in the government sector. While housewives made up of only seven
percent. This may be due to the fact that time when these programs were aired may not
have been suitable for some of them who may have to attend to their household chores.
Obviously this is contrary to the assumption that women who were housewives spent
most of their time watching TV.
Women who stayed at home and have children may not be able to spend their
time watching television. Some of them may have to chauffer their children to and from
schools. Today, with the different after school activities that children were involved in the
responsibilities of a mother has also changed tremendously. For example a case in point, a
stayed-at-home mother with three children aged between six to 11 years old may be busy
as early as six o’clock in the morning and the chores never ends. The children have to be
sent to school in the morning. The children would be home briefly for lunch and would
later probably attend paid tuition classes or Quranic lessons.
97
In terms of educational background, nearly half of the respondents (40 percent)

have completed the lower and upper secondary levels. There were 35 percent who were
pursuing their bachelor degree and 14 percent with a diploma certificates.
The highest number of respondents (18 percent) earned in the RM 1001 – RM 2000
brackets. However, almost (54 percent) were reported as not having any income and as
more than half (54 percent) who were also students, thus this clearly was also the group of
respondents who were not earning any monthly income. However, 62 percent hails from
the rural area while 38 percent were from the urban area.
Table 1: Distribution of Percentages of the Profile of the

Respondents
Item (N=193) Percentage
Age
< 19 years old 26
20 – 25 years old 40
> 41 years old 9
Gender
Male 44
Female 56
Marital status
Married 30
Single 70
Race
Malay 44
Chinese 45
Indian 9
Others 3
Occupation
Students 54
Government 10
Private 21
Housewives 7
Retired 4
Others 4
Education
Secondary education 48
Diploma 15
Bachelor 35
Masters 2
Income
Nil 57
RM 1000< 14
RM1001 – RM 2000 18
RM2001 – RM 3000 7
RM 3001- RM 4000 4

ISSUES OF CONCERN OVER THE ASEAN PROGRAMS
The influx of the Western contents on Malaysian TV have obviously caused great concerned
from the public due to its cultural differences and programs that were filled with sex and
violence. Thus, the Broadcasting Act 1988 has outlined that at least 60 percent of television
98
Asean Delights
programming had to originate from local production companies owned by ethnic Malays.
Later, in the revised Act 1997, it was increased to 80 percent. However, the decline in
advertising expenditure in the television sector has probably seen a reduction in the local
production budget. As Asean countries share similar cultural values, therefore the Asean
programs aired on Malaysian TV were then deemed as suitable to the Eastern audience,
yet respondents still have some reservation of these programs. They were still concerned
whether these programs aired by the local television stations were suitable to the Eastern
culture. The mean score showed a moderate 2.67. Thus, suggesting that while they watched
the program yet they were still concerned of the value portrayed by the programs and
felt that the television stations should lower the intake of foreign program. In fact, there
have been various discussion conducted in relations to the Indonesia drama. In fact it was
suggested that Indonesian program such as the popular “Bawang Merah Bawang Putih”
was deemed as inculcating negative impact on the audience. This was especially due to
the fairy god mother character which was considered unIslamic.
Furthermore the assumption was that the less foreign program aired by the TV
stations will also help support the local TV production. Respondents have in fact agreed
that in order to support the local drama/ film industry, stations should lower their foreign
programming (mean= 2.34). Although some of these foreign programs were interesting
and entertaining programs yet, respondents were still concerned as they felt that there were
less informational program aired today (mean=2.23). Similarly, they had also expressed
their concerned regarding educational program which they felt is getting less airtime.
Table 2: Distribution of Mean and SD Related to Issues of

Concern Over Asean Program
Items (N=193) Mean Std Dev

The program aired is suitable 2.69 .75
for the Eastern culture
There should be less foreign

program to support the local 2.34 .91
drama/ film industry.
There is less informational

program on air today. 2.23 .78
There is less educational

program on air today. 2.01 .78
Strongly agreed=4, Agreed=3, Disagreed=2, Strongly disagreed=1
VIEWS REGARDING ASEAN PROGRAM
Asean countries were considered to share similar culture and respondents were surveyed
on their general views regarding the Asean programs aired by the local television stations.
Amongst the five items included, respondents agreed that Asean drama/film portrayed the
culture that was similar to that of Malaysia (mean=2.78). However, they do not show a strong
perception that these programs were of similar cultural values. Clearly, this suggested that
while the belief was that Asean countries shared the same Eastern values yet, the findings
showed that the respondents do not share that opinion. Obviously only a small group of
99
respondents who were of the opinion that Asean drama/film portrayed similar culture to
that of Malaysian. Similarly, respondents have also shared their disagreement that these
Asean programs showed high moral value (mean=2.76). This is the case as some of the
program aired showed no differences from that of the Western production. For instance,
many of these programs shared the same story line as that of the Hollywood soap operas
that were filled with vindictive characters, sex and violence scene. Not surprisingly only a
small group said that these programs are suitable for all aged groups (mean=2.68) however
a larger group still feel that these programs are not suitable for viewing by all aged groups.
In fact, Asean programs were found to be unsuitable for children’s viewing (mean=2.35).
Although the sharing of the culture was low, yet Indonesian programs have the most
similarities to Malay culture. For example the drama “Bawang Putih Bawang Merah,” and
“Malim Kundang” was highly accepted because the audience was familiar to the storyline.
It has been a common practice by the television stations in the country to have
foreign programs dubbed into the Malay language. Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM)
aired many Japanese animation programs in the Malay language in the seventies and
still have dubbed foreign programs aired today. Some of these Asean programs were also
dubbed into the Malay language and respondents seem equally divided between enjoying
these programs in the original language or the dubbed version. However, there was a
small group who agreed that they find programs dubbed into the Malay language were
more enjoyable (mean2.65). Consequently, they have no complaint of the dubbing product
and found that most of these dubbed programs were well produced (mean=2.47). Some
respondents are of the opinion that Asean drama / film have better quality than the local
drama/ film production (mean=2.26).
Table 3: Distribution of Mean and SD Related to the Views on

Asean Drama/Film.

Asean programs portrayed 2.78 .66
similar cultural values to that
of Malaysia.
Programs aired contain high 2.76 .68

moral value.
Asean programs are suitable to 2.68 .75

all age groups.
Preferred to watch Asean 2.65 .97

programs dubbed in the Malay
language.
The dubbing was well produced. 2.47 .80
FACTORS ATTRACTING AUDIENCE TO ASEAN DRAMA / FILM
Asean countries share rich Eastern cultural values. While there were some similarities
between these countries yet there were also differences that contributed to the uniqueness
of some of these countries. These were among some of the characteristics of Asean drama/
film that have been found to attract audience. Respondents found the cultural values
100
Asean Delights
portrayed in these drama/ film (mean= 2.51) as an attraction towards these Asean production.
Indonesian drama particularly has shown a strong impact on the audience. Compared to
the other Asean programs aired by the local TV stations, Indonesian production showed the
closest reasonable and similarity of the culture. However, audience sometimes still have to
depend on the subtitles since the Indonesia language can also be difficult to understand.
The scheduling of these programs has also helped in increasing the ratings. The
airtime for most of the programs was during the day time. One such example was the
Indonesian produced drama, “Bawang Putih Bawang Merah,” which had generated much
talk and the ratings had also surpassed of the highest rated Buletin Utama. Interestingly,
Asean drama film was found to be of better quality production and hence this has also
attracted viewers to the program (mean=2.26). Coupled this with great action (mean=2.21)
and what we have was interesting drama/ film that our local drama/ film was unable to
compete (mean=2.18). While the mean scale findings on such factor were low yet the local
drama/ film industry should take heed of this comparison.
Table 4:Distribution of Mean and SD Related to the

Factors Attracting Audience to Asean Drama/Film

Attracted to the culture. 2.51 .75
Suitable airtime. 2.47 .74
Asean drama/ film are of better 2.26 .85

quality.
Great action. 2.21 .76
The local drama/ film production 2.18 .78

are still unable to compete with
the ASEAN drama/ film.
ASEAN PROGRAMS VERSUS MALAYSIAN PROGRAMS
Although Asean programs were deemed as entertaining and of a better quality production
than the local Malaysian drama/ film, yet when asked to chose between these programs,
more than half said that they would not pick Indonesian programs over Malaysian programs
(mean=3.1). Similarly it was found that such programs like the Philippines and Thailand
productions were also said to be least favored as compared to the Malaysian production.
The mean scale shown in Table 5 for the two items were mean=3.0. However, production
from Singapore was more favored than from the three Asean countries. Therefore among
the four Asean countries, Indonesia showed that it was able to attract Malaysian to its
programs.
There were various factors that had contributed to the Indonesian programs being
well liked in Malaysia. Obviously the similarity in the language used was one of the factors.
This coupled with the beautiful and good looking actors and actresses.
101
Table 5: Distribution of Mean and SD Related to the Selection

of Asean Programs vs Malaysian Programs

Indonesia 3.1 .70
The Philippines 3.0 .80

Thailand 3.0 .80
Singapore 2.6 .90
THE MOST POPULAR ASEAN PRODUCTION
When asked to rank the most popular Asean production on Malaysian TV, 55 percent
stated that they favored the Singapore’s production. This can be attributed to, “ Phua Chu
Kang, ”the popular Singapore’s sitcom aired on TV3. Thailand’s production was at number
two with 49 percent. Thirdly it was the Philippines (42 percent) and Indonesia was rank
number four with 32 percent. It is interesting to note that even though the Singapore’s
production was considered the most popular Asean production, yet if respondents were to
choose between watching a Malaysian or Asean programs, many agreed that they would
chose Indonesia instead of Singapore’s programs.
Table 6: Ranking of the Asean Production
Items (N=193) %
Singapore 55
Thailand 49
The Philippines 42
Indonesia 32

THE IMPACT OF ASEAN PROGRAMS
Asean programs shared some of the characteristics of the Western production. Not
surprisingly, some of these programs aired not only have interesting story line, yet many
showed modern life style akin to that of the life style of the rich and famous. The study
finds that when asked of their perceptions of the impact of the Asean programs, it was
found that the respondents perceived the character’s life style were interesting to imitate
(mean=3.12). Obviously, most of these characters were shown as leading a modern, stylish
and trendy life style. The three items that the respondents felt would be of interest to the
audience were; trendy clothing (mean=2.86), the hairstyle (mean=2.82) and the language
used by the characters (mean=2.68).
102
Asean Delights
Interestingly, the respondents have also suggested that the scheduling of these
programs will also play an important role to influence their emotions (mean=2.46). Thus
it can be suggested that programs aired later in the day will affect audience differently as
compared to programs aired during the day. While the mean scale values for the three
items were found to be rather low, thus there is a possibility that these items do not have
a strong impact on the audience. Sometimes the habit of imitating this drama can have
a positive impact on the audience. For example, some of the audience enjoys imitating
the language used in the programs. Coupled this with their interest in the language, they
would probably learned the language and this would definitely helped in forming a multi
language community (mean=2.26).
Table 7:Distribution of Mean and SD Related to the Impact

of Asean Programs

Interesting life style to imitate 3.12 .70
Trendy clothing
2.86 .76
Hairstyle
2.82 .76
Language used by the
characters 2.68 .75
Influence emotions
2.46 .74
Helped formed a multi
language community 2.26 .80
CONCLUSION
Malaysian TV industry is thriving with the market growing with over 300 companies
registered with FINAS (National Film). The industry will be expanding even further
with the introduction of more channels and many uplink sites. Other Asean countries are
also having a proliferation of channels due to introduction of pay-TV cable services, new
satellite-based and new free-to-air channels. It is expected there will be huge program
requirements in terms of content due to increase in number of broadcast transponders.
Hence, regional viewers will have more choices. Consequently, the demand for quality
program is growing rapidly and today we are seeing locals as well as ASEAN producing
better program. However, whether these programs will impact the audience or otherwise,
it would be difficult to answer unless a media impact study is conducted to further examine
the issue.
103
REFERENCES
ASEAN Homepage at http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm date June 2005
http://www.aseansec.org/9923.htm date June 2005
http://www.culturelink.or.kr/doc/Appendix%20summary%20of%20Forum.doc date June

2005
Hovace and Newcomb. (1994). Television – The Critical Review (5th edition). London: Oxford
University Press Inc.
Keshigshoglru, J. & Aquila, P. (2005). Electronic broadcast media in Singpore
Kotler, Philip & Kartajaya, Hermawas, and Hooi Den Husin. (2007). Think ASEAN!
Rethinking Marketing toward ASEAN Community 2015. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
104
Perspektif Penerbit
Jurnal tentang Isu
Pengajian -isu Kritikal
Media dalam P
Malaysia Jilid 11
enyediaan
dan Pembekalan Buku Teks Sekolah di Malaysia
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 105-112
P erspektif P enerbit tentang I su - isu

Kritikal dalam Penyediaan dan Pembekalan
Buku Teks Sekolah di Malaysia
MD. SIDIN AHMAD ISHAK
ABSTRACT
Textbook publishing in Malaysia is generally a lucrative business and publishers are competing
among themselves to secure government contracts to provide books for a captive market in the
public schools. The process for approval, however, is very competitive and publishers are subject to
various regulations, procedures and guidelines. This paper, through a large focus group, identifies
and explains some of the major isues and challenges of textbook publishing from the publishers
perspectives.
Key words: textook publishing, publishers, book market, Malaysian education, educational
publishing.
PENGENALAN
Apabila kerajaan mengumumkan bahawa pelajaran matematik dan sains akan

dikembalikan pengajarannya ke dalam bahasa Malaysia daripada pengantar bahasa
Inggeris mulai tahun 2012, salah satu pihak yang menerima implikasinya ialah sektor
buku teks. Perubahan polisi dalam bahasa pengantar pengajaran bermakna berubahnya
bahan pengajaran dan alat bantu pembelajaran terutamanya buku teks, buku latihan dan
buku tambahan yang digunakan di dalam bilik darjah. Perubahan ini melibatkan kos yang
tinggi kerana perbelanjaan terhadapnya adalah besar.
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti dan menghuraikan masalah-masalah

kritikal yang dihadapi oleh penerbit dalam proses pembekalan buku teks oleh penerbit
swasta kepada Kementerian Pelajaran. Huraian ini adalah penting untuk memahami
permasalahan tersebut yang boleh menjejaskan pelaksanaan pembekalan jika tidak
ditangani dan diambil pengajaran daripadanya. Memandangkan proses pembekalan yang
baru sedang bermula dan iklan tawaran tender telah pun dikeluarkan oleh Kementerian
Pelajaran pada Oktober 2009 maka hasil kajian ini penting untuk dijadikan rujukan.
105
KAEDAH KAJIAN
Kajian ini bersifat kualitatif dengan menggunakan kaedah perbincangan terbuka terhadap
kumpulan fokus yang terdiri daripada ahli-ahli Persatuan Penerbit Buku Malaysia
(MABOPA) dalam sesi perbincangan khas yang diadakan pada 19 Ogos 2004, di Holiday
Villa, Subang Jaya. Sebanyak lima puluh lapan penerbit telah terlibat dalam kumpulan
fokus ini dan sampel ini merupakan 37 peratus daripada keseluruhan populasi. Setiap
penerbit diwakili oleh pemilik syarikat sendiri atau pegawai kanan masing-masing yang
terdiri daripada pengarah urusan, pengarah penerbitan atau pengurus editorial.
Penyelidik telah mengetuai kumpulan ini sebagai pengerusi kumpulan fokus

dengan dibantu oleh dua orang penyelidik lain yang mencatat respons daripada ahli
kumpulan. Soalan-soalan asas dikemukakan oleh penyelidik dan responden menjawab
serta menghujahkannya secara mendalam. Selain mencetuskan soalan-soalan mendalam,
menyelidik berperanan memandu perbincangan supaya tidak menyeleweng daripada
topik.
KERANGKA PENERBITAN BUKU SEKOLAH
Jika ditinjau dari segi usaha-usaha pembangunan buku teks secara umumnya di negara-
negara di dunia, pelbagai kaedah digunakan untuk sekolah-sekolah yang dinaungi pihak
pemerintah. Pada satu ekstrim, ada negara yang mengamalkan dasar kawalan penuh
manakala dalam ekstrim yang lain terdapat negara yang membuka peluang dengan luas
dan membiarkan pihak pengurusan sekolah memilih yang bersesuaian dengan keperluan
mereka. Di kebanyakan negara Asean, pihak pemerintah pada umumnya memonopoli
hak penerbitan buku teks khususnya untuk peringkat sekolah rendah.
Namun kuasa penuh selalunya tidak disenangi oleh pengamal-pengamal

penerbitan khususnya penerbit dan pencetak maka dengan itu terdapat kelonggaran
tertentu supaya ada penyertaan yang lebih baik daripada pelbagai pihak yang
berkepentingan. Walau bagaimanapun, kerangka yang digunakan dalam pelaksanaan
penerbitan buku teks adalah dipengaruhi oleh persekitaran dan dasar-dasar yang
diamalkan oleh sesebuah negara. Dasar-dasar tersebut menentukan proses penerbitan
daripada penyediaan manuskrip oleh penulis hinggalah kepada proses penyuntingan,
percetakan dan pembekalan ke sekolah-sekolah.
PENERBITAN DAN PEMBEKALAN BUKU TEKS DI MALAYSIA
Penerbitan buku teks merupakan aktiviti perniagaan yang dianggap menarik dan
menguntungkan. Para penerbit bersaing untuk mendapatkan kontrak kerajaan bagi
membekalkan buku teks bagi pasaran yang sedia ada iaitu pelajar sekolah rendah dan
menengah kerajaan. Kini terdapat lebih daripada tiga juta pelajar sekolah rendah dan dua
juta pelajar sekolah menengah. Secara keseluruhannya kerajaan Malaysia membelanjakan
lebih RM100 juta stiap tahun untuk menyediakan buku teks yang diberi secara percuma
kepada sebahagian besar murid di sekolah bantuan kerajaan di bawah Skim Pinjaman
Buku Teks. Jumlah ini tidak termasuk peruntukan RM5 juta setiap tahun sejak tahun 2000
untuk pembekalan buku bacaan tambahan ke perpustakaan-perpustakaan khususnya di
luar bandar.
106
Perspektif Penerbit tentang Isu-isu Kritikal dalam Penyediaan
Penerbitan buku teks di Malaysia adalah di bawah kelolaan Bahagian Buku Teks
(BBT) Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Pada mulanya BBT dikenali sebagai Biro Buku
Teks tetapi penukaran nama dilakukan pada tahun 1988. Apabila Biro Buku Teks ditukar
nama kepada Bahagian Buku Teks (BBT), fungsinya dikemaskinikan supaya meliputi
tugas-tugas menguruskan pemerakuan buku teks, menetapkan harga, mengawal mutu
fizikal buku, melaksanakan skim pinjaman buku teks, mengawal penggunaan buku teks
dan menyemak semula buku teks (Laporan Jawatan Kuasa Kabinet, 1988).
Sebenarnya fungsi BBT mengalami perubahan demi perubahan. Misalnya, apabila

BBT diberi tugas menyelaraskan proses penerbitan pakej buku teks mulai tahun 1995 yang
terdiri daripada buku teks utama, buku latihan dan aktiviti serta buku panduan guru,
fungsinya telah melangkaui pemantauan dan pemerakuan buku teks semata-mata. Malah,
menurut Mus Chairil Samani, (2003), sedikit demi sedikit, BBT bertindak sebagai sebuah
syarikat penerbitan. Fungsi jualan dilakukan oleh BBT mulai tahun 2002 dengan kegiatan-
kegiatan penjualan buku teks. Misalnya pada awal tahun 2002, semua penerbit yang
terlibat dalam kontrak penerbitan telah diarahkan supaya mengambil bahagian dalam
jualan berpusat yang dilangsungkan di Pusat Kokurikulum Jabatan Pendidikan. Tujuan
penjualan setempat ini bagi BBT adalah untuk memudahkan ibu bapa membeli buku-
buku teks sekolah bagi anak-anak mereka (Mus Chairil, 2003).
Penerbitan buku teks di Malaysia ditangani oleh dua kategori penerbit iaitu
Penerbit Kerajaan dan Penerbit Swasta. Penerbit Kerajaan yang paling aktif ialah Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka dan kedudukannya sebagai penerbit buku teks sekolah rendah
sebenarnya dijamin di bawah Laporan Jawatankuasa Kabinet mengkaji pelaksanaan
dasar Pelajaran 1979. Walau bagaimanapun DBP mengadakan program payung untuk
melibatkan penerbit-penerbit swasta bumiputera turut serta. Penerbit bumiputera dan
penerbit bukan bumiputera dari kalangan swasta boleh menyertai kontrak penerbitan
dengan BBT bagi buku sekolah rendah jenis kebangsaan dan sekolah menengah. Pada
tahun 2001 terdapat 351 syarikat swasta yang berdaftar dengan BBT untuk menerbitkan
buku teks (Senarai Penerbit Buku Teks KPM, 2001). Menurut analisis Mus Chairil (2003),
daripada jumlah tersebut, terdapat 113 penerbit atau 32 peratus yang bergiat cergas dalam
penerbitan buku teks.
Mengikut peraturan BBT, semua penerbit yang ingin mendapat kontrak penerbitan
wajib mendaftar dengannya serta dengan Kementerian Kewangan di bawah kod Bahan
bacaan. Mereka juga semasa membeli dokumen tender penerbitan mestilah menunjukkan
bukti mempunyai Sijil Akaun Pendaftaran Kontraktor yang masih sah tempohnya yang
dikeluarkan oleh Kementerian Kewangan. Seterusnya, syarikat penerbitan juga mestilah
mempunyai modal berbayar sekurang-kurangnya RM200,000 atau modal pusingan
sekurang-kurangnya RM100,000 (Mus Chairil, 2003). Syarat pengalaman dalam penerbitan
buku teks juga diwajibkan selain penerbit dikehendaki menunjukkan penyata akaun bank
dalam tempoh tiga bulan terakhir. Seterusnya pemeriksaan premis dilakukan oleh BBT
melalui panel jawatankuasa khas yang dilantik.
Sistem pembekalan buku teks BBT meliputi beberapa jenis termasuk system
tertutup dan system terbuka. Di bawah system terbuka, penerbit yang berdaftar bersaing
untuk menyediakan dan menghasilkan buku mengikut piawai yang ditetapkan. Salah satu
keperluan dalam system ini ialah penyediaan pruf halaman sebanyak 30% dan pemetaan
bahan penulisan keseluruhan teks. Peringkat ini dianggap sangat kritikal kerana kejayaan
107
mendapatkan kontrak adalah bergantung kepada penilaian terhadap bahan ini. Syarat
30% pruf halaman ini walau bagaimanapun telah dimansuhkan selepas tahun 2003 kerana
menghadapi pelbagai masalah.
BBT mempunyai panduan penilaian yang ketat dalam proses memperakukan

buku teks. Proses penilaian ini lazimnya melibatkan enam peringkat iaitu pendedahan
taklimat, penyediaan manuskrip, penilaian manuskrip, pembetulan manuskrip, naskhah
contoh dan kelulusan akhir. Di sebalik itu, BBT menyebut dalam piagam pelanggannya
untuk menguruskan pemerolehan dan pembekalan pakej buku teks dalam tempoh 18
bulan. Selain itu BBT juga berharap untuk memastikan pembekalan buku teks berada
di pasaran terbuka sebelum 1 Disember setiap tahun dan pembekalan buku teks SPBT
sampai ke sekolah sebelum sesi persekolahan bermula.
CABARAN-CABARAN UTAMA
Dalam proses mendapatkan data daripada kajian ini, para peserta dalam kumpulan panel
diberi peluang untuk menyatakan isu-isu kritikal yang merupakan cabaran kepada mereka
dalam proses penyediaan buku teks. Ahli-ahli panel diberi kebebasan untuk menyatakan
perspektif masing-masing sama ada dalam mengemukakan isu, membincangkan isu,
menyokong dan menambah maklumat yang dikemukakan oleh ahli panel lain mahupun
membidas isu-isu tersebut. Ahli-ahli panel juga dibenarkan memberi cadangan-cadangan
untuk menangani masalah dan cabaran yang dikemukakan. Data dan maklumat daripada
kajian ini telah dikumpulkan dan hasilnya disimpulkan seperti di bawah secara deskriptif.
Tempoh Penghasilan Manuskrip
Secara keseluruhannya, ahli-ahli kumpulan panel bersetuju bahawa masalah kualiti

merupakan cabaran penting dan mereka sependapat bahawa pertimbangan paling utama
dalam mana-mana penerbitan buku teks adalah pada persoalan kualiti. Oleh itu buku teks
yang dihasilkan mestilah mencapai kualiti yang terbaik demi kepentingan pendidikan dan
masa depan generasi muda negara kita. Buku-buku teks mestilah bermutu tinggi supaya
dapat mencapai objektif pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan sebagaimana yang
dihasratkan dalam sistem pendidikan negara.
Buku teks yang baik merupakan hasil daripada manuskrip yang baik. Manuskrip
yang baik bukan sahaja memerlukan penulis yang mahir tetapi juga memerlukan masa
yang cukup untuk merancang, menyelidik, mendraf dan menterjemahkan idea-ideanya
ke dalam bentuk tulisan. Oleh itu, kualiti penulisan buku teks tidak seharusnya dijejaskan
oleh keadaan yang terburu-buru kerana tempoh masa yang sangat terbatas yang
diperuntukkan kepada penerbit dan penulis. Dalam proses yang diamalkan sekarang,
BBT memberi tempoh yang lebih panjang kepada pegawai-pegawai mereka untuk
menjalankan kerja-kerja suntingan sedangkan masa untuk penerbit membuat kerja-kerja
penulisan adalah terhad dan ini ternyata tidak praktikal dan tidak membantu ke arah
penghasilan manuskrip yang baik. Walaupun 18 bulan kelihatan panjang tetapi tempoh
tersebut meliputi semua proeses dan masa yang diberi untuk menyediakan masuskrip itu
sendiri dalam kurang daripada tiga bulan. Tempoh ini tentulah tidak wajar dan kualiti
buku ternyata akan terjejas.
108
Masalah Polisi dan Panduan Penerbitan
Polisi dan panduan penerbitan yang disediakan bukan sahaja tidak jelas tetapi tidak tetap
dan malahan sentiasa berubah-ubah kerana pelbagai factor. Keadaan ini dianggap sangat
menjejaskan proses penyediaan buku teks yang baik. Polisi dan panduan yang telah
ditetapkan kerapkali tidak diikuti sepanjang proses penyediaan buku teks untuk satu-satu
program penerbitan. Ini menjejaskan kelancaran dan kesinambungan. Biasanya, apabila
seseorang pegawai kementerian berubah semasa proses penyediaan buku teks sedang
berlangsung, pegawai tersebut cenderung untuk melakukan sesuatu perubahan dan ini
sudah pasti akan menganggu kerja-kerja penulisan atau penyuntingan. Perubahan polisi
tidak seharusnya berlaku apabila perubahan atau perpindahan pegawai berlaku. Perubahan
pada garis panduan tidak seharusnya dilakukan hanya kerana strategi dan cita rasa yang
berbeza. Perubahan-perubahan seperti ini merumitkan proses kerja, mengelirukan penulis
dan penyunting, serta membebankan penerbit dari segi kos penerbitan.
Perubahan-perubahan juga kerapkali melibatkan para pegawai Kementerian

Pendidikan di Bahagian Buku Teks dan di Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. Jika
perubahan terlalu kerap maka masalah kesinambungan akan timbul. Pegawai-pegawai
muda pula mempunyai kurang pengalaman dan kemahiran untuk menangani buku teks.
Ini menimbulkan masalah kecekapan dan keberkesanan dalam penghasilan buku teks
yang berkualiti.
Syarikat Bumiputera dan Bukan Bumiputera
Penerbit yang terbaik tidak kira bumiputera atau bukan bumiputera ialah penerbit yang
boleh memberi perkhidmatan yang terbaik. Polisi yang memberi keutamaan kepada
penerbit bumiputera memberi kemungkinan yang tinggi terhadap pemilihan kepada
manuskrip yang tidak berkualiti. Jika sebuah penerbit secara sendirian tidak berupaya
memberi perkhidmatan yang terbaik, perkongsian pintar perlu diwujudkan bagi
memperkukuh dan memantapkan keberkesanan mereka. Pemilihan penerbit dalam hal
ini hendaklah berdasarkan faktor yang jelas iaitu mereka yang telah menunjukkan rekod
prestasi dan sejarah penerbitan yang cemerlang dan ini bermakna penerbit-penerbit yang
telah mantap.
Namun pada masa yang sama, ada juga penerbit-penerbit muda yang
menunjukkan kegigihan serta keghairahan kakitangannya untuk melaksanakan kerja-
kerja yang dipertanggungjawabkan. Penerbit-penerbit muda seperti ini harus diberi
peluang untuk membuktikan kebolehan dan sokongan padu mereka dan cara ini dapat
membantu ke arah mewujudkan kesinambungan industri penerbitan di negara.
Setiap polisi penerbitan dan pemberian kontrak penerbitan mestilah membantu

ke arah memantapkan kualiti buku teks. Pertimbangan penting bagi sesebuah buku perlu
difokuskan pada tujuan pendidikan, bukan pada aspek-aspek lain yang kurang berkaitan.
Amalan Pembahagian Zon
Amalan pembahagian zon kepada penerbit-penerbit diwujudkan untuk menghasilkan

sesebuah buku teks yang sama judulnya tetapi berbeza persembahan kandungannya.
Ideanya adalah agar sesuatu judul tidak dimonopoli oleh sesebuah penerbit dan juga
agar penerbitan dan pengedaran yang lebih berkesan dapat dijalankan melalui tumpuan
yang sepenuhnya ke atas sesebuah zon. Namun, pelbagai masalah timbul sehingga tujuan
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asalnya kerapkali tidak tercapai. Dalam hal ini pihak sekolah atau guru-guru melalui
jawatankuasa mereka dan perakuan daripada Kementerian Pendidikan hendaklah diberi
peluang serta kebebasan untuk memilih judul-judul yang terbaik dan yang paling sesuai
bagi kegunaan mereka.
Masalah Komunikasi
Pelbagai pihak terlibat dalam proses pembekalan buku dan proses ini terjejas oleh masalah-
masalah yang berkaitan dengan komunikasi antara pihak-pihak tersebut. Pertama adalah
antara kementerian pendidikan dengan kementerian perdagangan antarabangsa khususnya
tentang aspek-aspek perdagangan yang melibatkan kertas dan bahan-bahan percetakan.
Kedua adalah antara jabatan-jabatan dalam kementerian pendidikan khususnya Bahagian
Buku Teks dengan Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum dalam aspek kurikulum seperti
kandungan, huraian dan tafsiran sukatan pelajaran serta format peperiksaan. Ketiga
adalah antara kementerian pendidikan dengan industri iaitu para penerbit dan pengedar
buku yang terlibat. Prinsip yang asas hendaklah diutamakan iaitu ketelusan dan kejelasan
untuk memastikan proses komunikasi berjalan dengan berkesan. Bukan sahaja sesi-sesi
dialog perlu diadakan antara kementerian pendidikan dengan pihak industri tetapi juga
kerjasama yang rapat antara kedua-dua pihak perlu diwujudkan demi kesefahaman dan
keberkesanan perhubungan. Maklumat-maklumat daripada kementerian yang penting
untuk diketahui oleh para penerbit perlu disampaikan secara terbuka dan pantas untuk
memastikan respons yang tepat dan cepat.
Tempoh Penggunaan Buku Teks
Tempoh penggunaan sehingga lapan hingga ke sepuluh tahun sebagaimana yang diamalkan
adalah terlalu panjang. Buku teks mengandungi bahan-bahan semasa yang kerap berubah
kerana fakta-fakta yang berubah. Banyak maklumat dalam buku menjadi lapuk dan tidak
kemaskini dalam masa yang singkat. Buku teks mestilah sentiasa mengandungi maklumat-
maklumat pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang kemaskini. Hakikat ini memerlukan penulis
dan penerbit untuk membuat perubahan dari semasa ke semasa sama ada dengan cara
menghasilkan buku-buku yang baru atau membuat edisi baru. Bagi memastikan bahawa
kandungannya tidak ketinggalan masa, penggunaan sesebuah buku teks hendaklah bagi
sesuatu tempoh yang tidak melebihi lima tahun.
Jenis Kertas
Kualiti fizikal buku juga perlu diambil pertimbangan khususnya dalam pemilihan kertas.
Penggunaan kertas yang kurang bermutu untuk buku teks empat warna misalnya adalah
tidak sesuai kerana ia menjejaskan kualiti.
Isu Royalti
Dalam amalan sekarang, penerbit yang terpilih disyaratkan supaya memberi royalti
kepada Bahagian Buku Teks, Kementerian Pendidikan dengan kadar minimum sebanyak
lima peratus. Dalam amalan penerbitan, royalti biasanya dibayar kepada pemegang hak
cipta iaitu pengarang buku tetapi dalam syarat kementerian Pendidikan, apakah rasional
sebenarnya? Syarat pemberian royalti ini wajar dikaji semula atau dimansuhkan terus
memandangkan ia merupakan kos tambahan yang perlu ditampung oleh penerbit dan
ia sudah tentu akan meningkatkan kos pengeluaran dan juga harga buku. Jika royalti ini
dikekalkan, hendaklah dipastikan supaya royalti itu digunakan semula untuk membiayai
110
kegiatan-kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan pembangunan dan kemajuan buku.
Promosi Buku di Sekolah
Kementerian Pendidikan mempunyai peraturan yang menghalang penerbit dan penjual

buku membuat promosi judul-judul terbitan mereka di sekolah. Promosi adalah sebahagian
penting dalam proses penerbitan buku. Malah promosi dapat member pengetahuan yang
lebih baik tentang buku-buku yang diterbitkan. Para penerbit hendaklah diberi peluang
dan kebebasan untuk mempromosikan buku di sekolah-sekolah dan institusi pengajian.
Aktiviti-aktiviti seperti pameran dan penjualan buku di tempat-tempat tersebut tidak
seharusnya disekat tetapi sebaliknya hendaklah digalakkan kerana ia boleh mendekatkan
pelajar dengan buku bagi menarik minat mereka ke arah pembacaan.
KESIMPULAN
Penerbitan buku teks merupakan salah satu subsektor yang utama dalam industri
penerbitan di Malaysia. Sebagai bahan pendidikan yang penting, buku teks yang dihasilkan
melalui kerjasama antara Kementerian Pendidikan dengan penerbit-penerbit swasta perlu
ditangani dengan serius. Ia juga memerlukan semangat kepercayaan dan tanggungjawab
yang tinggi oleh kedua-dua belah pihak yang terlibat kerana tanpa semangat tersebut,
pendidikan generasi muda akan terjejas. Oleh itu setiap masalah yang timbul dalam
proses penerbitan itu haruslah dibincangkan secara jujur dan telus. Masalah-masalah yang
dibincangkan diambil perhatian supaya polisi dan panduan baru bukan sahaja tidak akan
menimbulkan kerumitan kepada semua pihak yang terlibat tetapi juga tidak menjejaskan
pembelajaran dan pengajaran di sekolah.
111
RUJUKAN
Bahagian Buku Teks. (1991). Pelaksanaan dan Pengurusan Skim Pinjaman Buku Teks. Kuala
Lumpur: Bahagian Buku Teks, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Bahagian Buku Teks. (1996). Kaedah Penerbitan Buku KBSR Untuk Kegunaan 1998. Tidak
diterbitkan.
Bahagian Buku Teks. (2000). Pelaksanaan dan Pengurusan Skim Pinjaman Buku Teks. Kuala
Lumpur: Bahagian Buku Teks, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Bahagian Buku Teks. (2001). Iklan Program Penerbitan Buku KBSR/KBSM Kegunaan
Mulai 2004 Tawaran Sebagai Penulis.
Bahagian Buku Teks. (2001). Senarai Penerbit Buku Teks Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Tidak diterbitkan.
Mus Chairil Samani. (2003). Pembangunan Buku Teks Sekolah di Malaysia: Dasar, Amalan
dan Ekonomi Penerbitan. Tesis PhD, Jabatan Pengajian Media, Universiti Malaya, tidak
diterbitkan.
Ng Tieh Chuan. (2005). Trends in Malaysian book Publishing. Kertas kerja yang
dibentangkan pada Round Table Forum tentang “ASEAN Publishing Trend”, pada 26
March, 2005 di Bangkok, Thailand.
Unit Perolehan dan Kontrak Sektor Dasar, Perolehan dan Penyelidikan Bahagian Buku Teks.
(2005). Dokumen Tender Menerbit, Mencetak dan Membekal Buku Glosari Matematik dan
Sains bagi Sekolah Rendah dan Sekolah Menengah, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
112
Pengaruh BaratPengajian
Jurnal dalam Persuratan
Media Melayu Awal diJilid
Malaysia Malaysia
11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 113-132
Pengaruh Barat dalam Persuratan Melayu

Awal di Malaysia
MOHAMMAD SALEEH RAHAMAD
ABSTRAK
Makalah ini bersifat análisis historikal tentang pengaruh Barat dalam persuratan Melayu di
Malaysia sejak kemunculan sastera bertulis sehingga periode awal sastera modennya. Bermula
dengan sastera sejarah dan epik yang terhasil dalam abad ke-17 dan 18, sastera Melayu terus
menyentuh citra Barat sama ada dalam soal genre mahupun unsur dalaman teksnya. Abdullah
Munsyi yang berdamping dengan pegawai kolonial telah memperlihatkan kesan intelektualnya
yang menyebelahi Barat dari segi peradaban. Lanjutan daripada itu, sastera moden di Malaysia
yang mula berkembang pada dekad 20-an terus membuka ruang pewacanaan oksidentalismenya.
Oksidentalisme yang disalurkan melalui karya sastera moden di Malaysia pada dekad 20-an ini
terhasil daripada hubungan yang berlaku antara intelektual Melayu dengan dunia akademia di
Mesir yang terbuka kepada kemasukan idea dari Perancis. Menjelang dekad 20-an, novel-novel
Melayu sudah memperlihatkan pengaruh Barat dari sudut idea dan peradaban yang dipandang
murni oleh pengarang peribumi. Mereka mengakomodasikan nilai tersebut dengan gerakan sosial
di Tanah Melayu dan menjadikan wacana oksidentalisme bersifat pro-Barat. Demikian juga yang
terlihat dalam dekad 30-an apabila pengaruh itu masih menular di samping lahir pula pandangan
kontra yang menanggapi nilai peradaban Barat sebagai pencetus kerosakan akhlak dalam
masyarakat. Kesan daripada urbanisasi menjadikan kota sebagai citra kebobrokan sosial kerana di
situlah berhimpunnya nilai Barat yang mengisi ruang hiburan yang hedonistik. Pemerhatian yang
bersifat historikal ini akan memberikan gambaran wajah oksidentalisme di Malaysia pada periode
awal pertembungannya dengan Barat.
Kata kunci: pascakolonial, kolonialisme, neokolonialisme, oksidentalisme.
PENDAHULUAN
Makalah ini akan menelusuri jejak oksidentalisme dalam persuratan Melayu amnya,
dan khususnya bagi karya prosa. Periode yang dibataskan adalah sejak kemunculan
persuratan Melayu yang menerima pengaruh hingga dekad 30-an. Dekad 20-an dianggap
sebagai periode awal kemunculan sastera moden dengan kelahiran genre novel dalam
corak realisme. Dalam tempoh tersebut Malaysia atau Tanah Melayu masih diperintah
oleh Inggeris sehinggalah Tanah Melayu mencapai kemerdekaan pada tahun 1957.
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Sebagai bekas tanah jajahan dan kemudian berlanjutan dalam bentuk hubungan bersifat
hegemonik dengan kuasa-kuasa Barat khususnya, Malaysia pasti menerima kesan
daripada pertembungan itu, sama ada secara langsung mahupun tidak langsung. Kesan
pertembungan turut meresap ke dalam hasil kesusasteraan kerana pengarang tidak dapat
lari daripada memaparkan imej Barat dalam karya mereka secara perseptif. Lantaran itu,
hasil kesusasteraannya sejak era tradisional atau pramoden lagi telah membentuk wacana
oksidentalisme sama ada secara tegar mahupun dalam bentuk sisipan sahaja. Sebelum
dibincangkan kemunculan wacana oksidentalisme dalam karya kesusasteraan, pertautan
antara kolonialisme dengan kesusasteraan akan dibincangkan.
HUBUNGAN ANTARA KESUSASTERAAN DENGAN (NEO-)

KOLONIALISME
Kesusasteraan menjadi wadah budaya yang menghimpunkan reaksi penulis terhadap

kolonialisme kerana sebelum itu pun kolonial telah menjadikan kesusasteraan sebagai
senjata budaya untuk mengesahkan agenda kolonialisme mereka. Hubungan ini wujud
dalam pelbagai wajah, sama ada hubungan saling membenci mahupun saling menyukai.
Penulis yang mempunyai pandangan dan agenda tersendiri akan menyisipkan idealism
mereka dalam karya masing-masing. Sikap yang terpapar dalam karya pascakolonial ini
telah telah banyak dikaji oleh sarjana Barat mahupun dari negara bekas tanah jajahan
seperti India, Afrika, China dan Malaysia sendiri. Edward Said (1995:12—13), dalam
bukunya Kebudayaan dan Kekuasaan (versi Inggerisnya Culture and Imperialism), ketika
membincangkan perkaitan antara penjajahan dengan kesusasteraan menyatakan
…cerita-cerita merupakan inti dari apa yang dikatakan oleh para penjelajah
dan novelis mengenai wilayah-wilayah dunia yang aneh; narasi juga
menjadi metode yang digunakan oleh bangsa terjajah untuk menegaskan
jati diri dan eksistensi sejarah mereka sendiri. Peperangan utama dalam
imperialisme tentu saja untuk merebut tanah; tetapi ketika sampai pada
masalah siapa yang memiliki tanah itu, siapa yang berhak menetap dan
menggarapnya, yang mempertahankannya, yang merebutnya kembali,
dan yang kini merencanakan masa depannya—isu-isu ini direnungkan,
digugat, dan bahkan untuk suatu masa yang ditetapkan dalam narasi.

Pandangan Edward Said itu mengukuhkan pengalaman sejarah kolonialisme
dalam soal memperteguh kekuasaan kolonial di tanah jajahan. Maksudnya, kekerasan
mungkin digunakan untuk menceroboh sesebuah wilayah tetapi pencerobohan tidak
akan bertahan lama jika tidak disertai pengukuhan dalam ruang pemikiran. Ideologi
kolonialisme akan berfungsi untuk menguasai pemikiran peribumi supaya mereka tetap
mengakui keabsahan kuasa penjajah itu.
Demikian juga sebaliknya, peribumi yang terjajah turut menggunakan

kesusasteraan sebagai alat untuk merebut kembali kekuasaan dan tanah yang terampas
serta meneguhkan legasi kebudayaan sendiri (Leela Gandhi, 1998:142). Namun begitu,
dalam karya yang ditulis oleh pengarang peribumi, imej penjajah akan muncul dalam
pelbagai wajah, sama ada negatif mahupun positif, berdasarkan kecenderungan ideologi
mereka. Dalam era penjajahan, lazimnya keberanian pengarang peribumi tersekat oleh
kekangan yang diwujudkan oleh penjajah. Sukar bagi pengarang peribumi melampiaskan
keinginan menyanggah kehadiran penjajah secara terbuka dan berterus-terang kerana
kuasa mengizinkan penerbitan dipegang oleh badan tertentu yang dilantik oleh penjajah.
Begitupun, tidak kurang juga penulis yang cenderung menerima nilai Barat sebagai
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pakaian hidup mereka kerana mentaliti mereka sudah dilenturkan oleh pendidikan dan
pengalaman yang berkiblatkan Barat. Pokoknya, pengarang peribumi tidak terlepas
daripada keinginan untuk mencitrakan kuasa penjajah dalam karya mereka kerana
pengarang memiliki agenda sosial, yakni menyampaikan gambaran realiti sosial dan
kesedaran kelompoknya selain idealisme masing-masing.
Oleh hal yang demikian, ternyata bahawa hubungan antara penjajahan dengan
kesusasteraan dapat dimanfaatkan dengan pelbagai tujuan. Kesan daripada penjajahan
dalam hasil kesusasteraan juga tidak hanya terbatas dalam karya yang terhasil semasa era
penjajahan malahan berlarutan dan semakin kuat setelah berakhirnya penjajahan. Reaksi
penulis terhadap nilai dan hegemoni yang ditekankan oleh kuasa penjajah tidak pernah
berakhir kerana walaupun secara political penjajahan tidak wujud lagi. Hal ini demikian
kerana penjajahan pun sebenarnya tidak pernah berakhir secara total, sebaliknya masih
bertarusan dalam bentuk neokolonialisme atau neoimperialisme.
Walaupun era kolonialisme sudah berakhir dari segi politiknya, penguasaan

penjajah lazimnya masih berleluasa dalam segenap bidang kehidupan secara hegemonik
dalam bentuk neokolonialisme. Istilah neokolonialisme mula diperkatakan pada tahun
1961, empat tahun selepas Ghana mencapai kemerdekaan, dan dihuraikan secara teoretikal
oleh Kwame Nkrumah, pemimpin Ghana, dalam bukunya Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage
of Imperialism (1965). Menurut Nkrumah, neokolonialisme bermaksud, sesebuah negara
itu mempunyai kedaulatan dan kemerdekaan daripada sebarang penaklukan kuasa asing
tetapi pada realiti sistem ekonomi dan dasar politiknya ditentukan oleh pihak luar (Young,
2001:46). Dalam kaitan itu, Tiffin dan Lawson (1994:9) menegaskan bahawa hegemoni
Eropah tidak berakhir dengan pengibaran ratusan bendera negara, tetapi mereka tetap
wujud dalam susunan politik, media, dan badan undang-undang. Keadaan ini tidak
disenangi oleh golongan peribumi negara-negara yang berkenaan lalu mereka melakukan
penentangan dalam bentuk yang lebih tersusun dengan menggunakan strategi budaya.
Mereka melakukan dekolonisasi, iaitu merungkaikan kuasa kolonialisme dalam segenap
aspek. Usaha ini membongkar aspek tersembunyi yang dipertahankan oleh institusi dan
gerakan budaya bagi tujuan mengekalkan kuasa hegemoni (Ashcroft, Griffiths dan Tifin,
2000:63).
Dalam strategi wacana balas (counter discourse), pelbagai cara boleh dilakukan
dan pelbagai kaedah telah disarankan seperti oleh Frantz Fanon, Wole Soyinka, dan
Edward Kamau Brathwaite. Dari sudut fizikal, menurut Fanon (1966: 29—30), dekolonisasi,
merupakan satu program kekacauan yang lengkap dan berterusan, tanpa tempoh transisi,
atau fenomena keganasan yang pasti. Sebagai satu program yang bertujuan mengubah
tatadunia daripada satu spesies manusia kepada spesies yang lain, dekolonisasi akan
mempertembungkan dua kuasa yang akan menggunakan segala cara, termasuk keganasan,
demi mencapai matlamatnya. Kata Fanon (1966:29—30), “The native who decides to put the
programme into practice, and to become its moving force, is ready for violence at all times.”
Walau bagaimanapun, kesusasteraan tidak wujud dalam bentuk kekerasan

kerana tumpuannya ialah mematahkan serangan pemikiran daripada karya persuratan.
Melalui jalur kesusasteraan, dekolonisasi memainkan fungsinya dalam bentuk gerakan
yang dikenali sebagai black consciousness (black writing), negritude, black experience, dan
slave narratives. Ngugi Wa Tiong’O dalam pengkaryaannya percaya bahawa bahasa
mempunyai kuasa yang kuat untuk menampilkan penentangan budaya terhadap penjajah
lalu beliau menulis dalam bahasa ibundanya, Gikuyu. Chinua Achebe pula melakukan
pengubahsuaian terhadap bahasa Inggeris dalam karyanya (Sohaimi Abdul Aziz,
115
2003:217). Teknik penolakan dan pengubahsuaian bahasa Inggeris atas dasar ideologis
pula dapat dilihat dalam karya K.S. Maniam, The Chord, karya Raja Rao, Kanthapura, dan
karya V.S. Naipaul, The Mystic Masseur (1957).
Reaksi budaya seperti ini terhadap elemen penjajah atau kuasa Barat wujud
dalam teks pascakolonial. Para pengarang pascakolonial melakukan penentangan secara
intelektual bagi membalas serangan kolonial melalui teks-teks yang dihasilkan oleh
pengarang orientalis atau kolonial kerana itulah antara cara yang dirasakan sesuai untuk
tujuan penentangan. Leela Ghandi (1998:142) menyatakan, “Texts, more than any other social
and political product...are the most significant instigators and purveyors of colonial power and
its double, postcolonial resistence.” Edward Said (1995:66) menyatakan, banyak pengarang
pascakolonial menyimpan sejarah penghinaan oleh penjajahan sebagai visi yang berpotensi
untuk ditinjau kembali sebagai pengalaman yang dapat ditafsirkan semula. Mereka yang
dahulu berdiam diri, mulai berbicara dan bertindak menyuarakan perjuangan terhadap
wilayah yang diperoleh kembali daripada penjajah.
Sehubungan dengan itu, Tiffin dan Lawson (1994:10) menyatakan, perlawanan

budaya antara karya kolonial dengan karya pascakolonial adalah dalam bentuk
pertandingan representasi atau dalam konteks sasteranya, teks sastera dilawan dengan
teks sastera juga:
Just as fire can be fought with fire, textual control can be fought with
textuality... . The post-colonial is especially and pressingly concerned
with the power that resides in discourse and textuality; its resistence, then
quite appropriately takes place in–and from—the domain of textuality, in
(among other things) motivated acts of reading. The contestation of post-
colonialism is a contest of representation.
Maksudnya, sebagaimana api boleh dilawan dengan api, pengawalan tekstual

juga boleh dilawan dengan tekstualiti. Pascakolonial khususnya sangat menitikberatkan
aspek kuasa yang terdapat dalam wacana dan teks. Dalam tekstualiti itu wujud unsur
penentangan, dan penentangan dalam pascakolonialisme merupakan penentangan
representasi. Maksudnya, paparan dalam teks pascakolonial dibentuk dan dicorakkan
secara ideologikal bagi memenuhi matlamat untuk mengenyahkan kolonialisme dan
imperialisme. Usaha para pengarang terus-menerus menerapkan unsur penentangan
terhadap kolonialisme dan imperialisme ini dapat disebut sebagai dekolonisasi rohani,
iaitu pembebasan jiwa dan pemikiran daripada belenggu penjajahan minda. Apabila
pengarang peribumi dapat menyisipkan ideologi kebangsaan ke dalam karya sastera
dengan menghadirkan imej Barat (khususnya bagi kajian ini), teks tersebut terbentuk
sebagai wacana oksidentalisme.
Namun begitu, wacana oksidentalisme tidak semestinya bercorak penentangan,

bahkan semua teks yang menghadirkan nilai dan citra Barat tergolong sebagai wacana
oksidentalisme. Di Malaysia, khususnya, wacana oksidentalisme dapat ditelusuri
kemunculannya sejak awal berlakunya pertembungan antara peribumi dengan kuasa
Barat, tetapi yang ketara dapat dikesan hanya dalam teks bertulis. Penelusuran wacana
oksidentalisme akan dipaparkan secara sepintas lalu dalam perbincangan seterusnya.

116
OKSIDENTALISME DALAM SASTERA MELAYU: BENIH AWAL HINGGA

DEKAD 30-AN
Wacana oksidentalisme sudah dapat ditemukan dalam karya agung Melayu abad ke-
17 lagi, iaitu Sulalat al-Salatin atau Sejarah Melayu dan kemudian disusuli oleh karya
epik Hikayat Hang Tuah, apabila kedatangan kuasa Eropah dipaparkan menurut sudut
pandangan peribumi. Kedua-dua teks itu terhasil setelah Barat mendatangi Tanah Melayu
sebagai kuasa penjajah atau musuh. Sejarah Melayu atau Sulalat al-Salatin disusun oleh
Tun Seri Lanang pada tahun 1612 daripada naskhah pemulanya, “Hikayat Melayu” yang
dibawa dari Goa pada zaman pemerintahan Yang Dipertuan di Hilir, Sultan Abdullah
Ma’ayat Syah di Pekan Tua, atau sesetengah sumber menyatakannya di Pasir Raja, Johor
[A. Samad Ahmad (peny.), 2000]. Hikayat Hang Tuah pula tertulis selepas kedatangan
Belanda ke Tanah Melayu pada tahun 1641 kerana ada disebutkan perihal kedatangan
Belanda (Wolanda) dalam teks tersebut. Pada bahagian pengenalan teks oleh Kasim
Ahmad ditegaskan bahawa Hikayat Hang Tuah tertulis selepas tahun 1641, iaitu tarikh
kedatangan Belanda ke Tanah Melayu dan sebelum tahun 1736 kerana catatan Werndly
pada tahun itu menyebutkan nama hikayat tersebut. Ada kemungkinan bahawa Hikayat
Hang Tuah tertulis seawal-awalnya tahun 1726 [Kasim Ahmad dan Noriah Mohamed
(peny.), 2008:xiv].
Kemunculan imej Barat dalam kedua-dua teks tersebut tidak begitu mendalam
kerana mereka yang diwakili oleh Portugis (Feringgi) dan Belanda (Wolanda) hanya
disebut sebagai penceroboh secara objektif tanpa ditelusuri jiwa dan perasaannya. Jadi,
Imej Barat yang terlukis cuma dalam bentuk naratif yang mengisi ruang zaman kejatuhan
Melaka. Penceritaan yang disampaikan sekadar menjelaskan peristiwa, bukannya
menggambarkan manusia.
Sebagai reaksi daripada pengarang peribumi, imej Barat itu dilukis secara negatif
atau paparan kaku. Dalam erti kata lain wacana oksidentalisme dalam karya klasik Melayu
itu mendikotomikan Timur (peribumi) dengan Barat (penjajah). Kaedah ini menutup
peluang kepada watak-watak Eropah itu bersuara dan mengemukakan pandangan mereka.
Kesannya, khalayak akan menanggapi mereka sebagai unsur luar yang bertanggungjawab
meruntuhkan empayar Melaka atau ketuanan Melayu (walaupun kedudukan raja Melayu
tidak pernah dapat dihapuskan kerana mereka berpindah lokasi pemerintahan). Pelukisan
sedemikian merupakan tindak balas menentang demi mengembalikan rasa bangga diri
dalam kalangan peribumi agar berani bangkit menentang penjajah dan memperlihatkan
kesedaran pengarang terhadap kuasa persuratan sebagai senjata budaya bagi menghadapi
musuh.
Apabila Inggeris menduduki Tanah Melayu melalui gerakan politik pada abad
ke-18 kesedaran peribumi terhadap peranan kuasa penjajah itu sudah mengalami proses
penjernihan. Sumbangan dan unsur kemodenan serta naungan yang lebih halus diberikan
oleh British telah membibitkan tanggapan positif dalam kalangan peribumi terhadap
British, apatah lagi sekiranya karya itu ditulis oleh orang yang mendapat naungan
daripada British. Hubungan individu dengan Barat sememangnya telah menghasilkan
teks yang mengikut acuan persuratan Barat yang mengutamakan bentuk realisme dan
mendefinisikan Barat dengan imej positif.
Hal ini ketara dalam karya Alaudin, Ahmad Rijaludin, dan Abdullah Munsyi
seorang jurutulis yang berkhidmat dengan pegawai kolonial. Menurut A. Wahab Ali
(dlm. Abdul Latiff Abu Bakar, 1984:160), hubungan antara penjajah Belanda dan Inggeris
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dengan peribumi tidak harmoni, tetapi pada peringkat individu hubungannya lebih
mesra, sehingga mewujudkan aksi peniruan dari segi penulisan. Jika dikaitkan dengan
teori pertembungan antara penjajah Sepanyol dengan peribumi Mexico yang dirumuskan
oleh Todorov, hubungan itu boleh sifatkan sebagai berbentuk epistemic level, iaitu berlegar
dalam ruang ilmu. Menurut Todorov, dalam corak hubungan ini penjajah menjadi
penyebar ilmu (pada tahap epistemologi) dan mengekalkan diri sebagai orang yang cinta
akan ilmu pengetahuan dan memiliki keinginan untuk tahu, “the desire to know” (Todorov,
1999:218). Kebalikan daripada itu, pengarang peribumi Tanah Melayu menerima konsep
realisme untuk menyampaikan idea mereka kerana mereka telah terpengaruh dengan
persuratan gaya Eropah yang berpaksikan rasionalisme.
Sehubungan dengan tanggapan ini, contoh pengarang yang telah terpengaruh

ialah Alauddin, anak Ki Demang dari Semangka Sumatera, iaitu pedagang lada hitam
dan ejen kepada Belanda dan Inggeris pada sekitar hujung abad ke-18. Alaudin telah
menulis Hikayat Nakhoda Muda pada sekitar tahun 1770-an, hasil daripada permintaan
sahabatnya, iaitu orang Inggeris yang bernama Tuan Butter Hunnings. Marsden
kemudian menterjemahkan karya itu dengan judul Memoirs of a Malayan Family pada
tahun 1830. Walaupun menggunakan nama hikayat, kisahnya tidak berisikan cerita
dongeng sebagaimana karya sastera tradisional lain, sebaliknya memuatkan peristiwa
yang berlaku semasa kompeni Belanda menduduki Semangka pada tahun 1756-1766.
Alaudin memaparkan pengalaman diri dan keluarganya yang hidup dalam kesusahan
sehingga bercerai-berai. Bentuk memoir yang dihasilkan oleh Alauddin merupakan
bentuk pinjaman atau ambilan daripada persuratan Barat (A. Wahab Ali, dlm. Abdul Latiff
Abu Bakar, 1984:161-163).
Kelahiran genre baharu ini memperlihatkan betapa pengaruh Barat telah meresap
dalam jagat persuratan Melayu sebagai bentuk reaksi positif pada tingkat epistemic.
Jika tidak bergaul hidup dengan individu Barat, mungkin teks individualistik seperti
ini tidak terzahir daripada orang Melayu yang secara tradisinya terikat dengan budaya
kekitaan dan hidup selesa dalam lingkungan komunal. Kenyataan A.H. Johns mendukung
kemungkinan ini: “It is important to note that he belonged to a family in the service of the British,
that he was not beholden to any native ruler, that he was not tied to the soil. Moreover, he was
prompted to write his story at the behest of a British resident... .” Seperti yang diakui oleh
A. Wahab Ali (dlm. Abdul Latiff Abu Bakar, 1984:162), ini merupakan titik permulaan
pengaruh Barat dalam perkembangan sastera Melayu moden:
Benih permodenan itu itu ditandai oleh adanya ekspresi individu dengan
pemerian kisah yang berdasarkan kenyataan terhadap peristiwa-peristiwa
benar tanpa kecenderungan membina mitos dan memulakan satu bentuk
memoir. Sifat-sifat ini tidak terdapat pada hikayat tradisi Melayu. Dan
unsur-unsur baru ini pula nanti menjadi turutan dan diperkembangkan
oleh penulis-penulis terkemudian.
Lanjutan daripada itu, dalam dekad yang sama lahir sebuah lagi karya yang
merupakan pembenihan daripada kontak invidu peribumi dengan individu Barat, iaitu
Adat Raja-Raja Melayu yang ditulis dalam tahun 1779 dan kemudian disunting oleh
Abdullah Munsyi sebelum diterbitkan pada tahun 1839. Pengarangnya tidak diketahui
tetapi naskhah ini ditulis atas perintah de Bruyn, Gabenor Belanda di Melaka (1777—
1785). Teks ini mengungkapkan deskripsi terperinci tentang kebiasaan adat istana Melayu
yang mencakup rentang masa dari saat kelahiran sehingga dewasa, dari zaman lampau
sehingga zaman naskhah ini ditulis. Keunikan karya ini berbanding dengan Sulalat al-
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Salatin mahupun Bustanus Salatin (yang juga memerihalkan kisah di istana) terletak
pada unsur realismenya. Sesuai dengan kehendak orang Eropah yang menjunjung aliran
realisme, maka karya ini juga telah meninggalkan unsur mitos (A. Wahab Ali dlm. Abdul
Latiff Abu Bakar, 1984:164).
Sebuah lagi karya yang terhasil daripada hubungan peribumi dengan tradisi dan
invidu Barat ialah Hikayat Perintah Negeri Benggala, karangan Ahmad Rijaluddin yang ditulis
pada bulan September—Oktober 1811. Ahmad Rijaluddin Ibn Hakim Long Fakir Kandu
ialah India Muslim yang telah bermastautin di Tanah Melayu sejak beberapa keturunan.
Dia bekerja dengan pegawai-pegawai kompeni Inggeris di Pulau Pinang dalam urusan
surat-menyurat dengan orang Melayu di samping menjadi guru bahasa Melayu kepada
mereka. Menurut C. Skinner (1976), Ahmad Rijaluddin lahir di Kedah sekitar tahun 1780
dan besar kemungkinan meninggal dunia dalam tahun 1811 ketika berlakunya wabak
taun di Pulau Pinang.
Teks setebal 97 halaman ini mendeskripsikan perjalanan Ahmad Rijaluddin

dengan Captain Robert Scott dari Pulau Pinang ke Calcutta, India, dan tempat-tempat yang
dilawatinya termasuklah petempatan orang Eropah di sepanjang Hooghly, lawatannya ke
sebuah rumah kerajaan bersama-sama dengan Dr. Lydan, catatan ringkas tentang ekspedisi
Lord Minto ke Pulau Mauritius, dan diakhiri catatan tentang permulaan ekspedisi Raffles
ke Tanah Melayu. Pengalaman kembara itulah yang ditulisnya dan kemudian diberi nama
Hikayat Perintah Negeri Benggala oleh Skinner.
Walaupun gaya penulisannya masih disaluti lenggok bahasa Melayu lama, isinya
sudah keluar daripada konvensi sastera tradisional dan membentuk genre baharu dalam
persuratan Melayu, iaitu diari kembara atau travelogue. Genre memoir atau autobiografi
sudah lama lahir dalam persuratan Barat tetapi dalam sejarah persuratan Melayu inilah
teks pemula genre diari kembara (A. Wahab Ali, 1991:43). Unsur modeniti yang dibawa
dalam teks ini ialah paparan gambaran kehidupan sebenar atau memenuhi konsep
realisme.
Walaupun realisme sudah dimulai oleh Alauddin, pengarang anonim Adat Raja-
Raja Melayu, dan Ahmad Rijaluddin, mereka gagal menerima pengiktirafan sebagai
pelopor sastera Melayu moden. Oleh itu, Skinner hanya mengiktiraf Abdullah Munsyi
sebagai Bapa Sastera Melayu Moden, iaitu seorang peribumi yang bekerja dengan individu
Eropah. Bagaimanapun, tidak kurang juga anggapan yang mengatakan bahawa Abdullah
ialah tali barut Inggeris kerana tulisannya banyak memuji budaya Inggeris dan mencela
kebiasaan buruk raja-raja Melayu (Amin Sweeney, 2005: 20). Mungkin atas dasar keeratan
hubungannya dengan budaya tulis Barat yang mengangkat aliran realisme, Abdullah telah
menyambung tradisi tersebut sehingga mendapat pengiktirafan yang meluas. Tetapi lebih
100 tahun kemudian tanggapan itu disanggah oleh Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas
yang mengiktiraf Hamzah Fansuri, penyair abad ke-17, sebagai pencetus sastera Melayu
moden (Ungku Maimunah dlm. Hamzah dan Siti Aisah (peny.), 2004).
Perdebatan tentang siapakah pelopor sastera Melayu moden mungkin hanya

merupakan perang ilmu yang bersifat ideologikal dan mungkin juga suatu situasi yang
lazim dalam persejarahan kerana tanggapan awal lazimnya akan disanggah oleh penemuan
terbaharu sebagaimana yang diketemukan oleh Syed Naquib. Biar apa pun jawapannya,
perkara yang lebih penting di sini bukanlah mencari pelopor sastera Melayu moden tetapi
sekadar melihat sintesis daripada pertembungan antara peribumi dengan Barat. Oleh itu,
yang akan dibincangkan hanya karya dan pengarang yang menerima pengaruh daripada
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tradisi Barat. Dalam konteks ini, pengarang-pengarang yang disentuh telah memenuhi
objektif perbincangan, terutamanya Abdullah Munsyi kerana beliau sering menjadi objek
kajian yang meluas sebagai watak comprador.
Abdullah Munsyi atau nama sebenarnya Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir lahir pada
12 Ogos 1796 atau bulan April 1796 (ada dua pendapat), di Kampung Pali, Melaka. Dia
hampir menghafaz Quran, mahir bahasa Tamil, Hindi, Inggeris, dan Tionghua. Semasa
Raffles berada di Tanah Melayu, Abdullah yang berusia 15 tahun menjadi pendampingnya
yang rapat dan hampir-hampir dia mengikut Raffles ke Jawa jika tidak dihalang ibunya.
Raffles banyak mengajarnya cara menyalin manuskrip dan cara menulis surat kepada raja
sehingga dia mahir dalam pekerjaannya sebagai pengajar, jurutulis, penterjemah, dan
jurubahasa kepada pagawai kolonial Inggeris.
Kekecewaan Abdullah kerana tidak dapat mengikut Raffles terubat apabila

Raffles memberinya surat perakuan yang dapat dijadikan bukti tentang kebolehannya
bagi mendapatkan pekerjaan daripada pegawai kolonial yang lain. Abdullah berjaya
menempatkan dirinya dalam kalangan pegawai kolonial, sama ada daripada kalangan
orang British mahupun Eropah, serta mubaligh Kristian. Sekitar tahun 1837-38 dia pergi
ke Kelantan sebagai jurubahasa rombongan pedagang Singapura. Pada bulan Februari
1854 dia belayar ke Makkah untuk menunaikan fardu haji dan meninggal dunia dalam
perjalanan di Judah pada bulan Oktober 1854.
Hasil pertembungannya dengan Barat, Abdullah telah menerapkan corak penulisan

Barat dalam memoirnya Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah (1838) dan Hikayat Abdullah (1843),
iaitu dengan menggunakan corak realisme sebagai asas pengisahan. Malahan, Hikayat
Abdullah terkarang dengan panduan daripada Alfred North, seorang mubaligh Kristian
dari Amerika (A. Wahab Ali, 1991:46). Catatan dan komentarnya berdasarkan peristiwa
realiti dan terpisah daripada gaya sastera tradisional walaupun masih menggunakan gaya
bahasa Sulalat al-Salatin yang dianggapnya gaya bahasa Melayu yang terbaik. Abdullah
memberikan komentar terhadap perilaku orang Melayu secara sinis berbanding dengan
pelukisan kelakuan orang Inggeris, terutama Raffles dan Farquhar yang dikhidmatinya.
Keberadaannya di luar lingkungan komuniti adat Melayu kerana dari kecil sudah terbiasa
mendapat imbuhan daripada orang Inggeris menyebabkan beliau bebas mengkritik
kebiasaan dan cara berfikir orang Melayu. Dalam masa yang sama, Abdullah memberikan
pujian kepada pembaharuan dan cara hidup yang dibawa oleh Inggeris. Bagaimanapun,
Abdullah turut mengecam orang Barat, terutama orang Belanda dan beberapa orang
Inggeris secara individu. Dalam konteks ini wujud unsur ambivalence atau berbelah bahagi
antara rasa suka dengan benci. Sementara beliau menerima kebaikan adab orang Barat,
beliau juga tidak terlepas daripada mengkritik sikap buruk segelintir orang Barat yang
lain.
Abdullah dianggap oleh pemerhati Eropah yang bukan daripada kalangan

missionary sebagai peribumi yang berpeluang belajar tentang kebebasan berfikir dan
kebebasan menyampaikan pandangan. Satu daripada cara missionary merangsang semangat
individulistik (sense of personhood) adalah melalui terjemahan buku Pilgrim Progress kepada
bahasa Melayu. Dalam buku ini pembaca Melayu akan menemukan mesej yang kuat
tentang Kristian, dan karya ini antara yang paling berpengaruh dalam memunculkan
konsep individual Barat. Abdullah diketahui telah membaca terjemahan yang diterbitkan
di Pulau Pinang dan karya itu telah mempengaruhi gaya penulisan beliau (Milner,
2002:77). Abdullah bersikap demikian kerana pada dirinya wujud cantuman atau hibriditi
antara nilai hidup orang Melayu (walaupun beliau bukan berketurunan Melayu) atau
120
peribumi dengan nilai Barat yang diterimanya melalui pergaulan dan naungan daripada
majikannya. Sejak kecil lagi Abdullah sudah menerima faedah daripada kedatangan orang
Inggeris melalui askar Supai yang memintanya mengajarkan al-Quran. Perdampingannya
dengan orang Inggeris membuka matanya kepada kebijaksanaan Inggeris yang rasionalis
dan sekali gus menafikan unsur khurafat yang berlegar dalam pemikiran orang Melayu.
Baginya, pemikiran rasional Inggeris lebih wajar diterima berbanding dengan khurafat
yang juga bertentangan dengan Islam.
Keistimewaan orang Inggeris semakin mendapat tempat di hati Abdullah apabila

beliau bertemu dengan Farquhar. Bagi Abdullah, watak Farquhar begitu baik sebagaimana
gambaran impresionistik yang diberikannya:
Bermula ada-lah tabiat Raja Farquhar itu, ia’itu pendiam, lagi pun banyak
sabar akan kesalahan orang; dan lagi, baik miskin atau kaya sama juga
ka-pada-nya, tiada di-pandang-nya sa’orang lebeh dan sa’orang kurang.
Dan lagi jikalau sa’orang miskin lagi hina sekali pun hendak datang
mengadukan hal-nya, maka dengan segera-nya di-dapatkan-nya di-
dengar-nya akan pengaduan orang itu, serta di-beri-nya nasihat dan
di-ajar-nya, sampai menjadi sejok orang itu punya hati, lalu pulang-lah
dengan suka-chita-nya. Dan lagi jikalau ia berjalan, atau berkereta atau
berkuda, maka orang-orang miskin atau kaya dan kanak-kanak yang
bertemu itu memberi tabek akan dia, maka dengan segera-nya di-sahut-
nya.; dan lagi tangan-nya terbuka ka-pada segala hamba Allah.
(Hikayat Abdullah, 1960:53—54)
Watak-watak lain daripada kalangan kolonial Inggeris yang berdamping

dengannya mendapat pujian sama ada dari segi tingkah laku mahupun dasar yang
dibawa oleh mereka. Raffles yang datang bersama isterinya ditanggapi secara positif oleh
Abdullah. Antara sifat mulia yang ada pada Raffles ialah suka membaca dan menulis, suka
menyelidiki flora dan fauna di Tanah Melayu, termasuk mengawetkan binatang (tanpa
dikaitkan dengan sikap menganiaya binatang), suka memeriksa asal usul negeri Melayu
serta adat istiadatnya, rajin mempelajari bahasa Melayu, pemurah, peramah dengan orang
Melayu dan miskin, serta ingin mengetahui segala-gala yang berkaitan dengan orang
Melayu. Semua ini dipandang sebagai sifat mulia tanpa diselidiki tujuan asas Raffles
berbuat demikian.
Dalam hubungan ini, Abdullah meletakkan dirinya sebagai golongan subordinate

dan menilai Raffles atau orang Inggeris yang dikaguminya sebagai superior. Oleh itu,
hanya hal yang dipandangnya baik diungkapkan dalam bukunya walaupun tujuan
asal mereka berbuat demikian mungkin bermatlamatkan politik, iaitu menguasai orang
Melayu. Abdullah juga gagal bersikap objektif kerana sudah bergantung hidup pada orang
Inggeris. Beliau mendapat upah atas khidmatnya sebagai jurutulis mereka. Namun begitu,
terhadap orang Ingeris lain yang bukan menjadi majikannya, Abdullah telah mencatatkan
perilaku buruknya, seperti Mr. Bean yang gemar melagakan manusia dengan manusia
atau sesama binatang. Mr. Bean ialah “orang besar dari England atau Benggala” yang
menjadi ketua Supai orang Benggala di Melaka. Mr. Bean dikatakannya “terlalu nakal
dan bengis tabiat-nya bukan buatan” kerana suka melihat anak-anak peribumi bergaduh
sesama sendiri seperti perbuatan melagakan binatang. Sikap jahat Mr. Bean menjadi
ketakutan kepada rakyat Melaka sehingga imej seluruh orang Inggeris dipandang buruk
belaka (Hikayat Abdullah, 1960:55—56).
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Abdullah juga mengecam orang Belanda secara keseluruhannya dan Van Goor
(Bamgor) khususnya, (Hikayat Abdullah, 1960:147—153) kerana sifat mereka yang buruk.
Orang Belanda (Holanda) yang menyekat usaha Inggeris memajukan Singapura dengan
cara keganasan dikutuk oleh Abdullah atas kepentingan peribadinya terhadap Inggeris.
Kecaman dan pujian yang diberikan oleh Abdullah adalah atas landasan kepentingan
peribadi, dan oleh itu, oksidentalisme dalam Hikayat Abdullah bersifat pragmatik.
Walau bagaimanapun, Abdullah tidak mengajak orang Melayu menyandarkan diri

pada Barat, sebaliknya dia mahu orang Melayu bangkit dengan upaya sendiri. Menurut
Milner (2002:83), kita tidak boleh keterlaluan menyifatkan Abdullah sebagai Anglophilia:
Abdullah offers a markedly different perspective on the West’s expansion

into the Malay world. When he notices that the Malay race is “always
governed by other races”, the comment does not carry a tone of approval.
Moreover, when he predicts that the Malays will fall further and further
behind until they are “trodden under foot”, he seems to be challenging
the Malays to reform themselves. Abdullah is emphatically not looking to
the English to initiate change, as they had in Java, for instance; rather, he
advocates a renaissance inspired from within.
Amin Sweeney (2005:27) yang mengkaji karya Abdullah cuba memberikan

tanggapan yang “adil” apabila menggolongkan Abdullah sebagai “penulis istana Eropah”.
Tanpa begitu cepat terpengaruh dengan label yang diberikan oleh peneliti terdahulu
kepada Abdullah, Amin menyimpulkan bahawa kesendengan Abdullah kepada nilai
Barat disebabkan tulisannya khusus ditujukan kepada orang Eropah, bukannya kepada
orang Melayu. Hal ini demikian kerana Abdullah sedar bahawa keberaksaraan (budaya
tulis) masih amat terbatas dalam kalangan orang Melayu, apalagi budaya cetak. Amin
menyatakan, “Makanya secara otomatis, ia menujukan tulisannya kepada khalayak
budaya cetak, yang kebetulan, orang Eropa!” (Amin Sweeney, 2005:33). Oleh itu, dapat
ditafsirkan bahawa sebarang kritikan terhadap orang Melayu sekadar untuk mengambil
hati majikannya, bukan untuk menyakitkan hati orang Melayu.
Selepas Abdullah tiada kesinambungan yang berterusan dalam penghasilan

sastera realisme, apatah lagi yang memperkatakan Barat. Karya fiksyen yang paling awal
menggunakan corak realisme selepas karya Abdullah ialah Hikayat Panglima Nikosa atau
judul penuhnya Hikayat Panglima Nikosa Mendapat Kesusahan Waktu Perang Sampai Mendapat
Kemenangan karya Ahmad Syawal bin Abdul Hamid yang pada awalnya terhasil dalam
bentuk cap batu di Kuching, Sarawak bertarikh 3 Jun 1876. Buku yang diterbitkan pada
zaman pemerintahan Charles Brooke (1868—1917) dan mengandungi 29 halaman itu tidak
menepati konsep novel dari segi kepanjangan tetapi secara strukturalnya kriteria sebuah
novel telah dipenuhi. Unsur penting yang mengangkatnya sebagai novel ialah ceritanya
yang bercorak realisme.
Ahmad Syawal juga menempuh pengalaman yang sama dengan pengarang

realisme terdahulu dari segi pertembungannya dengan individu Barat. Berketurunan
Minangkabau, dia mungkin berasal dari Bangkahulu (Sumatera) yang pernah dijajah oleh
Inggeris. Dia dibawa ke Sarawak oleh James Brooke untuk bertugas sebagai jurutulis.
Hubungan peribadi dan rasmi dengan kolonial pastinya membuka dimensi baharu pada
corak persuratan yang difahami oleh Ahmad Syawal, lalu terhasillah sebuah teks yang
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sudah sebati bentuknya dalam persuratan Barat. Begitupun, pengarang Hikayat Panglima
Nikosa ini tidak mewujudkan watak atau imej Barat dalam karyanya sebaliknya hanya
mewujudkan watak tempatan yang bernama Nikosa, Pilina, dan Jalila.
Petanda kesedarannya tentang dikotomi antara dunia Timur dengan Barat dapat
dipetik daripada penggunaan nama “negeri di sebelah timur” yang dengan sendirinya
mengakui kewujudan mata angin yang bertentangan, iaitu dunia sebelah barat.
Pembahagian secara demarkasi ini wujud dalam mentaliti orientalis sejak berabad-abad,
yang diperkuat oleh pernyataan Inter Caetera Divinae oleh Paus Alexander VI pada tahun
1493 bahawa bumi belahan Timur merupakan hak Portugal, manakala bumi belahan Barat
ialah hak Sepanyol (Joesoef Sou’yb, 1985:62).
Novel itu mengisahkan Panglima Nikosa mengalahkan musuh sehingga dia

berjaya mengamankan negerinya yang terletak di timur. Di sini timbul persoalan:
bagaimana Ahmad Syawal menemukan konsep sebelah timur jika tidak dipertentangkan
dengan barat. Jika ada timur maka adalah barat. Oleh itu, dapat diandaikan bahawa
pengarangnya mempunyai kesedaran tentang pembahagian dunia ini serta memahami
konsep dunia belahan barat semasa menulis karya ini. Dengan kesedaran itu, di samping
pengalaman peribadinya yang bergaul dengan orang Barat, dapatlah diandaikan bahawa
Hikayat Panglima Nikosa juga merupakan sintesis kepada pertembungan antara tesis,
peribumi Timur, dengan antitesisnya, Barat. Lanjutan daripada itu lahirlah sebuah naratif
yang terpisah daripada tradisi cerita lipur lara yang mendominasi dunia sastera Melayu
tradisional.
Abad ke-19 belum menerima kehadiran genre novel secara meluas daripada
pengarang peribumi walaupun Hikayat Panglima Nikosa sudah mencuba langkah pertama
dengan bentuk yang ringkas itu. Hanya apabila memasuki abad ke-20 kesedaran pengarang
terhadap potensi prosa panjang bercorak realisme itu mula kelihatan dengan kemunculan
novel-novel saduran dan terjemahan. Genre novel yang mula berkembang dalam dekad
20-an turut memperlihatkan persentuhannya dengan nilai oksidental, sama ada dari segi
teks mahupun nilai pemikirannya.
Perkembangan novel pada tahun 20-an memperlihatkan pertumbuhan yang

seiring dengan perkembangan pendidikan, percetakan, dan politik. Dalam hubungannnya
dengan imej Barat atau oksidental, novel-novel pada era sebelum Merdeka memang
menjurus ke arah mempersoalkan nilai asing tersebut. Begitupun, sikap pengarang
terhadap nilai Barat tidak sehaluan: ada yang bersikap positif dan ada yang negatif. Ini
semua bergantung pada nilai dan fahaman yang dipegang oleh pengarangnya.
Walaupun Tanah Melayu ketika itu masih di bawah pentadbiran British,

kemasukan genre novel secara meluas pada awal abad ke-20 tidak dibawa melalui
hubungan kolonialisme itu. Salurannya terbentuk melalui perhubungan intelektual
peribumi dengan nilai modeniti Perancis yang ditemukan di Mesir. Pelajar-pelajar Melayu
yang menuntut ilmu di Universiti al-Azhar, Mesir sejak tahun 1893 (Roff, 2003:66; Abdul
Rahman al-Ahmadi, 1987:53) telah menerima pengaruh ilmu daripada Perancis yang
tersebar dalam dunia akademik di Mesir. Angkatan pelajar muda dari Tanah Melayu yang
menuntut di Mesir seperti Syeikh Tahir Jalaluddin, Syeikh Mohamad Salim al-Kalali, Syed
Syeikh al-Hadi, dan Haji Mohd Abas Taha kemudiannya menjadi pemangkin kepada
pertumbuhan pemikiran politik, agama, budaya, pendidikan, dan termasuklah sastera di
Tanah Melayu.
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Daripada merekalah mengalirnya novel-novel saduran dari Perancis ke Tanah

Melayu, yang dimulai dengan novel detektif. Di Perancis telah terbit novel detektif bertajuk
les Mysteres de paris oleh Eugine Sue (terbit bersiri 30 jilid, 1804—1857) yang merupakan
pendahuluan bagi novel Les drames de Paris (1857—1884) karya Ponson du Terrail (1829—
1871). Novel yang mengemukakan watak Rokambol ini bukan sahaja terkenal di Mesir
malahan di Brazil dengan terbitnya cerita Rokambol yang dikarang oleh Craciliano
Ramos. Keterkaitan antara cerita Rokambol dengan kisah detektif dari Amerika Syarikat
yang mengemukakan wira bernama Nick Charter tidak dapat dipastikan tetapi dalam
perkembangan sastera moden di Tanah Melayu telah lahir cerita detektif dalam majalah
Al-Hidayah (2:1, Julai 1923:1—4), di Kota Bharu, Kelantan yang bertajuk “Nicholas Carter
dengan Wakil Sulit Kerajaan Brazil” (Abdul Rahman al-Ahmadi, 1987:54—55).
Dalam tahun 1922 terbit sebuah buku cerita detektif berunsurkan cerita Rokambol
di Kota Bharu, Kelantan, yang bertajuk Kecurian Lima Milion Ringgit karya Haji Mohamad
bin Mohamad Said. Cerita ini (ketika itu belum digunakan istilah “novel”) mengemukakan
watak utamanya John Sinclair, Jack Hocker, Nicholas Carter, dan Mr. Baxster. Cerita yang
berdasarkan karya dari Amerika Syarikat ini kemudian diikuti oleh cerita yang berpola
serupa, iaitu Telegraf dari Perut Ikan atau Perlawanan Hocker dengan Benham Carter Ketua
Polis Amerika. Pada tahun 1923 Haji Abdul Rahman Daud al-Makki dan Hassan Haji Omar
menulis cerita detektif Rokambol dalam bentuk syair yang bertajuk Syair Cerita Bijaksana,
menggunakan watak John Sinclair dengan berlatarkan Empayar Austria—Hungari (Abdul
Rahman al-Ahmadi, 1987:58).
Cerita-cerita detektif Rokambol tersebut dipopularkan lagi oleh Syed Syeikh

al-Hadi dengan menulis cerita detektif saduran dalam akhbar Saudara. Tujuh daripada
cerita yang diterbitkan dalam bentuk volum sebelum kematian Syed Sheikh al-Hadi
bertajuk Cherita Rokambol dalam Jail dan di Paris (398 halaman), Cherita Rokambol dalam
Siberia (400 halaman), Cherita Rokambol dengan Puteri Russian yang Ashik (502 halaman),
Cherita Rokambol dengan Perbendaharaan Hindi atau Peperangan Kebajikan dengan Kejahatan
dalam Kehidupan Manusia, Cherita Rokambol dengan Malium Kaum Nor (508 halaman), Cherita
Rokambol dengan Taman Penglipur Lara (296 halaman), dan Cherita Rokambol dengan Korban
Hindi (502 halaman). Kebanyakan cerita ini tidak pernah diterbitkan dalam bentuk buku
tetapi sangat popular (Za’ba, 1940:154).
Cerita-cerita ini juga dipercayai diambil daripada novel Perancis yang beredar
di Mesir. Dalam majalah Al-Ikhwan penggal 1 jilid 2 no. 29 keluaran 16 September 1927
dinyatakan bahawa siri cerita Rokambol berlatarkan Perancis dengan watak utamanya
orang Perancis yang bernama Rokambol. Dalam plot naratifnya terlihat usaha mengangkat
imej Perancis dan merendah-rendahkan Inggeris. Ini memperlihatkan wujudnya
pertentangan antara dua kuasa itu yang sememangnya berlaku dalam sejarah di India pada
abad ke-18. Menurut Abdul Rahman al-Ahmadi (1987:59), seolah-olah ada kecenderungan
untuk memperlihatkan pertentangan kepentingan antara Perancis dengan Inggeris di
India. Kemunculan seorang Perancis bernama Rokambol membantu orang India melawan
Inggeris dapat dikaitkan dengan sejarah pertentangan antara Perancis dengan Inggeris
di India dalam abad ke-18 pada zaman Raja Louis Ke-15 (1715—1774). Rokambol yang
membantu orang-orang India menyelamatkan khazanah budaya mereka memperlihatkan
keunggulan orang Perancis berbanding dengan orang Inggeris dalam mengangkut budaya
purba timur ke Eropah, seperti pengangkutan tiang purba Mesir l’Obelisque de Louxor
ke Paris. Apabila sampai ke tangan Syed Syeikh al-Hadi, cerita itu diubah suai supaya
mendapat warna tempatan dengan mewujudkan watak orang Melayu yang lebih pandai
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mengendalikan pelayaran berbanding dengan orang India ketika membawa khazanah

Timur ke Eropah.
Syed Syeikh Al-Hadi meneruskan keseriusannya berkarya di samping menyisipkan

idea pembaharuan melalui novelnya yang terkenal, Setia Asyik kepada Maksyuknya atau
Syafik Afandi dengan Faridah Hanom pada tahun 1925-26 yang kemudian diterbitkan
semula oleh Pustaka Antara dengan nama Faridah Hanom sahaja. Dalam novel ini, idea
Barat sudah menjadi persoalan yang dominan dibicarakan. Sebagai satu aliran asing yang
bertentangan dengan fahaman Kaum Tua, pandangan yang dibawa oleh protagonis dalam
novel tersebut dibahaskan secara dialogik.
Novel Faridah Hanom juga menerima pengaruh falsafah Perancis, terutamanya

idea Rousseau yang sudah terserap dalam novel Zainab, yang terbit lebih dahulu di Mesir.
Novel Zainab yang juga dikatakan mengandungi idea feminisme Perancis sememangnya
mempunyai jalur naratif dan idea yang sama dengan novel Faridah Hanom. Selain
terinspirasi daripada novel Zainab, novel Faridah Hanom juga membawa aliran pemikiran
yang termuat dalam novel Mesir, Audat al-Ruh karya Taufik Al-Hakim, dan juga idea
ahli falsafah Perancis Gustave le bon dalam tulisannya “Psychologies des foules” atau
terjemahannya dalam bahasa Arab yang tersebar di Mesir ketika itu, “Ruh Al-Ijtimaj”
(“The Crowd” terj. dalam bahasa Inggeris). Karya Gustave le bon banyak diterjemahkan
daripada bahasa Perancis kepada bahasa Arab dalam zaman Zughlul Pasha dan Mustafa
Kamal Pasha semasa era kebangkitan nasionalisme Mesir menentang Inggeris dan
pengaruh Turki. Tulisan Gustave le bon ini tidak hanya diserapi oleh Syed Syeikh al-Hadi,
malahan oleh Abdul Kadir Adabi, pengarang dari Kelantan yang mengangkatnya sebagai
karya falsafah yang penting sehingga beliau menterjemahkannya ke dalam bahasa Melayu
dengan judul “Jiwa Perkumpulan” (Abdul Rahman al-Ahmadi, 1987:62).
Novel Faridah Hanom bukan sahaja merintis kemunculan genre novel di Tanah
Melayu yang ketika itu di bawah pemerintahan Inggeris, malahan mencetuskan satu
fenomena dalam perkembangan kesusasteraan Melayu. Sejak itu, satu demi satu novel
realisme lahir daripada kalangan penulis yang kebanyakannya terdiri daripada guru dan
wartawan. Dalam tahun 20-an, selain Faridah Hanom, antara novel yang kuat membahaskan
pertentangan antara nilai Barat dengan Timur ialah Iakah Salmah? (Ahmad bin Muhammad
Rashid Talu, 1928-9), novel yang menyusuli novel pertama Ahmad Rashid Talu, Kawan
Benar (1927). Iakah Salmah? lebih bersifat tempatan berbanding dengan novel Faridah
Hanom kerana watak-watak dan latar serta persoalannya berlegar dalam masyarakat di
Tanah Melayu yang baru menerima pengaruh Barat melalui idea yang disalurkan dalam
kebanyakan majalah ketika itu.
Selain itu, lahir sebuah lagi novel yang tidak jauh daripada lingkungan waktu
penghasilan Faridah Hanom dan Iakah Salmah? dengan membawa idea Barat, iaitu Mencari
Isteri karya Muhamad Yusof Ahmad yang disiarkan secara bersiri dalam sembilan
keluaran Majalah Guru mulai 1 Ogos 1928 hingga 1 Mei 1929 dan diterbitkan semula dalam
bentuk buku oleh Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka pada tahun 1975. Menurut Mohd Hanafi
Ibrahim [dlm. Hamzah Hamdani dan Siti Aisah Murad (peny.), 2004:251] novel ini tidak
mendapat perhatian dalam persejarahan sastera Melayu kerana kehadirannya mungkin
ditenggelamkan oleh novel Faridah Hanom dan Iakah Salmah? yang lebih awal dan lebih
kompleks dengan kandungannya yang tidak jauh berbeza. Begitupun, dalam pencarian
novel bernuansa oksidentalisme, Mencari Isteri menduduki tempat yang penting kerana
pemikirannya yang cenderung membahaskan keelokan nilai Barat sebagai kayu ukur
konsep kemajuan.
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Karya sastera Melayu dalam dekad 30-an tidak cenderung untuk menjadi wadah
penyuaraan antikolonialisme kerana rata-rata masyarakat menerima sistem pentadbiran
yang dibawa oleh Inggeris (Mohd. Taib Osman, 1986:76). Karya-karya sastera Melayu
hanya cenderung mempersoalkan kebudayaan Barat yang bersifat hedonistik dan
berpusat di kota, manakala persepsi politik ditujukan kepada permasalahan imigran yang
mengaut kekayaan di Tanah Melayu, iaitu Cina, India dan Arab sehingga menimbulkan
sentimen anti DKK (Darah Keturunan Keling) dan DKA (Darah Keturunan Arab).
Situasi kepengarangan sebegini berpunca daripada sikap pengarang Melayu yang hanya
menumpukan perhatian kepada permasalahan sosial mereka secara dalaman, khususnya
yang menyentuh aspek agama, ekonomi, dan sosial.
Reaksi pengarang terhap nilai Barat, bagaimanapun, dapat dilihat pada persoalan
yang menyentuh kehidupan di kota. Kota sebagai pusat berkembangnya budaya Barat
dipandang sebagai negatif kerana di situlah menularnya kegiatan pelacuran dan pelbagai
penyakit sosial seperti yang disentuh oleh Mohd Taib Osman (1986:73):
One cannot help but notice that the novels of this period always implied
that living in town was full of temptations from prostitutes and other
social evils. Undoubtly there was a deep-seated mistrust of town life, a
phenomenon which arose in the wake of increasing British influence in
the affairs of the Malay States. …The fear of urban life rather than the
changing values that urbanization brought to native life seemed to be
paramount.
Kecenderungan ini merupakan lanjutan daripada corak pengkaryaan dalam dekad

20-an, iaitu hanya mewacanakan nilai Barat yang menyerap dalam kehidupan masyarakat
Melayu, sama ada secara negatif mahupun positif. Kemunculan banyak penulis daripada
kalangan guru seperti Abdullah Sidek, Muhammad Sidek, Harun Aminurrashid,
Muhammad Yassin Maamor, dan Ahmad Bakhtiar, di samping penulis wartawan seperti
Shamsudin Salleh dan Raja Mansur telah merancakkan penghasilan novel. Namun
begitu, novel yang bernuansa oksidentalisme masih berlegar pada permasalahan dalaman
masyarakat Melayu tanpa kesedaran nasionalisme politik yang tinggi. Persoalan cinta,
kahwin paksa, dan rumah tangga, mendapat tempat yang luas bagi memenuhi kehendak
khalayak pembaca. Antara novel yang menggambarkan kesan buruk budaya Barat dalam
kehidupan masyarakat ialah Iblis Rumahtangga (Abdullah Sidek, 1939), Duri Perkahwinan
(Abdullah Sidek, 1937), Salah Pedoman (Suhaimi Ismail, 1939), Melarat Isteri kerana Suami
(Othman al-Maasuli, 1937?), dan Apa Sebab Aku Kahwin dengan Orang Keling atau Singapura
di Malam Hari (Raja Mansur, 1936).
Novel Salah Pedoman misalnya, menjadikan nilai budaya Barat sebagai punca
kerosakan rumah tangga Rahmah dengan Abdul Rahman. Abdul Rahman yang sangat
terpengaruh dengan budaya Barat telah menyuruh isterinya mengikuti nilai Barat dari segi
berpakaian dan menghias diri sementara dia sendiri mengamalkan hidup bebas sehingga
berkahwin dengan seorang penari kabaret berbangsa Serani yang bernama Alice. Akhirnya
rumah tangga Abdul Rahman dan Rahmah runtuh. Pengakhiran ini mencerminkan
paradigma yang dikemukakan oleh pengarang bahawa budaya Barat yang bebas dari segi
pergaulan tidak sesuai untuk amalan masyarakat Timur (Sejarah Kesusasteraan Melayu,
Jilid 1, 1981:125—142).
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Shamsuddin Salleh yang menulis novel penyiasatan turut menyelitkan unsur Barat
tetapi tidaklah sampai mempersoalkan nilai dan ideologi politik mereka. Shamsuddin
menggunakan latar Indonesia, Siam, Singapura, dan Jawa serta kuasa penjajah Belanda dan
agama Kristian sebagai imej antagonisnya tetapi berplotkan kisah cinta. Latar kerjayanya
sebagai Political Intteligence Bureau, di Singapura selama lima tahun (sejak 1930) telah
membawanya menjelajah ke seluruh Malaya, Siam, Burma, Sumatera, Jawa dan Filipina.
Daripada pengalamannya itulah beliau memperoleh bahan cerita yang menjadi rencah
novelnya.
Shamsuddin Salleh banyak memaparkan kisah pergerakan Kaum Merah atau

Pacar Merah yang bermaksud gerakan komunis yang telah ditubuhkan di Tanah Melayu
pada tahun 1930. Dalam kisah percintaan itu beliau menyelitkan watak-watak Barat atau
yang menerima pengaruh Barat sebagai punca konflik luarannya. Antara novelnya yang
menyisipkan watak atau citra Barat ialah Hidup yang Derhaka atau Rahsia yang Sangat Rahsia
(1936), Kaseh Berbalas (1936), Siasat yang Dahshat (1936), Pertandingan Sokma (1937), Korban
Poligami (1937), Pemimpin Sulit (1937), dan Tiga Bulan Dalam Penjara (1939). Novel-novel
Shamsuddin Salleh, menurut Za’ba (1941: 4), “…are mostly based on the secret activities of the
communist propagandists or on the political and nationalist movements in Netherlands Indies, with
love introduced as the leavening ingredient.”
Seorang lagi penulis yang melihat kesan nilai Barat terhadap kehidupan
masyarakat Melayu pada dekad 30-an ialah Ya’akub bin Abdul Manaf, guru yang berasal
dari Melaka, lulusan Sultan idris Training College pada tahun 1933. Novel beliau setebal
158 halaman yang berjudul Ribut Taufan dari Barat atau Pengaroh Modan [Moden] (1936)
mengisahkan percintaan antara gadis Eurasia dengan pelajar Melayu dari sebuah sekolah
Inggeris. Pemuda Melayu itu sangat mengagumi nilai Barat sehingga menukar namanya
daripada Bahrain bin Haji Mansor kepada H.M. Rhein, menukar agama kepada Kristian,
dan berkahwin dengan gadis tersebut. Jelas bahawa mesej yang ditonjolkan ialah bahaya
pengaruh Barat/Kristian yang perlu dijauhi oleh pemuda Melayu Islam.
Menurut Za’ba, kebanyakan novel yang mewacanakan nilai Barat menyisipkan

peringatan tentang keburukan nilai tersebut secara berlebih-lebihan. Kemodenan dan
emansipasi wanita dipandang sebagai gejala yang membahayakan kehidupan wanita
Timur. Ini seolah-olah sebagai suatu bentuk reaksi terhadap kebebasan yang diamalkan
oleh orang yang berpendidikan sekolah Inggeris pada zaman itu. Antara lain Za’ba
(1941:14) menulis:
This new spirit is decried and derided with the authority of religion
conveniently brought to bear upon it, and the stories depicting its
manifestations generally represent it as ending in scandals and disaster.
But in their description of Western social standards they very often
give a distorted picture and a false impression, while the influence it is
represented to extert upon the educated Malay youths of both sexes and
upon their tendency “to ape and modernise” is often exaggerated and
artificial.
Selain itu, pengarang Melayu juga memperlihatkan sikap menyenangi gaya

penulisan Barat yang memulakan cerita dengan panorama alam. Za’ba (1941:14) menulis,
“Almost all the stories are represented in true European fashion, opening with a description of the
scene,-- and the distant mountains, the clouds, the swaying branches, the setting sun, the moonlit
night, the chiming of clocks, the cock-crowing, the chirping of birds and so on.” Peniruan bentuk
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ini menjadi petanda sikap berbelah bahagi atau ambivalence terhadap nilai Barat. Sementara
cara hidupnya dipandang sebagai citra yang negatif, gaya penulisan bawaan Barat dilihat
secara positif.
Dalam kesuraman semangat nasionalisme dan oksidentalisme politik itu muncul

seorang pengarang Melayu yang berpendidikan Inggeris tetapi kuat jati diri Melayu dan
peribuminya, iaitu Ishak Haji Muhammad atau lebih dikenali sebagai Pak Sako. Ishak
telah menyertai gerakan perang budaya menentang penjajahan melalui novel satiranya
Putera Gunung Tahan (1937), dengan menghadirkan watak-watak pegawai kolonial yang
rakus mengaut khazanah Tanah Melayu. Pemaparan watak-watak Barat serta nilai yang
dibawa oleh mereka secara dominan mencerminkan pemusatan idea yang didukung
oleh novel tersebut. Putera Gunung Tahan disifatkan sebagai novel pascakolonial (Sohaimi
Abdul Aziz, 2003:221—224) kerana mengemukakan ideologi peribumi yang menentang
penjajah Inggeris. Dengan penuh sedar, Ishak (1973:23—24) menyatakan idealismenya
bahawa “Tiap-tiap orang kulit putih yang datang ke Malaya hendak mencari wang dan
keuntungan dan bukan semata-mata hendak memimpin atau menaungkan bumiputera
negeri ini”. Kelahiran Putera Gunung Tahan disifatkan sebagai satu perkembangan baru
dari segi pemilihan persoalan [Safian Hussain, Mohd. Thani Ahmad, dan Johan Jaaffar
(peny.), 1981:142].
Putera Gunung Tahan memanifestasikan pegangan politik Ishak yang aktif dalam
gerakan kiri, menentang penjajahan. Ishak memiliki pendidikan yang tinggi jika mengikut
ukuran pada masa itu tetapi sanggup melepaskan jawatannya sebagai majistret kelas
tiga pada tahun 1935 kerana bosan dengan pekerjaannya melayan masalah masyarakat
setiap hari. Masalah masyarakat ini pula disebabkan ketidakcekapan pentadbir Inggeris
menjalankan tugas di Tanah Melayu (Abdul Latiff Abu Bakar, 1977:16). Ishak menukar
kerjayanya menjadi penulis bebas dan merantau ke Pantai Timur untuk melihat kehidupan
masyarakat. Beliau banyak menulis untuk akhbar Warta Ahad, Warta Jenaka dan Warta
Malaya. Dalam masa yang sama Ishak juga membuka syarikat guaman di Terengganu tetapi
tulisannya tentang masalah penduduk telah mendatangkan akibat buruk kepadanya.
Pembelaannya terhadap rakyat menyebabkan Pesuruhjaya Keadilan Terengganu menarik
balik lesen peguamnya dan akhbar Warta Malaya juga didesak supaya tidak lagi menerima
tulisan Ishak.
Idealisme Ishak yang bersifat protes terhadap pentadbir Inggeris telah

menggerakkan kreativitinya untuk menghasilkan novel sulung “Hilang di Mata” yang
kemudian ditukar nama kepada Putera Gunung Tahan pada tahun 1937. Novel ini mendapat
sambutan hangat daripada pembaca dan Ishak sangat berpuas hati dengan sambutan
itu walaupun beliau hanya memperoleh $7 daripada penerbitan buku itu (Abdul Latiff
Abu Bakar, 1977:18). Novel ini penuh dengan sindiran tajam, tetapi dalam bentuk kiasan,
terhadap penjajah Inggeris. Shaharom Husain (1963:133) menyifatkan buku ini sebagai
petanda bahawa Ishak sangat benci akan penjajahan. Ishak sendiri mengakuidalam satu
rancangan komentar TV Malaysia pada 27 Jun 1973 bahawa tujuan beliau menulis Putera
Gunung Tahan “khusus sebagai alat perjuangan menuntut kemerdekaan, keadilan dan
menghalau penjajah” (Ishak Haji Muhammad, 1973).
Harry Avelling (1992) mengiktiraf novel ini sebagai “distinctively post-colonial”

kerana membentangkan ketegangan budaya antara kuasa penjajah dengan peribumi.
Katanya lagi,
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It does this, in 1937, by using the devices of allegory, irony, and magical
realism, if not perhaps discontinuous narrative, which EWB assure us
are “characteristic of post-colonial writing”. Ishak’s model for this was
not, however, post-modern fiction, but an inversion of the British “boys’
weeklies” and their tales of brave English adventurers subduing hordes of
savages in distant settings.
Karya Ishak ini menjadi mercu tanda karya antipenjajahan dalam tahun 30-an
bukan sahaja kerana semangat nasionalismenya yang tinggi bahkan diperkukuh oleh nilai
kesasteraannya yang memanfaatkan unsur simbolisme. Ishak tampil sebagai pengarang
yang berpendidikan sekolah Inggeris tetapi menjadikan ilmu dan pengalamannya bergaul
dengan orang Inggeris sebagai senjata untuk melawan balik penjajahan. Dalam wacana
pascakolonial tindakan Ishak ini berbentuk ejekan atau mockery, yakni mengunggulkan
watak Inggeris sebagai penguasa untuk kemudian meruntuhkannya semula dengan cara
mengejek.
PENUTUP
Dalam perkembangan persuratan Malaysia, pengaruh Barat telah wujud sejak sebelum
munculnya sastera moden lagi tetapi tidak diperincikan. Imej Barat dalam karya sastera
sejarah hanya menjadi titik hitam yang hadir sebagai pencemar keagungan kesultanan
Melayu. Pengaruh yang lebih ketara dapat dilihat dalam karya realisme yang dihasilkan
oleh pengarang peribumi pada abad ke-19 oleh Abdullah Munsyi baik dari sudut bentuk
mahupun pemikirannya yang condong kepada nilai Inggeris dan Eropah. Menjelang
abad ke-20 pengaruh Barat yang didatangkan dari Perancis melalui Timur tengah
semakin menyebar dan membantu perkembangan persuratan Melayu baik dalam bentuk
terjemahan, saduran, mahupun karya asli yang berpaksikan nilai Barat. Pandangan dan
kesendengan sikap pengarang terhadap Barat pada peringkat awal begitu jelas. Hal ini
demikian mungkin disebabkan penerimaan golongan elit yang sudah terdedah kepada
nilai moden tersebut semasa mereka menuntut di luar negara.
Sebagai anak jajahan, pengarang peribumi tidak memperlihatkan penentangan

terhadap Barat atau kuasa penjajah dalam karya mereka sebaliknya menyanjung nilai
Barat dan mempromosikannya kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk diteladani. Sanggahan
terhadap Barat muncul dalam bentuk sanggahan budaya sahaja pada dekad 30-an dengan
menjadikan kota sebagai pusat penyuburan nilai hedonism yang berpaksikan budaya
Barat. Pergaulan bebas, hiburan berlebihan, dan sikap materialistik dilihat sebagai gejala
penularan nilai Barat yang mengakibatkan keruntuhan institusi keluarga, kerosakan
iman, dan kepunahan jati diri. Kesedaran politik yang bersifat antipenjajahan hanya
terungkap dalam novel Putera Gunung Tahan karya Ishak Haji Muhammad pada tahun
1937. Kelahiran karya ini sekurang-kurangnya dapat menjadi bukti kewujudan semangat
nasionalisme dalam sastera Melayu secara ideologikal dan seterusnya menjadi ikon teks
sastera pascakolonial pada periode awal di Malaysia.
129
NOTA HUJUNG
1. Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir lahir pada 12 Ogos 1796 atau bulan April 1796 (ada dua
pendapat), di Kampung Pali, Melaka. Beliau hampir menghafaz Quran, mahir berbahasa
Tamil, Hindi, Inggeris, dan Tionghua. Pekerjaannya ialah pengajar, jurutulis, dan jurubahasa
kepada pagawai kolonial Inggeris. Sekitar tahun 1837-38 beliau pergi ke Kelantan sebagai
jurubahasa rombongan pedagang Singapura. Pada bulan Februari 1854 beliau belayar ke
Makkah untuk menunaikan fardu haji dan meninggal dalam perjalanan di Judah pada
bulan Oktober 1854.
2. Novel ini diterbitkan buat pertama kali dalam dua jilid pada tahun 1925 dan 1926,
manakala cetakan kedua pada tahun 1927 dan 1928. Seterusnya novel ini diterbitkan semula
oleh Pustaka Antara pada tahun 1964 yang menjadi rujukan dalam kajian ini.
3. Kaum Tua ialah label yang bersifat essentialism, merujuk kepada golongan ulama
tradisional yang hanya enggan menerima ijtihad baru daripada ulama “progresif” lulusan
Timur Tengah. Golongan ulama ini menguasai majlis agama negeri dan berada dalam
lingkungan establishment, manakala golongan pembaharu yang menjadi tentangannya ialah
golongan Kaum Muda. Kaum Muda merupakan gerakan pemikiran atau school of thought
yang memperoleh inspirasi serta bawaan ilmu ijtihadi yang berasal dari Mesir. Golongan
Kaum Muda menggunakan majalah Al-Imam (terbit 1906) sebagai wadah penyalur idea
modenisme Islami mereka yang kebanyakannya dicedok daripada majalah Al-Manar yang
diterbitkan di Mesir lapan tahun sebelumnya. Menurut Roff (1975: 97), asas pertentangan
antara Kaum Muda dengan Kaum Tua ialah soal penentuan kebenaran. Kaum Muda
menggunakan akal untuk menentukan kebenaran dalam agama dan menolak penerimaan
secara membuta tuli atau taklid dalam agama. Kaum Tua pula mengatakan bahawa apa-apa
yang telah diputuskan oleh ulama dan segala-gala yang tertulis dalam kitab wajib diterima
begitu sahaja atas alasan bahawa tentulah ulama silam menulis dengan berhati-hati dan
memahami apa-apa yang ditulisnya. Ini tidak dapat diterima oleh Kaum Muda kerana bagi
mereka hanya yang terkandung dalam al-Quran dan hadis sahih yang wajib dipercayai
sedangkan ulama masih terdedah kepada kesilapan kerana mereka bukannya maksum
(bersih daripada dosa).
4. Abdul Kadir Adabi merupakan intelektual Melayu yang tidak pernah bekerja dengan
kerajaan. Dia pernah menjadi penyunting majalah al-Hikmah dan sebelumnya telah giat
menulis dalam majalah Pengasuh, selain menyumbangkan tulisan dalam majalah Edaran
Zaman, Kencana, dan Putera. Abdul Kadir bukan sahaja menghasilkan rencana intelektual
malahan turut menghasilkan cerpen dan novel yang antaranya berjudul Acuman Mahkota,
Sebelas Rejab, dan Melati Kota Bharu. (S. Othman Kelantan dlm. Abdul Kadir Adabi, 1992:
v- vi).
130
RUJUKAN
A.Wahab Ali. (1991). The Emergence of the Novel in Modern Indonesian and Malaysian Literature:
A Comparative Study. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
A. Samad Ahmad (peny.). (2000). Sulalatus Salatin: Sejarah Melayu. Cet. Kelapan. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Abdul Latiff Abu Bakar (peny.). (1984). Sejarah di Selat Melaka. Melaka: Persatuan Sejarah
Malaysia Cawangan Negeri Melaka.
Abdul Latiff Abu Bakar. (1977). Ishak Haji Muhammad: Penulis dan Ahli Politik sehingga 1948.
Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Abdul Kadir Adabi. (1992). Melati Kota Bharu. Diselenggarakan S. Othman Kelantan. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Abdul Rahman al-Ahmadi. (1987). Perancis dalam Sastera Melayu Moden. dlm. Sastera
Melayu dan tradisi Kosmopolitan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka. Hlm. 51-66 .
Amin Sweeney. (2005). Karya Lengkap Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi. Jilid 1. Jakarta:
Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia dan Ecole francaise d’Exxtreme-Orient.
Avelling, H. (1992). Non-English post-colonial fiction?: The Malaysian case. Kertas

kerja dibentangkan dalam Triennial Conference of the South Pacific Association for
Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies, Fremantle, 9-11 Disember 1992.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (1989). The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in
Post-colonial Literatures. London and New York: Routledge.
Fanon, F. (1966). The Wretched of the Earth. Terj. oleh Constance Farrington, First Evergreen
Edition. New York: Grove Press.
Hamzah Hamdani dan Siti Aisah Murad (peny.). (2004). Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden (1920-
1940). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir. (1960). Hikayat Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munshi. Singapura:
Malaya Publishing House Limited.
Ishak Haji Muhammad. (1973). Putera Gunung Tahan. Cet. Ketiga. Petaling Jaya: Pustaka
Jaya Agency.
Joesoef Sou’yb. (1985). Orientalisme dan Islam. Jakarta: Bulan Bintang.
Kassim Ahmad dan Noriah Mohamed (peny.). (2008). Hikayat Hang Tuah. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka dan Yayasan Karyawan.
Leela Gandhi. (1998). Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia
University Press.
131
Milner, A. (2002). The Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Roff, W. R. (2003). Nasionalisme Melayu. Terj. Ahmad Boestamam. Cet. Kedua. Kuala Lumpur:
Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Said, E. W. (1995). Terj. Bandung: Penerbit Mizan.
Shaharom Husain. (1963). Antara Pengarang-Pengarang Novel Melayu dan Karya-nya. Singapura:
Pustaka Melayu.
Sohaimi Abdul Aziz. (2003). Teori dan Kritikan Sastera: Modenisme, Pascamodenisme,
Pascakolonialisme. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Tiffin, C. & Lawson, A. (eds.). (1994). De-scribing Empire: Post-colonialism and Textuality.
London: Routledge.
Todorov, T. (1999). The Conquest of America. Terj. Richard Howard. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press.
Young, R. J. C. (2001). Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Massachusetts: Blackwell

Publishers Ltd.
Za’ba. (1940). Modern Developments. JMBRAS, Vol. XVII, Part III, Januari, hal.
132
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 133-148
Menulis dengan Budaya Pascakolonial:

Analisis Catatan Kembara
AWANG AZMAN AWANG PAWI
ABSTRACT
Kajian ini meneliti catatan kembara terpilih yang diterbitkan dalam bentuk kolum Dewan Sastera
(2000-2006) oleh seniman Muhammad Haji Salleh dengan mengkhusus aspek budaya pascakolonial
yang terserap dalam pemikiran dan sikap seniman. Penelitian ini penting bagi melihat pandangan, idea,
gagasan dan pemikirannya sebagai pengarang pascakolonial. Budaya pascakolonial merujuk kepada
sikap, pemikiran, cara menanggapi keseluruhan kehidupan yang kompleks daripada kacamata sikap
pascakolonial pengarang. Segala pengetahuan, prinsip berfikir, wawasan dan gagasan-gagasannya
diselubungi dengan sikap pascakolonial. Antara penemuan penting dalam analisis ini ialah sikap
pascakolonial pengarang kritis bukan sahaja terhadap kolonial, malah turut bersikap kritis terhadap
bangsanya sendiri. Pengarang juga didapati menulis dengan kesedaran pascakolonial secara sedar.
Kata kunci: budaya pascakolonial, pascakolonial, catatan kembara, oksidentalisme.
PENDAHULUAN
Dalam dunia pengarang, khususnya kalangan seniman, menulis merupakan salah satu
ekspresi yang paling dekat untuk mengungkapkan pemikiran, wawasan, sikap, pengalaman,
dan pendiriannya. Medium penulisan merupakan ekspresi tertinggi dalam menyampaikan
pandangan dan perjuangan serta falsafah hidup. Setiap baris kata yang ditulis merupakan
kenyataan hidup yang cuba disampaikan, dikongsikan dan diyakininya.
Makalah ini meneliti budaya pascakolonial yang terserap dalam pemikiran dan
sikap Sasterawan Negara yang ke-5, iaitu Muhammad Haji Salleh.1 Beliau telah terbukti
merupakan antara pengarang pascakolonial di Malaysia.2 Penelitian ini akan mengkhusus
kepada kolum penulisan Muhammad yang terkandung dalam ruangan tetap di Dewan
Sastera dalam tempoh November 2000 hingga Disember 2006. Penelitian ini penting bagi
melihat pandangan, idea, gagasan dan pemikirannya sebagai pengarang pascakolonial.
Penulisan dalam ruangan tersebut dapat dianggap sebagai penulisan kembara Muhammad
yang dicatatkan kembali dalam ruangan kolumnya tersebut.
DEFINISI BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL
Budaya pascakolonial merujuk kepada sikap, pemikiran, cara menanggapi keseluruhan

kehidupan yang kompleks daripada kaca mata sikap pascakolonial pengarang. Segala
pengetahuan, prinsip berfikir, wawasan dan gagasannya diselubungi dengan sikap
pascakolonial. Dalam konteks ini, sikap pascakolonial bermaksud bersikap kritis bukan
sahaja terhadap kolonial, malah turut bersikap kritis terhadap bangsanya sendiri. Dengan
kata lain, persona bangsanya terhadap kolonial yang membawakan arah yang kurang
tepat kepada pembinaan bangsa dan negaranya turut dikritik. Pada masa yang sama,
pengarang juga tidak menolak kemajuan berfikir dan pencapaian kalangan bangsa Barat
dengan menyaring terlebih dahulu tanpa terikut-ikut tanpa arah.3
Dalam konteks penulisan kembara, penulisan kembara Barat khususnya kalangan

negara yang dijajah selama ini tercatat dalam sejarah sebagai paling besar dan berpengaruh
seterusnya merancakkan wacana pascakolonial. Penulisan kembara Barat sebenarnya
merancakkan wacana “menindas” dan memberikan perspektif yang belum tentu tepat
sepenuhnya. Dalam konteks penulisan kembara Muhammad, pula beliau menjelajah
dengan kesedaran pascakolonial, berusaha mengelak daripada memberikan perspektif
yang kurang tepat. Pada masa yang sama juga, bertindak sebagai oksidentalis yang kritis.
Penulisan kembara memberikan pengalaman yang hidup, segar dan bermakna bagi melihat
dunia sebenar kedudukan bangsa-bangsa di dunia ini. Seterusnya, menempatkan penulisan
kembara sama penting dengan penulisan ilmiah yang lain.
RASIONAL KAJIAN
Berdasarkan penelitian awal, didapati kebanyakan kolum yang ditulis adalah berdasarkan
pengalaman kembara pascakolonial lebih 30 tahun Muhammad menulis. Sudah tentu
pandangan budaya pascakolonial pengarang turut terkandung. Pandangan budaya ini
dilihat, ditafsir dan dinilai sebelum diterima atau ditolaknya. Muhammad juga cenderung
mencurahkan kembali hasil pengamatannya kepada khalayak sastera. Tujuannya ialah agar
dapat memperoleh manfaat dan dapat dijadikan perbandingan antara bangsa di dunia ini.
Inilah dikatakannya bahawa,
Saya merasakan bahawa oleh kerana saya adalah warga Malaysia

yang banyak mendapat manfaat daripada budayanya maka saya perlu
menyumbang kembali. Dan sumbangan saya datang dari kembara ilmu
saya, daripada latar sastera bandingan yang membuat tidak gentar kepada
tulisan dari negara yang jauh yang berbeza budaya sasteranya. Saya kira
mungkin tulisan-tulisan ini dapat dilihat sebagai perluasan makluman
kepada pembaca saya. Dan juga untuk membandingkan diri kita dengan
keghairahan, eksperimen, kejayaan dan kegiatan bangsa lain. Begitu juga
perjalanan ke negara lain – saya suka mencari keluarbiasaan dan keunikan
bangsa lain.
(Wawancara, 2007)
Berdasarkan ruangan yang diberikan kepada beliau, didapati sikap pascakolonial

Muhammad mempengaruhi pembentukan imej kolumnya. Ini diperoleh daripada
perjalanan, pengalaman kembara langsung, belajar daripada pemikiran dan sikap besar
daripada sastera dunia. Kesemua ini hasil daripada pemerhatian, analisis, dan bacaan.
Ruangan sebagai kolumnis di Dewan Sastera mengukuhkan lagi persona Muhammad
sebagai pengarang pascakolonial yang memanfatkan budaya pascakolonialnya. Ini dapat
dibahagikan kepada beberapa aspek yang penting.
134
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: MENJELAJAH DAN MENELAAH KOTA

ILMU DUNIA
Sebagai anak bekas jajahan, Muhammad tertarik dengan kota-kota besar sebagai tamadun
besar, kota ilmu dan kota sastera. Peluang sebagai pelajar dan penyelidik membawanya ke
kota-kota besar sastera termasuk Stratford on-Avon yang dilawati pada tahun 1963. Kota
ini membayangkan suasana zaman Shakespeare. Ini termasuk rumah isteri Shakespeare,
panggung yang sentiasa memainkan karya-karya Shakespeare dan perpustakaan khusus
yang mengumpulkan segala tulisan mengenainya. Terdapat juga pelbagai jenis cenderamata
yang memuatkan gambar rumah, sonata dan Panggung Globe (Muhammad Haji Salleh,
2000:80).
Di Jerman pula, terdapat ramai sasterawan dan ahli muzik di kota ini. Di Berlin Timur
terdapat rumah Bertolt Brech, penyair, dramawan, dan pengkritik sosial yang termasyhur.
Pengarang lain termasuklah Theodor Fontane, Ensemble Brecht, Casanova, Frederick Schiller
dapat ditemui kesan peribadi. Begitu juga rumah Frederich Nietzsche dan Casanova yang
dilawatinya; digambarkan dengan baik oleh Muhammad. Banyak pengalaman, falsafah
hidup, perjuangan, sikap, wawasan daripada pengarang besar diperoleh melalui lawatan
langsung ini. Dalam lawatan ke Jerman, Muhammad merumuskan bahawa:
Yang ditemui hanya garis kasar sastera itu. Jiwanya harus saya temui
dalam kata dan genius mereka. Antara saya temui ialah bangsa yang sangat
mementingkan dan menghormati bahasanya, hasil bangsanya, dan pencapaian
bangsanya di peringkat tertinggi (italik pengkaji). Pada saya, Heine, Goethe,
Brecht, Mann, Boll, Hesse dan Grass merupakan sasterawan dan pemikir
antarabangsa dan harus selalu saya dampingi, kerana saya juga sudah
menjadi sebahagian daripada dunia yang lebih luas dan berkongsi ruang
serta masalah dengan mereka.
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, Mei 2006:89)
Ditegaskannya bahawa bangsa-bangsa yang melahirkan pengarang besar ini, datangnya

daripada bangsa yang sangat mementingkan dan menghormati bahasanya. Ini merupakan
persoalan utama yang menjadi dasar kepada kemajuan pembangunan sesebuah bangsa.
Muhammad menekankan faktor ini sebagai suatu penegasan dan kritikan kepada negara-
negara membangun termasuk negaranya sendiri, yang pada zaman mutakhir ini seolah-olah
mengabaikan dan kurang menghormati bahasa kebangsaan negara.4
Di Jepun, Muhammad mengunjungi Echigo-Yuzawa (Negeri Salju) yang dijadikan

tajuk karya Yasunari Kawabata. Karya ini ditulis di sebuah hotel kecil dan sederhana di
kampung itu pada 1930-an, dan kini menjadi hotel mewah yang mengekalkan bilik kerja
Kawabata kerana bangga akan kejayaan Kawabata sebagai pemenang Hadiah Nobel pertama
di Jepun. Di Rusia, beliau mendapat kesan bahawa pengarang yang menulis karya yang
sarat dengan sejarah dianggap sebagai agung. Ini termasuklah Tolstoy, Doestoevsky, dan
Pushkin. Pushkin, penyair kesayangan Rusia dihargai termasuk namanya diberikan kepada
sebuah kampung.
Tempat dan kunjungan ini mengingatinya bahawa khazanah Tun Seri Lanang
merupakan genius dan telah mewarnai imaginasi kreatif, Syed Syeikh al-Hadi, Ahmad
Rashid Talu, dan Ahmad Kotot yang belum diberikan perhatian. Di sinilah bangsa dan negara
135
perlu belajar untuk meletakkan kedudukan wajar melalui apa yang dilakukan oleh bangsa
yang maju lain dalam mengangkat sastera bangsa mereka. Lebih-lebih lagi, bagi Muhammad,
tindakan ini perlu dilihat sebagai tindakan pascakolonial di negara pascakolonial bahawa
sastera tempatan peribumi sudah lama dipinggirkan atau tidak diberikan tempat dan
kedudukan yang wajar oleh pihak kolonial.
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: CAKERA SASTERA BANGSA BESAR
Muhammad banyak belajar daripada sastera Barat. Antara yang dapat dipelajarinya
ialah bidang sastera kurang ditulis di negara ini, iaitu sastera biografi. Walaupun terdapat
perkembangan sedekad yang lalu, akan tetapi berbanding dengan bangsa lain, “kita agak
malu-malu untuk mengedepankan orang berjaya.” Berdasarkan pengalamannya juga
didapati, bangsa yang maju banyak menulis biografi termasuk Britain, Jerman, Perancis,
dan Rusia. Penulisan biografi memang menuntut masa yang panjang bagi menjalankan
penyelidikan untuk mendalami pelbagai aspek manusia penting seperti pemikir,
budayawan, dan negarawan. Tokoh seumpama ini dianggap sebagai contoh konkrit kejayaan
bangsa yang harus disampaikan kepada generasi akan datang sebelum mereka dilupakan”
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, 2000:31).
Muhammad melahirkan rasa terkilan kerana belum ada biografi lengkap tentang
Za’ba, Tun Abdul Razak, Tun Tan Siew Sin, Ahmad Rashid Talu dan lain-lain. Kesannya, ia
menyukarkan masyarakat untuk mengetahui pemikiran, latar kehidupan, dan kehidupan
manusia yang berjaya dengan lebih menyeluruh. Keadaan ini berbeza dengan Indonesia
yang lebih banyak buku biografi, kerana negara mempunyai jumlah penduduk yang besar.
Sedangkan di Eropah dan Amerika pula, setiap minggu terbit riwayat hidup yang baharu.
Setiap penerbitan menyerlahkan pandangan baharu mengenai tokoh yang diterokai sebelum
ini. Terdapat juga perlumbaan untuk menulis tentang tokoh penting kerana biografi menjadi
sebahagian daripada kajian sejarah dan menyumbang untuk ilmu.
Dalam budaya Asia, penulisan autobiografi pula lebih langka daripada biografi di
Malaysia kerana budaya dan cara orang Asia mengelak daripada menulis mengenai dirinya
sendiri. Autobiografi terbesar akuinya, ditulis oleh Arena Wati, sebuah cerita panjang
pengalaman di Indonesia dan Malaysia. Beliau mengakui menyukai karya Muhammad
Rajbad, iaitu Semasa Kecil di Kampung dan Mahatma Gandhi: Autobiography. Autobiografi awal
dalam bahasa Melayu seperti Hikayat Nakhoda Muda oleh Lauddin (ditulis akhir abad ke-18)
dan Surat Perintah Negeri Benggala oleh Ahmad Rijaluddin dari Pulau Pinang (pertengahan
abad ke-19), menurutnya:
Inilah bibit-bibit awal yang menceritakan pengalaman peribadi manusia

Melayu, dengan bahasa yang dikeraskan untuk pengalaman baru yang
berbeza. Tanpa autobiografi dan biografi kita tidak mungkin sampai pada
teras jiwa orang besar bangsa kita. Kita boleh mengetahui nama dan latar
hidup mereka tetapi kehilangan gambaran gejolak jiwa, perasaan, dan
kesusahan serta kesudahan mereka.
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, Oktober 2000:31)
Permasalahan penulisan biografi dan autobiografi sebenarnya ialah permasalahan

negara pascakolonial yang memerlukan lebih banyak perjalanan pengalaman dan sejarah
yang melatari zaman, juga peranan indvidu atau tokoh dalam mewarnai kehidupan perlu
ditulis. Penulisan dalam bentuk ini akan dapat memaparkan sejarah pengalaman daripada
perspektif sumber pertama dan langsung bagi mendapat sudut pandangan, sikap dan
136
pemikiran tokoh. Muhammad sendiri sedang mengusahakan penulisan autobiografinya

sendiri bagi mencatatkan perjalanan yang membawa kepada sikap pascakolonialnya.5 Usaha
ini merupakan inisiatifnya sendiri dan sebagai menyahut cabaran menghasilkan penulisan
autobiografi selepas mendapati bentuk penulisan ini amat langka di Malaysia.
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: BELAJAR DARIPADA ILMU BANGSA

BARAT
Muhammad terkesan dengan suasana intelektual di Barat. Ini bermaksud sikap dan cara
berhujah sebagai masyarakat berilmu menarik untuk dicontohi. Beliau mengongsikan
pengalamannya selama lebih 30 tahun berkesempatan bertemu dengan sarjana terkemuka
dunia. Bagi Muhammad, sikap Barat mengenai ilmu dapat dipelajari, khususnya dalam
kerendahan hati, budi pekerti yang tinggi, sikap lemah lembut dan beretika dalam dunia
ilmu. Ini merupakan suatu yang menarik untuk dikongsi kepada pembaca. Sebelum ini,
sudah banyak didengari mengenai sikap orang Timur dalam berdepan dengan dunia ilmu
(khusus dalam tradisi mengaji) dan kurang pula mendengar sikap Barat dalam dunia ilmu.
Dalam salah satu pengalaman di Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, beliau pernah
duduk dengan Alton Becker, Ben Anderson ahli sains politik yang ternama, dan Clifford
Geertz ahli antropologi terkemuka, yang juga felo di institut tersebut. Geertz misalnya,
memulakan inisiatif perbincangan mengenai pengajian Asia Tenggara. Perbincangan ini
berlaku secara jujur, dengan suara yang rendah, tiada ejekan atau penghinaan orang lain.
Perbincangan menjadi pintar tetapi bersopan santun. Tentang Anderson, Muhammad
menyatakan:
Anderson amat tajam persepsinya, selalu bertanya, selalu menimbulkan

senario pada keadaan atau negeri lainnya. Walaupun tidak bersetuju,
dia hanya memperlihatkan sedikit tentangannya. Tiada serangan atau
perkelahian atau rasa ingin menjatuhkan air muka orang lain.
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, November 2000:34)
Muhammad (November 2000: 34) mendapati tidak ada usaha menimbulkan

masalah peribadi, membeza-bezakan kaum, bahasa, dan negara. Kritikan yang menyentuh
soal antarabangsa atau agama hanya berdasarkan kepekaan ilmu dan sopan santun
budaya. Tidak ada senario hina-menghina, penggunaan kata kasar dan perbalahan fizikal.
Pembentang dilihat sebagai ilmuwan dan bukan jawatan, kerja, latar belakang seseorang.
Etika seminar inilah diamalkan secara menyeluruh.6 Walaupun sarjana tersebut dilihatnya
sebagai ghairah dengan wacana, diwarnai pula dengan ideologi dan pendapat khusus, akan
tetapi masih dalam rangka ilmiah dan berbudi bahasa. Kadangkala terdapat suara keras,
akan tetapi datang daripada kepercayaan terhadap pendapatnya, bukan kerana memarahi
atau mengejek orang. Jelas Muhammad:
Geertz...walaupun terkenal di seluruh dunia, tetapi dalam seminar beliau

ialah manusia yang lembut, sedia menerima dan dengan tekun memuji
pengkaji muda dengan jujur. Hillis Miller, seorang ahli teori yang saya
dengarkan di Leiden atau Derek Walcott dan Edward Said, yang saya
dengarkan dengan rasa senang di Amsterdam, ialah manusia ilmu yang
terbuka dalam penghujahan dan perbincangannya. Mereka sederhana
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dan tidak pernah agresif atau hanya ingin menang. Pendapat orang lain
yang baik diiktiraf kerana pendapat yang baik mungkin datang daripada
sesiapa sahaja.
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, November 2000:35)
Persidangan yang diadakan di Eropah dan Amerika biasanya cukup asas dan cukup
berbeza di negara pascakolonial. Di Jepun dan Eropah adalah amalan biasa memberikan
masa lebih setahun untuk menyiapkan kertas kerja. Tujuannya adalah bagi memastikan
penyelidikan yang panjang dan mengembangkan idea dan pemikiran yang berkualiti.
Lazimnya, perasmian seminar hanya dilakukan oleh Pengerusi Jawatankuasa Seminar.
Dengan etika ilmu Barat yang dipelajari oleh Muhammad, meskipun beliau dianggap
kritis terhadap Barat, beliau tetap menjunjung sudut-sudut sikap, nilai dan etika Barat yang
dapat dipelajari dan dicontohi kepada bangsa di Timur. Sikap dan etika Barat yang baik
sudah berlangsung dari zaman-berzaman. Barangkali kesarjanaan di Malaysia belum lagi
mantap hingga dalam aspek etika seminar, masih kurang dipedulikan. Inilah aspek yang
cuba ditekankan berdasarkan pengalaman beliau berseminar di negara-negara yang maju,
kemudian cuba diterapkan di negara pascakolonialnya. Ternyata beliau mempunyai sikap
yang tersendiri dan terpesona dengan budaya etika Barat dalam penganjuran persidangan
yang lebih mementingkan ilmu dan etika.
BUDAYA PASCAKONIAL: MERAIKAN KEKAYAAN SASTERA ASIA

TENGGARA
Dalam kolum Muhammad, beliau juga membuktikan bahawa bukan sastera Eropah
atau Barat sahaja yang perlu diberi perhatian. Sebaliknya, sastera di Asia atau di Timur
juga perlu diberi tempat dan kedudukan kerana sastera di Asia tidak kurang nilainya
berbanding dengan sastera di Barat. Tambahan pula, terdapat perkembangan yang menarik
yang berlaku di negara-negara Asia. Kesedaran mengenai kekayaan sastera di Timur
juga merupakan kesedaran pascakolonial Muhammad. Di negara Thai misalnya, beliau
melahirkan kekaguman terhadap Suchart Subsin yang sentiasa mendapat tempat dalam
kalangan sarjana dan pengkaji dari Jerman, Jepun, dan Australia.
Suchart dianggap seniman ulung kerana pembaharuan yang memberikan kehidupan

kepada wayang kulit Thai yang dikenali sebagai nanthalung. Ketika negara dilanda arus
perubahan wayang gambar, televisyen, muzik rock, dan kini VCD dan DVD, nanthalung
atau wayang kulit tradisional tewas kepada senario moden. Cerita-cerita nanthalung
berdasarkan epik Ramakien cuma dipersembahkan kepada Raja Thai ataupun upacara diraja.
Dengan khalayak semakin mengecil, Suchart membuat alternatif dengan mendapatkan inti
cerita daripada surat khabar mengenai persoalan yang pelbagai dalam dunia moden ini,
akan tetapi cerita dan bentuk tetap kekal. Begitu juga lagu lama diganti kerana tidak lagi
berupaya berkomunikasi dengan generasi baharu. Justeru, lagu baharu dibawa dengan
watak dan situasi baharu. Dengan ini, gitar elektrik yang menjadi asas muzik muda-mudi
turut dibenarkan dimainkan di samping suling, rebab, tabla, gong dan kercing. Cara ini
dilihat lebih berfungsi dan dekat dengan masyarakat dalam berdepan arus globalisasi.7
Muhammad (Jun 2001:69) juga menyatakan peranan wayang kulit Jawa yang terawal
yang berjaya menyebarkan agama Islam, dan selama 700 tahun membawakan cerita Nabi
Muhammad, rasul dan pahlawan Islam. Inilah peranan sastera agama yang dilihatnya turut
berlaku dalam sastera Pattani, Ligor, dan Singgora (sekarang Thailand), Aceh, Mendailing,
Riau, Palembang, Bangkahulu dan Lampung seiring dengan Jawa, Sunda dan Makassar.
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Begitu juga dengan pantun yang berjaya memperlihatkan titik persamaan di Asia Tenggara.
Pantun empat baris berjaya ditemuinya di selatan Thailand, di Tennasirim Selatan, Burma,
semua suku Semenanjung, termasuk Aslian, Baba, dan Ceti Melaka. Di Jawa, ia dikenali
sebagai sesebred atau sisindiran oleh orang Sunda, manakala orang Jawa pantun kentrung.
Suku lain di Sulawesi mengenali sebagai pantong dan panton. Pantun dilihat hadir dan
dibesarkan secara asli di alam Nusantara, manakala Ramayana diimport dari India.
Bagi pengarang pascakolonial ini, persoalan dan pemikiran yang dilihat di negara-
negara di Asia, khususnya di alam nusantara lebih kepada titik-titik persamaan dan
perhubungan yang sudah terjalin ratusan dan mungkin ribuan tahun yang silam. Hubungan
ini sudah lama mewarnai aspek seni, budaya, sosial, ekonomi, politik dan segala lapangan
di wilayah-wilayah tersebut. Meskipun masing-masing wilayah berkembang secara lebih
khusus, lebih-lebih lagi apabila kedatangan kolonial yang membawa kepada “konstruksi”
bangsa dan pembinaan negara dan mengakibatkan setiap wilayah dan negara yang dikuasai
oleh kolonial menjadi wilayah yang terpisah di antara satu sama lain dengan adanya kuasa
Belanda (Indonesia), Inggeris (Tanah Melayu), Sepanyol (Filipina) titik-titik asas persamaan
masih dapat lagi diperoleh. Muhammad seakan-akan masih lagi dibelenggu oleh akar
primordial dalam perhubungan antara wilayah yang terpisah ini. Hal ini kerana pemikiran
pascakolonial beliau lebih melihat secara luas dan menyeluruh dan kurang dipengaruhi
oleh pembahagian kolonial yang memisahkan wilayah-wilayah agar lebih senang dikuasai
dan ditadbir.
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: MELAHIRKAN “BANGSA” PENTERJEMAH
Salah satu pesona Muhammad ialah bidang terjemahan. Sebagai pengarang pascakolonial
beliau lebih sedar mengenai maha penting terjemahan dalam membijaksanakan bangsa
dan memajukan pembangunan negara. Dalam ruangan kolum di Dewan Sastera, sikap dan
wawasan beliau dalam bidang terjemahan dapat dikesan secara lebih jelas.
Beliau amat percaya terjemahan dapat menjadikan sesuatu bangsa maju dan mampu
berdaya saing. Melalui terjemahan pelbagai ilmu dapat dipelajari dengan lebih mudah dan
alamiah. Antara negara yang beliau sebut dapat dicontohi dalam industri terjemahan ialah
Jepun. Menurutnya penerbit Jepun mencari naskhah dari seluruh dunia dan bertindak sangat
cepat bagi memastikan buku baharu cepat sampai ke tangan penterjemah, malah kadang-
kadang sebelum sempat dikirimkan kepada penerbit di negaranya sendiri (Muhammad
Haji Salleh, Januari 2001:42). Oleh sebab itu, beliau melihat fenomena Jepun moden sangat
menakjubkan di negara pascakolonial.
Bagaimanapun, di negara pascakolonial, ternyata gerakan terjemahan tidak dilakukan

secara massa, dan sikap terhadap bahasa agak mengecewakannya. Sedangkan contoh
dan pengalaman negara yang maju sudah sedia ada untuk dicontohi dan disaring bagi
menempa kejayaan. Namun sekiranya sesebuah bangsa tidak ada keyakinan diri dan jati
diri dalam menempuh arus globalisasi, maka tidak mustahil, bangsa itu akan hanyut dalam
arus ledakan globalisasi. Bahasa kebangsaan terus terhakis, dan pembaikan pembelajaran
bahasa Inggeris kurang dimantapkan. Sebaliknya subjek teras bangsa yang penting seperti
sains dan teknologi diajar dalam bahasa Inggeris. Kesilapan strategi ini membuatnya agak
kesal dengan suasana yang berlaku ini. Ini menjadikan sesebuah bangsa itu, lemas dalam
arus yang kuat tanpa kekuatan diri yang ampuh.
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BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: MENGANGKAT NARATIF KECIL “YANG LAIN”

Kesedaran pascakolonial Muhammad bukan sekadar setelah kembali ke alam Melayu.
Kesedaran pascakolonial juga terkesan apabila mempelajari “sastera yang dianggap
lain”, iaitu sastera Amerika peribumi. Perkembangan sastera peribumi Amerika yang
membayangkan keadaan keterpinggiran kesusasteraan yang bukan dalam kategori “karya
agung Barat”. Ini disebabkan oleh sastera ini dihasilkan oleh bukan orang Barat “asli”.
Sebaliknya dihasilkan oleh golongan peribumi yang pernah menjadi tuan di tanah air
sendiri dan kemudian terpinggir dan dipinggirkan secara sistematik oleh kolonial Barat.
Akibatnya bukan sahaja kehidupan mereka hampir lenyap di muka bumi, sastera milik
bangsa mereka turut hampir pupus.
Sebelum ini, kedudukan sastera peribumi Amerika kaya dengan puisi, mitos, dan
legenda, yang memaparkan asal-usul manusia dan bumi, kejadian dunia, kerbau prairie,
burung di angkasa, dan paya semuanya dikisahkan sebagai cerita suci (Muhammad
Haji Salleh, Ogos 2001:88). Bagaimanapun, yang menyedihkan, ialah kolonialisme telah
menghancurkan keunikan tersebut dan hingga kini cuma tinggal sisa-sisa sastera. Kolonialis
Sepanyol meruntuhkan sebahagian besar tamadun peribumi ini. Tercatat dalam Sejarah
Penaklukan Sepanyol Baru dan Pemusnahan Hindia yang menceritakan kejatuhan dewa raja
ini, iaitu Montezuma. Pemerintah peribumi ini dibunuh dan disembelih semua tenteranya
oleh askar penjajah demi merampas emas dan perak. Akibatnya, tamadun dan bangsa besar
Azteka runtuh dan menjadi bangsa terjajah. Namun kesedaran pascakolonial peribumi
menyebabkan bangsa tersebut terus bersuara mendapatkan hak dan warisan yang semakin
pupus terutama dipinggirkan secara terancang oleh kolonial. Inilah dipersoalkannya
bahawa:
Kenyataan siapakah yang benar, dan apakah golongan kolonial atau

bangsa yang berkuasa di dunia sahaja berhak mendefinisikan dan melukis
sempadan kenyataan bangsa lain? Apakah kenyataan kita juga dijajah oleh
bangsa-bangsa yang pernah menjajah atau sedang menjajah dengan ilmu
dan pandangan terhadap kebenaran dan sebagainya?
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, Ogos 2005:74)
Meragui kebenaran yang disogokkan oleh pihak kolonial merupakan sifat atau ciri
pemikiran pascakolonial. Di sini diragui tindakan kolonial yang merupakan bangsa yang
berkuasa yang memberikan definisi mengenai sesuatu bangsa yang dijajah dan menentukan
ruang sempadan sesuatu bangsa tersebut. Daripada penjajahan yang berbentuk fizikal ini,
kemungkinan bahawa bangsa yang terjajah juga diserap dengan konsep-konsep ilmu dan
epistimologi kolonial yang lebih berpihak kepada kolonial.
Di Amerika Selatan pula terdapat ratusan suku bangsa yang hidup di tepi sungai,
tasik atau hutan. Kesemua latar ini menjadi sumber inspirasi dalam kehidupan mereka,
termasuk terdapat dalam mitos dan legenda, maksud tersirat “primitif” dan “tidak saintifik”
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, Ogos 2005:75). Selepas dibelenggu penjajah, terdapat kesedaran
pascakolonial pengarang. Sekiranya dahulu pengarang di Amerika Selatan mengemukakan
pengaruh Eropah dan bayangan kehidupan Eropah, mereka mulai sedar bahawa Argentina
atau Brazil atau Chile, mempunyai keaslian yang tersendiri dalam masyarakat majmuk.
Muhammad menyeberang ke sempadan sejarah bangsa yang lain bagi melihat sejarah
bangsa lain yang terjajah. Perihal bangsa yang dijajah kolonial bukan sahaja berlaku di
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alam Nusantara malah berlaku di benua Amerika sendiri. Sepanyol ternyata merupakan
negara kolonial yang kuat membelenggu Amerika Selatan. Kesan penjajahan ini berterusan
sehingga kini, lebih-lebih lagi apabila didapati bahawa bahasa Sepanyol merupakan bahasa
utama di Amerika Selatan. Namun Muhammad mendapati kesedaran pascakolonial
di Amerika Selatan mulai berkembang. Ini dibuktikan dengan kehadiran pengarang-
pengarang yang bereksperimen dengan gaya dan bentuk pemikiran akar peribumi seperti
aliran realisme magis. Ini merupakan sebahagian kecil daripada bentuk kesedaran ini.
Kesedaran pascakolonial di negara Amerika Latin merupakan suatu yang signifikan
dalam perkembangan pemikiran pascakolonial di negara pascakolonial. Sekali gus, ini
memberikan kenyataan bahawa Muhammad tidak keseorangan dalam memperjuangan
sikap dan pemikiran pascakolonial.
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: MENULIS PESONA NGUGI
Sebagai pengarang pascakolonial, Muhammad terpesona dengan sikap pascakolonial Ngugi

Wa Thiong’o. Ngugi merupakan nasionalis bahasa, budaya dan sastera negara Kenya yang
pernah dipenjarakan oleh kerajaan Kenya kerana kelantangannya dalam penulisan yang
mengkritik kepincangan kerajaan pada tahun 1976 dan dilepaskan pada tahun 1978. Sikap
Ngugi yang paling menonjol dalam gerakan pascakolonial ialah beliau mengisytiharkan
menulis novel dalam bahasa Gikuyu, iaitu bahasa peribumi Kenya daripada menulis dalam
bahasa Inggeris kecuali untuk tujuan antarabangsa. Dengan cara ini Ngugi percaya dapat
menyumbang kepada budaya Kenya daripada bahasa Inggeris yang merupakan bahasa
kolonial.
Ngugi merupakan orang kulit hitam yang pertama yang menjadi ahli akademik
di Jabatan Inggeris di Universiti Nairobi pada tahun 1967. Beberapa tahun berada di
universiti tersebut Ngugi menyatakan terdapat keperluan bangsa yang merdeka untuk
membina budaya kebangsaan. Beliau berjaya bersama teman-temannya yang berjaya
mengemukakan cadangan menghapuskan Jabatan Inggeris dan menggantikan dengan
Jabatan Kesusasteraan. Jabatan Kesusasteraan yang baru ini memfokuskan kesusasteraan
nasional dan tradisi lisan peribumi dengan merujuk kepada penulisan Afrika, diaspora
Afrika dan negara ketiga.
Muhammad mengikuti perkembangan pascakolonial Ngugi dan sedar Ngugi menjadi

lebih terkenal apabila sedar bahawa bahasa Inggeris menjajah diri, budaya, dan akal
fikirannya.8 Oleh sebab itu, beliau keluar daripada cengkaman dengan kembali kepada
bahasa ibundanya, Gikuyu, sebuah bahasa kecil Kenya. Ngugi dipuji dan dijadikan idola
kerana:
Buat saya dia menjadi wira manusia dan bahasa (yang dijajah) yang ingin
melawan kuasa pemusnah bahasa dan budaya penjajahnya. Dia merungkai
kesan penjajahan budaya dan bahasa ini. Dia dengan bangga dan keras,
kembali kepada bahasa ibundanya. Ngugi menyatakan bahawa dia ingin
memberikan suara dunia, ruang lebar, kepada bahasa ibundanya, seperti
yang ditemukan dalam bahasa penjajah Inggerisnya.
(Muhammad Haji Salleh, Disember 2006:16)
Cereka Ngugi rapat dengan pemikiran pascakolonialnya. Buku-buku Ngugi perlu

dibaca bersama-sama cerita ini, kerana saling membantu dalam memberikan penjelasan,
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melengkap, memperkuat dan berkongsi teks. Ini ada persamaan dengan Muhammad
sendiri, bahawa karya puisi beliau perlu dibaca dengan latar belakangnya, teori puitika,
dan pemikiran dalam esei-eseinya yang mencerminkan sikap pascakolonial pengarang.
Ngugi merupakan tokoh pascakolonial yang berjuang mengenai nilai kemerdekaan, jati diri
bangsa, budaya, bahasa dan sastera peribumi. Tidak hairanlah Profesor sastera bandingan
di Universiti New York ini turut diiktiraf dengan pelbagai pengiktirafan dalam pencapaian
kesusasteraan dan perjuangan sastera.9 Bagi Muhammad pula, perjuangan Ngugi ialah
perjuangan semua bangsa yang pernah ditindas oleh kolonial, oleh itu perjuangan tersebut
ialah perjuangan mendapatkan hak-hak dan kedudukan jati diri bangsa yang sudah sekian
lama dirampas secara hegemoni oleh pihak kolonial.
BUDAYA PASCAKOLONIAL: MENGUNGKAP MODENISME10 DAN

SIKAP BANGSA
Muhammad sentiasa cuba meyakinkan khalayaknya, khususnya di negara pascakolonial
bahawa setiap bangsa besar mempunyai pemikir penting, bukan sahaja terpusat kepada
teknologi malah dalam bidang sastera dan bidang falsafah juga. Beliau memberikan contoh
di Perancis umpamanya, yang terkenal kerana teknologi TGV, industri motokar dan angkasa
lepas, juga dikenali dengan nama-nama pemikir dan seniman besar termasuk Curie, Victor
Hugo, Camus, Sartre, Stendhal, Descartes, Rousseau, Barthes, Derrida, Lyotard, dan Lacan.
Menurut Muhammad, mereka ialah bangsa pemikir besar, di samping bangsa teknologi
dan industri besar.
Sikap Muhammad ada persamaan dengan pengarang pascakolonial lain. Ayi Kwei
Armah misalnya mengemukakan bagaimana Jepun, China, Amerika dan negara Eropah
yang menghargai budaya untuk meningkatkan nilai hidup mereka. Ini dilakukan melalui
penerbitan massa, stesyen televisyen dan industri filem untuk mempromosikan budaya
yang bukan sahaja di peringkat tempatan malah di peringkat antarbangsa. Sikap ini
dikemukakan dalam majalah mahupun jurnal seperti dalam Atlantic Monthly dan West
Africa (Oge Ogede, 1992:132).
Muhammad membandingkan situasi sastera di Barat yang lebih maju, serta diberikan
tempat dan kedudukan tinggi, berbanding dengan situasi sastera di negara pascakolonial
yang kurang dilihat penting seperti bidang profesional yang lain. Suasana yang berlaku
ini disebabkan oleh sikap dan penilaian yang kurang menyeluruh serta kurang membuka
diri dengan suasana dan situasi yang lebih besar dan maju sebagaimana dialami di Barat.
Di sini dapat dilihat beliau mengambil nilai-nilai yang terpuji dari Barat bagi penanda aras
nilai untuk dibandingkan dengan situasi yang berlaku di negaranya.
Bagaimanapun, ini merupakan pengecualian di negara pascakolonial Vietnam. Negara

yang mengalami penjajahan kolonial Perancis dan kemudian selepas Perang Dunia Ke-2
hampir dijajah Amerika. Namun Vietnam telah membuktikan kepada dunia bahawa bangsa
mereka meskipun kurang kecanggihan senjata moden dan kemudahan kelengkapan lain
akan tetapi berupaya menyebabkan Amerika tewas dan berundur dari bumi Vietnam.
Kemenangan ini disebabkan oleh semangat yang tinggi, kekentalan jati diri dan percaya
kepada kekuatan bangsa sendiri. Kemenangan ini juga membangkitkan kesedaran
pascakolonial yang kuat kepada Vietnam telah melakukan beberapa agenda tindakan yang
berupaya memperteguh budaya bangsa dan membawa kemajuan kepada negara mereka.
Muhammad tertarik dengan kesedaran dan tindakan pascakolonial Vietnam tersebut

yang kini bangkit dengan jati diri bangsa. Peranan utama universiti diberikan peranan
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jati diri budaya dan disesuaikan dengan keperluan masyarakat. Sebahagian daripada
peranan universiti ialah mengajar calon-calon pegawai kerajaan agar lebih terdidik.
Sistem peperiksaannya banyak dipengaruhi oleh China. Yang menariknya, peperiksaan
wajib termasuk subjek sastera dan puisi diadakan. Ini menunjukkan betapa sastera dilihat
mampu membentuk nilai dan sikap budaya yang dibentuk negara (Muhammad Haji Salleh,
September 2006:86). Demikian antara penemuan awalnya dengan negara pascakolonial
Vietnam. Ternyata pada hemat Muhammmad, Vietnam mempunyai jati diri bangsa
pascakolonial yang perlu dicontohi oleh bangsa yang ingin maju yang lain.
RUMUSAN
Berdasarkan penelitian ini didapati menulis dengan budaya pascakolonial oleh Muhammad
dilakukan dengan kesedaran pascakolonial secara sedar. Setiap tindakan mempunyai
sikap, pemikiran, pendirian, wawasan yang berorientasikan kepada sikap pascakolonial
yang bukan sahaja kritis terhadap kolonial juga terhadap orang Melayu sendiri. Ini
dibuktikan apabila menganalisis catatan kembara pascakolonial yang dilaluinya lebih 40
tahun digarapkan dalam kolum di Dewan Sastera. Menulis dengan budaya ialah sintesis
beliau yang mendapati bangsa pascakolonial maju amat menghormati pencapaian bangsa
dalam kesenian dan bahasanya. Persoalan penulisan biografi dan autobiografi ditanggapi
dari perspektif bangsanya. Menulis dengan budaya pascakolonial juga membawanya
menghargai kekayaan sastera Asia Tenggara, mengupas aspek terjemahan yang diyakini
berupaya mencerdaskan bangsa. Begitu juga persoalan sastera peribumi Amerika, rasa
persona terhadap Ngugi mencerminkan sikap budaya pascakolonial pengarang. Inilah
antara terkandung dalam diri pengarang selama ini dalam dunia bahasa, sastera dan budaya.
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NOTA HUJUNG
1. Muhammad Haji Salleh ialah Sasterawan Negara yang kelima di Malaysia. Beliau
dikenali sebagai penyair dan pengkaji kesusasteraan Melayu-Indonesia. Beliau dikenali
sebagai penyair dan pengkritik kesusasteraan Malaysia-Indonesia. Beliau telah meng-
hasilkan lebih tidak kurang 15 kumpulan puisi persendirian, tidak kurang 10 buku kajian
sastera, dan banyak menterjemah buku kajian dan terjemahan puisi dalam bahasa Melayu
dan Inggeris. Beliau juga banyak dilantik sebagai felo penyelidik di luar negara. Yang
terakhir ialah felo penyelidik di Harvard University. Beliau merupakan antara pengarang
pascakolonial yang penting di Malaysia.
2. Aspek ini dibincangkan dalam Pembinaan Teori Tempatan: Puitika Sebagai Wacana
Tandingan dalam Seminar Antarabangsa Kesusasteraan Melayu Ke-IX (SAKM IX) di
Kuantan, Pahang, 26-28 Oktober 2007. Lihat juga, Wacana Pascakolonial di Malaysia
dalam Unimas Research Symposium 10-12 December, 2007, di UNIMAS, Kota Samarahan.
3. Ini merupakan gagasan konsep yang dirumuskan oleh penulis berdasarkan pemaha-
man dan pembacaan teori pascakolonial selama ini. Gagasan ini boleh juga dibahaskan
kembali oleh sesiapa sahaja.
4. Kritikan ini selalu diulang-ulang Muhammad dalam wawancara (2007). Ini merupakan
penegasan terhadap sikap dan pendiriannya terhadap soal status bahasa kebangsaan dan
peranan kesusasteraan nasional yang selayaknya.
5. Menurut beliau sudah ada sepuluh fail yang masih kurang tersusun dan perlu dikemas
kini (Wawancara, 2007).
6. Sejajar dengan sikap ini, Muhammad pernah menyatakan bahawa, “sastera harus terbu-
ka, membenarkan pembaruan, penyegaran dan sokongan supaya sastera itu semarak. Li-
hat sastera Indonesia, Jerman, Jepun atau Amerika di sini – sangat hormat, kreatif suasana
penulisannya. Kritikannya terhormat kerana orang yang menulis kritikan mempraktikkan
kritikan beretika, berdasarkan kepekaan antara manusia, nilai agama dan hidup bersama.
Kritikan harus memperlihatkan tamadun yang mencipta sastera.” Ini berdasarkan wawa-
ncara dengan Muhammad.
7. Muhammad sendiri mempunyai pandangan yang menarik mengenai globalisasi. Menu-

rutnya globalisasi yang turut memberikan dampak yang besar ke negara-negara di dunia
ini. Katanya, “globalisasi sangat rumit, membunuh – tapi kita tiada pilihan lain – kita
mesti berada di atas masalah – dan tidak di bawahnya dan dirosakkan olehnya. Globalisasi
memusnahkan yang mereka tidak global – tetapi di pihak lain sarjana dan seniman perlu
menyedari makna keunikan (sastera dan budaya) mereka dan kembali berakar padanya
– ini akan menjadi lebih kuat dan kalangan ‘penguasa wacana besar’ akan lebih mengik-
tiraf sumbangan. Di suatu pihak lainnya, jika kita pandai menterjemah ke dalam bahasa
global – seorang penyair Malaysia boleh juga menjadi pengarang global. Sekarang saya
inilah masanya untuk kita mendapatkan manfaat dari budaya sendiri dan juga dari bu-
daya global. Kita perlu jadi kuat, mungkin dengan cara memahami cara globalisasi mem-
pengaruhi kita, dan melawannya, atau menarik manfaat untuk sastera kita setelah itu. ”
(Wawancara, 2007)
144
8. Antara ungkapan Ngugi yang terkenal ialah dalam Decolonising the Mind (1983:15-16)
yang menyatakan bahawa ialah: [A] specific culture is not transmitted through language in its
universality, but in its particularity as the language of a specific community with a specific history.
Written literature and orature are the main means by which a particular language transmits the im-
ages of the world contained in the culture it carries.Language as communication and as culture are
then products of each other. . . Language carries culture, and culture carries, particularly through
orature and literature, the entire body of values by which we perceive ourselves and our place in
the world. . . Language is thus inseparable from ourselves as a community of human beings with a
specific form and character, a specific history, a specific relationship to the world.
9. Ini termasuklah East African Novel Prize (1961) bagi novel pertamanya The River Be-
tween; Lotus Prize bagi Afro-Asian Literature (1973), Paul Robeson Prize Artistic Excel-
lence, Political Conscience and Integrity (1991), Anugerah Zora Neal-Hurston-Paul Robe-
son Award of the Council for Black Studies, Accra, Ghana (1993), Doktor Kehormat dalam
Humane Letters daripada Albright College, Reading, Pennsylvania (1994), Contributor’s
Arts Award of Chicago State University’s Gwendolyn Brooks Center, bagi sumbangan
jangka panjang yang bermakna dalam Black Literary Arts (1994) Fonlon-Nichols Prize
for Artistic Excellence and Human Rights (1996), dan Distinguished Africanist Award of
the New York African Studies Association (1996). Karya Ngugi juga diterjemahkan dalam
lebih 20 bahasa.
10. Pengkaji merujuk konsep ini modenisme sebagai rujukan umum dan tidak membahas-
kan atau membezakan antara moden dengan pascamoden kerana di luar penelitian ini.
Rujukan lanjut konsep pascamodenisme secara khusus sila rujuk Lyotard (1984).
145
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Sastera. Januari.
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seorang pengarang. Dewan Sastera. Disember 2005.
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Nusantara dan Amerika Latin”. Dewan Sastera. Ogos.
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Sastera. September.
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Oktober.
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2005). Selingkar bundaran kata: Sebuah sketsa buat Siti Zainon.
Dewan Sastera. November.
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Dakwat Barat dan Timur.Dewan Sastera. Januari.
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Februari.
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ilmu dan sastera”. Dewan Sastera. Mac
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Sitor Situmorang merungkai
rahsia bahasa. Dewan Sastera.April.
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Jerman Timur. Dewan Sastera.Mei.
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Nikmat naskhah. Dewan Sastera.
Jun.
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Pengumpul buku: Saya salahkan guru saya! Dewan Sastera.Julai.
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Dari sebuah negara kecil, sebuah
sastera besar. Dewan Sastera. Ogos.
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Lain padang lain lenggok puisinya.
Dewan Sastera. September.
147
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Mencari naskhah Melayu tulen.
Dewan Sastera. November.
Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2006). Selingkar bundaran kata: Daripada bahasa penjajah kepada
lagu jiwa bangsa”. Dewan Sastera. Disember.
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London:Heinemann.
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Muhammad Haji Salleh. (2007). Wawancara-wawancara dilakukan melalui e-mel. 2 Januari.

Jurnal Pengajian
Jalinan Media
Kesukanan Malaysia
Malaysia-China Jilid 11
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009
Pages 149-159
J alinan K esukanan M alaysia -C hina :

Mempelajari Kejayaan China
HAMEDI MOHD ADNAN

& SARIMAH ISMAIL
ABSTRAK
Olimpik Beijing 2008, merupakan Sukan Olimpik musim panas ketiga yang dianjurkan di Asia
selepas Tokyo 1964 dan Seoul 1988. Jacques Rogge, Presiden IOC telah mengiktiraf penganjuran
Olimpik Beijing 2008 sebagai yang terbaik dalam sejarah penganjuran Sukan Olimpik dunia.
Kenyataan ini telah memartabat dan mengiktiraf Asia sebagai penganjur terbaik sukan bertaraf
dunia itu. Kejayaan yang dicapai oleh atlet-atlet China dalam Olimpik Beijing telah meletakkan
kedudukan atlet Asia pada tahap membanggakan dan ini telah memperkukuhkan lagi jalinan
hubungan kesukanan antara negara-negara Asia dan Eropah dengan China. Malaysia adalah
antara negara yang menjalin hubungan erat dari segi latihan kesukanan dengan China. Keupayaan
China melahirkan atlet-atlet sukan bertaraf dunia telah menjadikan negara tersebut antara destinasi
utama latihan atlet Malaysia di luar negara. Penghantaran atlet-atlet Malaysia menjalani latihan
di China, bukan sahaja bertujuan memberikan pendedahan sukan profesional kepada atlet negara,
tetapi juga bagi mewujudkan jalinan hubungan antara tamadun yang boleh dipelajari antara kedua-
dua negara, khususnya dari segi kesukanan. Jalinan kerjasama dalam bidang kesukanan dengan
kedua-dua negara (Malaysia-China) amat sedikit dibincangkan, justeru artikel ini membincangkan
kerjasama yang telah sedia terjalin dan yang dapat dijalinkan antara kedua-dua negara dalam
bidang ini.
Kata kunci: Olimpik Beijing 2008, hubungan kesukanan, Malaysia – China.
PENDAHULUAN
Hubungan sukan dan kerajaan Republik Rakyat China terjalin sejak Parti Komunis China
(PKC) di bawah pemerintahan pemimpinnya, Mao Tse-Tung menguasai negara tersebut
pada tahun 1949. Sekali gus ia meletakkan sukan sebagai sebahagian daripada budaya
(subculture) dalam sistem sosial masyarakat negara itu. Kane (1996) menyatakan Amerika
juga telah meletakkan sukan sebagai salah satu institusi utama dalam budaya masyarakat
mereka sebagaimana Republik Rakyat China. Sukan dari segi sejarah dan sosiologi China
saling bergantungan dengan budaya fizikal, sosial dan politik. Ping (1995) menyatakan
China telah bangkit sebagai kuasa besar (superpower) sukan dunia dan kejayaan ini terhasil
149
daripada ideologi sukan yang dibentuk oleh kerajaan, struktur kerajaan, pendidikan
bersepadu, mass sport dan competitive sport yang telah dibina sejak pemerintahan Mao dan
telah diteruskan oleh pemimpin-pemimpin China selepas Mao.
Sukan antara cara yang telah digunakan sebagai senjata perang saraf (psycological
warfare) paling berkesan dalam persaingan antara negara kuasa besar—Amerika Syarikat
dan Kesatuan Soviet (USSR) semasa Perang Dingin. Melalui acara-acara sukan yang
disertai oleh China, ideologi kerajaan Republik Rakyat China dikembangkan kepada
negara-negara luar dan kekuatan sebenar China ditonjolkan. Kesan strategi perang
saraf itu secara tidak langsung telah berjaya mewujudkan pengaruh China dan berjaya
memunculkan China sebagai kuasa besar sukan yang terhebat pada hari ini.
Kemuncak kejayaan China sebagai gergasi sukan dunia (OIC, 2008) terserlah atas
kejayaan yang cemerlang dan gemilang sebagai penganjur Sukan Olimpik Beijing 2008
atau secara rasminya dikenali sebagai Sukan Olimpik XXIX. Republik Rakyat China juga
menjadi negara yang paling banyak mengutip pingat emas dalam kejohanan Olimpik
tersebut. Kejohanan sukan yang bermula dari 6–24 Ogos 2008 itu telah mengumpulkan
sebanyak 10,500 atlet dari seluruh dunia yang bertanding dalam 302 acara daripada 28
jenis sukan. Kejohanan ini juga menyaksikan 43 rekod baru dunia dipecahkan dan 132
rekod baru sukan Olimpik dicatatkan. China telah menjadi juara keseluruhan dengan
kutipan pingat emas sebanyak 51 pingat (daripada 100 pingat keseluruhan), diikuti oleh
Amerika Syarikat 36 emas (daripada 110 pingat keseluruhan).
Kejayaan China sebagai tuan rumah bagi kejohanan ini bermula setelah dipilih
dalam satu pengundian Jawatankuasa Olimpik Antarabangsa (IOC) pada 13 Julai 2001
semasa Sesi Ke-112 OIC di Moscow. China berjaya mengetepikan hasrat Toronto, Paris,
Istanbul dan Osaka untuk menjadi tuan rumah sukan berprestij ini. Sejak dari tarikh
tersebut, China tidak lagi menoleh ke belakang. Negara tersebut telah membina segala
prasarana sukan terbaik, melatih atlet-atlet terbaik, di samping berusaha untuk meletakkan
diri menjadi penganjur Olimpik terbaik, dan seterusnya mahu menjadi negara terbaik
dalam sukan dunia ini.
Sokongan kerajaan, pengurusan bersepadu yang efisien serta sokongan seluruh

rakyat negara itu amat berbaloi apabila semasa upacara penutup sukan ini dibuat, Presiden
OIC, Jacques Rogge mengisytiharkan acara sukan Olimpik Beijing 2008 merupakan
“penganjuran sukan yang menakjubkan dan terbaik dalam sejarah Olimpik dunia dan
OIC telah membuat pilihan yang tepat dengan memilih Beijing sebagai penganjur sukan
ini dan tiada penyesalan timbul dengan pemilihan yang dibuat” (Robinson, 2008).
Sebelum itu, OIC telah berdepan dengan pelbagai kritikan daripada ahli-ahli
politik dan badan sukarela (NGO) dunia apabila memilih Beijing sebagai penganjur
kejohanan ini. Ini berdasarkan rekod amalan hak asasi manusia (human rights) negara
China yang dikatakan amat rendah dan tidak disenangi oleh banyak negara lain di dunia
terutamanya Barat. Hal ini ditambahburukkan lagi dengan beberapa tunjuk perasaan di
China sendiri daripada pejuang hak asasi yang menyokong gerakan pembebasan Tibet.
Kecemerlangan China dalam penganjuran Olimpik Beijing 2008 dikatakan

kebangkitan China yang paling menakjubkan dalam bidang sukan. Dari segi kebangkitan
ekonomi, China memang digeruni sebagai Harimau Asia atau “the Tiger of Asia”. Selepas
berakhirnya dasar tutup pintu dengan negara luar dan bermulanya hubungan diplomatik
dengan negara-negara lain di dunia sekitar awal 1970-an dan dengan Malaysia pada Mei
150
Jalinan Kesukanan Malaysia-China
1975, China bangun membina kekuatan dalam pelbagai bidang termasuk ketenteraan,
sains, dan politik. Hari ini Republik Rakyat China disegani atas segala kekuatan yang
dimiliki oleh negaranya dan kekuatan ini mampu memberikan kuasa kepada negara ini
bersuara di peringkat antarabangsa.
China dan Jepun (Penganjur Bola Sepak Piala Dunia 2006) mewakili kejayaan
Asia dalam tadbir urus ekonomi, sukan negara dan antarabangsa yang cemerlang dengan
rekod kejayaan kedua-dua negara ini berjaya mengatasi rekod kejayaan penganjuran oleh
negara-negara Barat. Atlet-atlet China mendapat kejayaan yang cemerlang dalam hampir
kesemua kejohanan sukan yang disertai mereka. Nama-nama besar sukan badminton,
sukan terjun, renang dan gimnastik dicatatkan dalam kalangan atlet China. Kejayaan
China dalam sukan dan penganjuran sukan menyebabkan banyak negara di Asia, termasuk
Malaysia menjalinkan hubungan yang erat dengan China dalam bidang sukan.
HUBUNGAN AWAL KESUKANAN ANTARA CHINA DENGAN NEGARA-NEGARA

LUAR
Sejarah menunjukkan bahawa jalinan hubungan kerjasama kesukanan antara China

dengan Asia telah lama terjalin iaitu sejak dekad 1950-an (Ping, 1995). Negara-negara
yang mempunyai ideologi yang sama dengan China mendapat khidmat jurulatih-jurulatih
sukan secara langsung dari negara China. Ini dapat dilihat apabila Pentadbiran Sukan
Negara China telah menghantar sepasukan jurulatih China ke Vietnam pada tahun 1957
dan ini merupakan jalinan kerjasama China–Asia yang pertama. Sejak itu, di antara dekad
1950-an–1980-an, China telah menghantar ramai jurulatihnya ke negara-negara sedang
membangun, terutamanya ke Asia Tenggara bagi melatih olahragawan dan olahragawati
di negara-negara tersebut. Penghantaran jurulatih ini adalah percuma dan dibiayai oleh
dana khas di bawah Kementerian Kewangan China. Penghantaran jurulatih-jurulatih
China ini umpama sambil menyelam minum air, di mana tujuan sebenar China pada masa
tersebut adalah bagi meluaskan ideologi komunisnya di rantau Asia Tenggara.
Sungguhpun penyerapan ideologi komunis tidak berjaya dikembangkan

sepenuhnya oleh China, namun jurulatih-jurulatih sukan China berjaya dalam memberikan
latihan kesukanan kepada pasukan dan atlet beberapa negara di Asia Tenggara. Wu (1992)
menyatakan Republik Rakyat China telah menghantar sebanyak 2,324 jurulatih ke-88
buah negara dan benua di Asia, Afrika, dan Amerika Latin. Banyak atlet yang dilatih oleh
jurulatih China mendapat kejayaan yang cemerlang dalam kejohanan-kejohanan sukan
antarabangsa dunia. Umpamanya atlet renang Thailand yang dilatih oleh jurulatih renang
China, Yao Murong (dihantar ke Thailand dalam tahun 1989), telah memenangi 15 pingat
emas dalam Kejohanan Sukan Asia Tenggara (SEA Games) dan 1 emas dan 3 perak dalam
Kejohanan Terjun Asia 1995.
Kerajaan China juga telah menghantar jurulatih trek dan padang, Chen Meiling
bagi melatih atlet Pakistan dalam acara-acara tersebut. Hasilnya, pasukan Pakistan telah
berjaya memenangi pingat gangsa pasukan wanita 4 X 100 meter berganti-ganti dalam
sukan Asia Ke-4. Li Mao, pernah menjadi jurulatih kepada pemenang pingat perak
perseorangan badminton Olimpik Atlanta, Dong Jiong. Pada tahun 1999 beliau berhijrah
ke Korea Selatan bagi melatih pemain-pemain utama negara itu termasuk juara badminton
Olimpik, Shon Seung Moo dan juara Piala Sudirman, Lee Hyun-il. Jurulatih gimnastik
China, Su Shiyao telah berkhidmat selama 10 tahun di Kuwait. Gimnas yang dilatih oleh
beliau berjaya memenangi kejohanan berpasukan dan tujuh pingat emas dalam acara
gimnastik lelaki di Kejohanan Gimnastik Arab Ke-2 pada tahun 1983.
151
Kehebatan China dalam sukan bukan sahaja dikagumi oleh Asia, tetapi juga telah
mendapat pengiktirafan dari Barat. Eropah dan Amerika telah mengundang jurulatih-
jurulatih dari China bagi melatih pasukan sukan tertentu di negara mereka. Chen Xinhua
menjadi jurulatih ping pong England selama 13 tahun dan gimnas Amerika, Shawn
Johnson memenangi tiga pingat emas dalam Kejohanan Gimnastik Dunia di bawah
bimbingan jurulatih China, Qiao Liang atau dikenali juga sebagai Liang Chow. Pada akhir
2007, hasil tunjuk ajar jurulatih China, Lang Ping, pasukan bola tampar wanita Amerika
telah berjaya melayakkan diri menyertai Sukan Olimpik Beijing 2008.
Kelab-kelab utama Eropah turut menggunakan khidmat jurulatih sukan China.

Jurulatih bola tampar China, Fan Yang telah berkhidmat dengan Kelab Bola Tampar
Cannes, Perancis. Fang telah membawa pasukannya menjuarai 11 kejohanan Liga Bola
Tampar Perancis di samping 10 Piala Perancis dan dua Piala Eropah. Pada tahun 2007, Fang
dilantik sebagai perunding untuk pasukan bola tampar kebangsaan Perancis. Penerjun
Australia pula, Chantelle Newbery telah memenangi pingat emas dalam acara terjun
pada kejohanan Olimpik Atlanta 2004. Chantelle merakamkan kejayaan tersebut sebagai
kejayaan jurulatihnya, Wang Tongxiang dari China yang dianggap sebagai jurulatih
yang cemerlang dan terbaik dunia. Wang telah melatih Chantelle selama sembilan tahun.
Seorang lagi jurulatih renang dalam acara papan anjal, Teng Hui telah menjadi jurulatih
untuk pasukan Canada dan juga Australia. Menurut Teng, sistem pentadbiran sukan China
telah menyebabkan kemunculan ramai perenang dan penerjun yang bertaraf dunia di
China di mana mereka ini kemudiannya menjadi jurulatih sukan yang hebat dan bertaraf
dunia.
HUBUNGAN KESUKANAN MALAYSIA-CHINA
Republik Rakyat China telah menjalinkan hubungan dengan Asia Tenggara seawal tahun-
tahun 1950-an lagi. Namun tumpuannya ketika itu lebih kepada negara-negara yang
mempunyai ideologi dan dasar politik yang sama sepertinya. Justeru, Vietnam telah
mendapat sokongan kesukanan dari China seawal tahun 1957 lagi berbanding negara-
negara Asia Tenggara yang lain (Brownell, 1995).
Di Malaysia, Majlis Sukan Negara Malaysia (MSN) telah memainkan peranan

yang aktif sebagai agensi utama yang bertanggungjawab ke arah pelaksanaan program
pembangunan sukan di negara ini. Dasar Sukan Negara telah menetapkan MSN Malaysia
diberi tugas dengan mengambil langkah yang perlu dalam mencapai kecemerlangan sukan
hingga ke tahap tertinggi, dengan semangat kesukanan yang tulen, dalam pertandingan
peringkat kebangsaan dan antarabangsa serta dengan harapan mempertingkatkan lagi
muhibah dan imej negara.
Selaras dengan perkembangan semasa dan hasrat kerajaan untuk menerapkan

budaya sukan dalam segenap lapisan masyarakat di negara ini, MSN terus mengorak
langkah mempertingkatkan lagi program dan aktivitinya. Tujuannya adalah untuk
meneruskan kesinambungan pembangunan dan kemeriahan sukan negara dari peringkat
akar umbi hinggalah ke tahap kecemerlangan. Dalam usaha ini, lima teras telah
digabungkan, iaitu kepimpinan kerajaan, kesukarelaan persatuan sukan, tanggungjawab
sosial sektor swasta, minat dan penghayatan masyarakat, serta komitmen atlet.
Memandangkan China adalah gergasi sukan di Asia, MSN telah menjalinkan

kerjasama dalam pelbagai perkara bagi meningkatkan prestasi sukan negara. Hubungan
kesukanan Malaysia-China mula bergerak aktif sekitar dekad 1980-an. Terdapat pelbagai
152
bentuk kerjasama sukan yang terjalin antara Malaysia-China. Antara kerjasama yang
terjalin adalah dalam bentuk kepakaran jurulatih, kemudahan tempat latihan, dan
kepakaran pengurusan atlet.
Kerjasama Kepakaran Jurulatih Sukan
Brownell (1995) menyatakan China amat terkenal kehebatannya dalam beberapa jenis
sukan tertentu yang menjadi sebahagian budaya masyarakatnya sendiri. Antaranya sukan
wushu, badminton, renang, ping pong, dan gimnastik. Kejayaan China dalam sukan-sukan
ini dikaitkan dengan kehebatan jurulatih sukan yang dimilikinya, selain faktor-faktor lain.
Memandangkan kehebatan itu, Malaysia turut menggunakan khidmat jurulatih China
dalam beberapa jenis acara sukan, antaranya badminton, gimnastik, dan renang.
Kerjasama Malaysia-China dalam sukan bermula dari tahun 1980-an lagi menerusi
sukan badminton. Kerjasama awal ini terjalin apabila jurulatih Chen Changjie dan isterinya
telah melatih pemain perseorangan dan beregu wanita Malaysia. Kebangkitan keluarga
Sidik (Razif, Jailani dan Misbun) serta Ong Beng Teong adalah di bawah bimbingan
jurulatih China, Tan Yee. Dalam tahun 1990-an, jurulatih China, Han Jian dan Yang Yang
telah melatih atlet badminton Malaysia yang terdiri daripada Rashid Sidek, Foo Kok Keong,
Cheah Soon Kit, Soo Beng Kiang, Yap Kim Hock, dan Tan Kim Her. Seorang lagi jurulatih
dari China, Fang Kaixiang, telah berkhidmat dengan pasukan Malaysia dan telah berjaya
membawa pasukan negara memenangi pingat perak dalam pertandingan Piala Thomas.
Kejayaan Malaysia mengalahkan pasukan Indonesia pada tahun 1992 telah memberi nafas
baru pada sukan badminton negara (ChinaToday, http://www.chinatoday,com.cn)
Pada tahun 2005, Li Mao yang pernah berkhidmat dengan pasukan Korea Selatan
telah dijemput oleh Persatuan Badminton Malaysia (BAM) untuk melatih pasukan
Malaysia. Di bawah bimbingan Li Mao, nama-nama besar pemain badminton Malaysia
muncul. Antaranya Lee Chong Wei yang telah menjuarai pelbagai kejohanan dunia
termasuk muncul sebagai pemain nombor satu dunia hari ini. Walau bagaimanapun, Li
Mao telah kembali ke pasukan Korea Selatan pada tahun 2007 dan tempatnya diganti oleh
bekas pemain badminton kebangsaan Misbun Sidek yang kini menjadi jurulatih pasukan
Malaysia.
Sukan badminton juga telah menyaksikan penghijrahan pemain badminton

kebangsaan China ke Malaysia. Pemain beregu wanita China, Zhang Jiewen yang telah
memenangi pingat emas di Sukan Olimpik Athens 2004 dijangka berhijrah ke Malaysia
kerana mengahwini bekas pemain beregu kebangsaan Malaysia, Choong Tan Fook.
Persatuan Badminton Malaysia dikatakan bakal meletakkan Jinwei dan Tan Fook sebagai
pasangan beregu campuran Malaysia pada tahun 2010 (The Star, 8 Januari 2009). Jinwei
telah bersama pasukan China selama sembilan tahun dan Persatuan Badminton Malaysia
juga akan menggunakan perkhidmatan beliau sebagai jurulatih bagi pasukan badminton
wanita Malaysia.
Badminton bukanlah satu-satunya sukan yang mendapat suntikan kerjasama

jurulatih dari China. Jurulatih-jurulatih dari China juga turut melatih pasukan renang
Malaysia. Menurut Pengarah Majlis Sukan Negeri Terengganu, Rosdi Awang, jurulatih
China, Wang Li Gen, 46 tahun, telah dilantik menjadi jurulatih renang untuk Terengganu.
Wang juga dilantik menjadi penasihat skuad SUKMA Terengganu 2010 di Melaka
153
(Bernama, 14 April 2009). Sebelum menyertai Terengganu, Wang merupakan jurulatih

renang Sarawak selama lima tahun. Perenang Malaysia lain seperti Bryan Nickson dan
Eva Wong pernah menjalani latihan renang di bawah bimbingan jurulatih China.
Kerjasama Tempat Latihan dan Teknik Latihan
Selain kerjasama dari segi kepakaran jurulatih bagi sesuatu jenis sukan, kerajaan Republik
Rakyat China juga telah bekerjasama dengan Malaysia dari segi penyediaan pusat latihan
negara (Malaysia) di luar negara. Kerjasama ini dapat pengurangkan kos pembiayaan
tempat latihan atlet Malaysia. Haigan Kunming, China merupakan pusat latihan dalam
acara sukan terjun dan menjadi salah satu pusat latihan Malaysia di luar negara. Kerjasama
yang terjalin antara Majlis Sukan Negara (MSN) dengan Pentadbiran Sukan China telah
menyumbang kepada pencapaian cemerlang atlet terjun negara, antaranya Bryan Nickson
yang telah memenangi pingat emas acara Sukan Terjun di kejohanan Sukan SEA (MSN,
2009).
Laporan Cawangan Elit (2009) MSN, menyatakan kejayaan China dalam sukan
angkat berat dan wushu telah menarik minat MSN menghantar atlet-atlet angkat berat,
wushu dan ping pong Malaysia menjalani latihan di sana. Haikou dan Wu Zhi Shan (di
Pulau Sanya), China merupakan tempat latihan sukan angkat berat yang disediakan untuk
atlet Malaysia menjalani latihan. Di situ, atlet Malaysia menjalani latihan berfasa bagi
menghadapi temasya sukan yang berprestij. Jurulatih-jurulatih China disediakan bagi
membantu atlet Malaysia menjalani latihan ini.
China mempunyai banyak pusat latihan angkat berat yang terbaik, antaranya
di Haikou dan Wu Zhi Shan, iaitu pusat latihan yang disediakan untuk pasukan angkat
berat Malaysia menjalani latihan. Pasukan Malaysia menjalani latihan sebanyak dua kali
setahun di situ. Setiap fasa memakan masa selama dua bulan. Setiap fasa akan disertai oleh
12 atlet angkat berat di kedua-dua pusat latihan itu. Pasukan angkat berat Malaysia dilatih
oleh jurulatih China, Lin Xin Hui yang berpengalaman selama 20 tahun dalam sukan itu.
Beliau pernah membawa atlet angkat berat Indonesia memenangi pingat perak di temasya
Olimpik 2004 di Athens. Jurulatih Xin Hui, iaitu bekas graduan Universiti Beijing tahun
1990 kini berada di Kuala Lumpur sehingga kontraknya berakhir pada 2011.
Hengding, China pula merupakan tempat atlet sukan ping pong Malaysia menjalani
latihan. Di sini atlet Malaysia menjalani latihan sparring bersama-sama atlet dari Negara
tersebut. Latihan bersama dengan atlet China, yang kebanyakannya merupakan atlet ping
pong dunia membolehkan pemain Malaysia mempelajari teknik-teknik permainan ini
dengan lebih berkesan.
China juga telah menyediakan tempat latihan bagi atlet sukan wushu Malaysia. Tiga
tempat latihan berasingan di China telah disediakan untuk atlet Malaysia. Tempat-
tempat tersebut adalah di Guangzhau, Guang Xi dan Fuzhou. Latihan wushu yang diikuti
di China melibatkan atlet wushu bagi menghadapi Sukan SEA 2009 di Laos. Atlet-atlet
Malaysia didedahkan dengan teknik sukan wushu yang sistematik di bawah tunjuk ajar
jurulatih China.
MEMPELAJARI KEJAYAAN CHINA DALAM SUKAN
Sungguhpun Malaysia sudah lama menjalinkan hubungan kerjasama sukan dengan

China, namun kecemerlangan Malaysia dalam sukan masih diperdebatkan. Agensi sukan
154
di Malaysia seperti Kementerian Belia dan Sukan, Majlis Sukan Negara, dan Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia telah membelanjakan berjuta-juta ringgit bagi memajukan sukan di
Malaysia, tetapi hasilnya masih tidak dapat dibanggakan. Hanya sukan-sukan tertentu
sahaja yang menyerlah seperti badminton, skuasy, dan boling. Jenis-jenis sukan lain
hanya mampu meraih pingat di peringkat Sukan Asia Tenggara (Sukan SEA) sahaja dan
sekali sekala dalam Sukan Asia. Melihat fenomena ini, banyak yang boleh dipelajari oleh
Malaysia hasil kejayaan China mengendalikan Sukan Olimpik Beijing 2008 dan seterusnya
menjuarai temasya sukan tersebut dengan kutipan pingat emas terbanyak dalam sejarah
Olimpik dunia (Economist, 29 Ogos 08).
Sebaik sahaja China dipilih sebagai tuan rumah Kejohanan Olimpik XXIX
pada 13 Julai 2001, Republik Rakyat China terus membuat persediaan yang rapi bagi
memenuhi peranannya sebagai penganjur. China telah menggabungkan segala kepakaran
kejuruteraan, sains dan teknologi bagi menyediakan segala kelengkapan tempat
penganjuran mengikut piawai OIC. Dalam masa tujuh tahun itu juga, Pentadbiran Sukan
China telah menyepadukan semua kepakaran sukan seperti kejurulatihan, pemakanan,
pencarian bakat sukan dan sebagainya bagi melahirkan atlet-atlet yang mampu bersaing
dan menjadi juara. Walaupun berhadapan dengan segala kritikan, semasa upacara
pembukaan, sepanjang berlangsungnya temasya dan upacara penutup, China telah
berjaya menunjukkan kecemerlangan sebagai penganjur yang paling cemerlang dalam
kejohanan sukan Olimpik dan seluruh media dunia memberi pengiktirafan ini.
Menurut atlit badminton China, Zhang Jiewen (Star, 8 Januari 2008) kejayaan atlet-
atlet China dalam acara sukan bertaraf dunia adalah kerana China mempunyai barisan
atlet pelapis yang ramai dan tidak bergantung kepada satu-satu atlet sahaja bagi sesuatu
jenis sukan. Teng Hei, atlet terjun China, pula menyatakan kejayaan China dan kelahiran
atletnya yang cemerlang adalah kerana sistem tadbir urus sukan China yang sistematik
serta bersepadu di samping kedudukan sukan sebagai sebahagian daripada budaya China
(China Today, http://www.chinatoday.com.cn).
Republik Rakyat China telah membuat persediaan rapi selama tujuh tahun,
sebagai persediaan untuk para atletnya bersaing untuk kejohanan Sukan Olimpik Beijing.
Semua atlet China diletakkan di kem-kem latihan yang disediakan oleh kerajaan. Setiap
hari, atlet-atlet ini menjalani latihan pesat yang bermula dari jam tujuh pagi hingga malam
dan pada pukul 10 malam semua atlit dikehendaki tidur. Latihan pesat, disiplin, dan
pentadbiran yang bersepadu merupakan kunci kejayaan sukan kepada China. Di China,
menurut Wu (1992), apabila seseorang atlet dipilih, maka ia menjadi milik negara, dan
tiada lagi campur tangan keluarga terhadap latihan dan diri atlet tersebut.
Pencarian bakat-bakat baru di China dijalankan di seluruh pelosok wilayah China.

Pegawai-pegawai sukan China akan mengenal pasti bakat-bakat sukan dalam kalangan
rakyat China seawal umur lima tahun. Kanak-kanak tersebut akan ditempatkan di sekolah-
sekolah sukan yang terdapat di hampir seluruh pelosok wilayah China. Kanak-kanak
yang terpilih ke sekolah ini akan dilatih dengan tahap disiplin yang tinggi dan atlet-atlet
China di awal umur sebegini sudah ditanamkan dengan semangat kesukanan yang tinggi.
Sebagai bandingan, Yu Fang dari China (pernah menjadi atlet jarak jauh Malaysia setelah
mendapat pemastautin tetap Malaysia) turut menjadi jurulatih di Malaysia. Walaupun
sudah berkahwin, beliau masih bersukan kerana atlet China dari seawal umur lima tahun
sudah mempunyai hasrat yang satu iaitu “mesti mendapatkan pingat emas dalam Sukan
Olimpik”. Di China, sejak kecil mereka sudah ada impian untuk beraksi dalam Sukan
155
Olimpik (Sarimah dan Hassnah, 2005).
Hal ini berbeza dengan Malaysia di mana kebanyakan atlet menganggap Olimpik
adalah sesuatu yang amat sukar untuk digapai dan itulah sebahagian daripada halangan
yang ada. Selain itu, kebanyakkan pengesanan bakat-bakat sukan dalam kalangan atlet
Malaysia dilakukan semasa atlet itu berada di bangku sekolah menengah dalam lingkungan
umur 12 tahun ke atas. Pengesanan bakat pada peringkat umur ini dikira agak terlewat
untuk diasah sebagai atlet negara kerana mereka akan berhadapan dengan pelbagai
kesukaran seperti mempelajari skil teknikal bermain, disiplin, dan latihan yang ketat. Ini
menyebabkan latihan yang ketat sukar untuk diikuti mereka sepenuhnya. Malaysia juga
tidak mempunyai pegawai-pegawai sukan atau sekolah-sekolah sukan di setiap daerah
sebagaimana di China (The New Straits Times, 28/4/2009). Ini menyebabkan Malaysia
mengalami kesukaran mengesan bakat-bakat sukan berpotensi untuk diketengahkan ke
peringkat yang lebih tinggi. Kebergantungan kepada sekolah dalam usaha pengesanan
bakat sukan dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia mengehadkan pencarian bakat-bakat sukan
dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia.
Malaysia perlu meluaskan pencarian bakat-bakat sukan melebihi ruang lingkup

sekolah sebagaimana yang dilakukan oleh China. Kaum pribumi di Semenanjung, Sabah
dan Sarawak berkemungkinan mempunyai potensi yang baik untuk diketengahkan dalam
sukan-sukan tertentu memandangkan corak hidup seharian mereka. Orang Bajau Laut
amat terkenal sebagai penyelam dan perenang yang cekap, manakala orang Senoi pula
merupakan pejalan kaki yang kuat dan penyumpit yang tepat. Tidak mustahil, bakat sukan
renang dan terjun negara terdapat dalam komuniti Bajau Laut dan bakat penembak atau
perejam lembing yang tepat dalam kalangan orang Senoi Malaysia. Pencarian bakat sukan
perlu diperluaskan melebihi sempadan sekolah dan ini memerlukan sokongan kerajaan
dan agensi-agensi sukan terbabit (Sarimah dan Hassnah, 2005).
Malaysia boleh mempelajari banyak perkara daripada kejayaan China

mengembangkan sukan sehingga disegani dan dikagumi dunia. Dua dekad dahulu,
China hanya memenangi lima emas di Sukan Olimpik Seoul dan pada tahun 2004 negara
tersebut memenangi 32 emas di Sukan Olimpik Athens, di tempat kedua di belakang
Amerika Syarikat. Dalam Sukan Olimpik Beijing 2008, Amerika terpaksa tunduk kepada
China sebagai juara superpower sukan dunia (Time, 12 Jun 2008).
Harrison dan Burden (2004) berpandangan bahawa kejayaan dalam sukan sesuatu
kaum atau bangsa adalah berdasarkan pandangan kaum tersebut terhadap sukan dan
bagaimana sukan diangkat atau diletak dalam masyarakat itu sendiri. Pandangan ini secara
tidak langsung mengiakan pendapat jurulatih China, Teng Hui, yang menyatakan serta
meletakkan kejayaan China dalam sukan adalah hasil dasar sukan dan sistem Pentadbiran
Sukan China yang sistematik dan bersepadu.
Vijesh Rai, wartawan sukan Malaysia menulis, sukan di Malaysia tidak berupaya
wujud sebagai satu industri sebagaimana di Barat. Vijesh melihat pembangunan sukan
di Malaysia tidak berupaya membangun dan digerakkan secara bersepadu sebagaimana
di China ataupun di Barat. Justeru, Menteri Belia dan Sukan perlu melihat semula dasar
sukan sekolah dan keperluan perubahan terhadap dasar yang sedia ada sekarang (The
New Straits Times, 28 April 2008).
156
KESIMPULAN
Artikel pertama yang ditulis oleh Presiden Mao pada tahun 1917 (Liang & Xiangsu, 1999)
telah merujuk kepada betapa pentingnya kemenangan dalam sukan kepada kesedaran
nasional (psyche national). Menurut beliau “If our bodies are not strong, how can we attain
our goals and make ourselves respect?” (Jika tubuh badan kita tidak kuat, bagaimana
kita boleh mencapai matlamat dan membuat diri kita dihormati?). Oleh itu Mao dan
pengikutnya meletakkan matlamat kemenangan sebagai asas pembentukan negara China.
Matlamat kemenangan menjadi tonggak kejayaan China dalam sukan dan ekonomi dunia
sehingga membentuk China yang gemilang pada hari ini.
Sukan dan masyarakat mempunyai hubungan yang tidak langsung di antara satu
sama lain. Sukan berupaya memberi perimbangan dalam nilai kehidupan masyarakat
dari segi jasmani yang mana ia merupakan nilai tambah kepada kehidupan rohani
masyarakat (Oglesby dan Schrader, 2000). Sukan bertindak menyeimbangkan kehidupan
dengan memberi kesan terhadap kecergasan dan gaya hidup individu dalam masyarakat
sebagaimana yang telah ditegaskan oleh Mao.
Malaysia sebenarnya boleh belajar daripada kejayaan China. Malaysia bukan

sahaja boleh belajar bagaimana untuk melahir dan menjadikan atlet kita sebagai juara
pingat emas di Sukan Olimpik, tetapi juga kita boleh belajar bagaimana sukan ditadbir urus
secara sistematik dan berkesan. Pentadbiran sukan Malaysia harus dibentuk berdasarkan
acuan yang teguh dan profesional dan bukan ditukar-tukar setiap empat atau lima tahun
sekali atau setiap kali kementerian sukan bertukar menteri. Malaysia harus menjadikan
sukan sebagai satu budaya sebagaimana China meletakkan sukan sebagai cara hidup
mereka.
Strategi “Winning Pride’’ dalam sesuatu kejohanan hendaklah dicari bagi

mengelakkan Malaysia terus ketandusan pingat, terutamanya pingat emas dalam sesuatu
kejohanan antarabangsa yang disertai. China, misalnya, melaksanakan polisi Winning
Pride at the Olympic (BOCOG, 2001) semasa menganjurkan Sukan Olimpik 2008, sebagai
strategi merangkul pingat emas Olimpik. Strategi ini telah mengenal pasti sukan-sukan
yang menjanjikan emas kepada China. Atlet-atlet China dilatih secara sistematik bagi
memastikan emas diperoleh mereka dalam acara-acara yang telah disasarkan. Strategi ini
telah membuahkan kejayaan cemerlang kepada China sehingga menjadi juara keseluruhan
Olimpik 2008, mengalahkan negara ternama sukan Barat.
157
RUJUKAN
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postid=163687.html.
Asian Week. (2009). Most memorable moments of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Retrived on
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Bernama. 14 April 2009. Terengganu mendapat khidmat jurulatih renang China.
Brownell, S. (1995). Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People’s
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China Today. Chinese coaches training athletes around the world. Retrieved on 26/4/2009.
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view from the other side. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 7(2), 1949-166.
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Majlis Sukan Negara Malaysia. (2009). Senarai jenis sukan program msn menjalani latihan
di China, MSN, Malaysia.
New Straits Times. 28 April 2009. Policies stand in way of industry dream.
Oglesby, C & Schrader, D. (2000). Where is the white in the rainbow coalition? In D. Brooks
& R. Althouse (Eds.). Racism in College Athletic: The African-American Athelete’s Experience.
Morgontown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
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Pembangunan dan Pengkomersialan, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam.
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bocog/
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159
JURNAL PENGAJIAN MEDIA MALAYSIA

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MEDIA STUDIES
MAKLUMAT PENTING UNTUK PENYUMBANG

JURNAL PENGAJIAN MEDIA MALAYSIA (JPMM) menyediakan forum untuk
bertukar-tukar idea dan pengalaman di kalangan pendidik, pengkaji,
pengamal, dan pelajar media. Ia berusaha untuk mempersembahkan
hasil kajian, penyelidikan, esei bibliografi, analisis isu, trend, amalan dan
polisi, serta mengemukakan maklumat tentang buku dan rencana tertentu
dalam bidang komunikasi, penerbitan, kewartawanan, periklanan,
perhubungan awam, penyiaran filem dan pengkhususan lain dalam bidang
pengajian media yang luas.
POLISI EDITORIAL
Editor jurnal ini mengalu-alukan kertas penyelidikan, esei, dan ulasan
dalam bahasa Malayu atau bahasa Inggeris. Hanya manuskrip yang belum
tersiar yang akan diterima. Apabila sesebuah manuskrip diserahkan,
pengarang bersetuju untuk memindahkan hak cipta artikel kepada
penerbit jika ia diterima untuk penerbitan.
PENYEDIAAN MANUSKRIP
• Penyerahan: Semua manuskrip hendakah ditaip pada sebelah

halaman kertas berukuran A4 dan ia hendaklah diberi nombor
serta berturutan. Apabila rencana telah dinilai dan diterima, hantar
cakera padat, mengandungi versi akhir rencana tersebut.
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terhadap ketepatan dan kesempurnaannya.
• Jadual, Rajah dan Ilustrasi: Bahan-bahan ini mestilah dihantar
dalam halaman yang berasingan. Masing-masing mesti dibubuh
nombor dan judul yang informatif. Rajah dan ilustrasi perlu dilukis
secara profesional dengan menggunakan dakwat hitam.
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gaya dan spesifikasi yang ditetapkan.
PENERBITAN
Penulis artikel akan menerima satu naskhah penghargaan bagi keluaran
yang mengandungi artikelnya. Naskhah tambahan boleh dibeli terus
daripada penerbit.
SURAT-MENYURAT
Artikel dan sebarang pertanyaan boleh dihantar ke Editor melalui e-
mel (hasmahz@um.edu.my / rahman_shaari@um.edu.my) atau me-
lalui pos dalam bentuk cakera padat (Jabatan Pengajian Media, Fakulti
Sastera dan Sains Sosial, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia).
JURNAL PENGAJIAN MEDIA MALAYSIA

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MEDIA STUDIES
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF MEDIA STUDIES (MJMS) provides a forum for
the exchange of ideas and experiences among the media educators,
researchers, practitioners, and students. It seeks to present research
findings, bibliographic essays, analysis of issues, and articles in
communication, publishing, journalism, advertising, public relations,
broadcasting, film, and other specializations within the broad areas of
media studies.
EDITORS POLICY
The editors welcome research papers, essays and reviews either in Malay
or English. Only manuscripts not previously published will be accepted.
By submitting a manuscript, the authors agree that the copyright of the
article is transferred to the publisher when it is accepted for publication.
PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS
• Submission: All manuscripts must be typed on one side only of
white A4-sized paper and numbered consecutively. Please send
the original hard copy when first submitting title paper. When the
paper has been refereed and accepted, send a CD containing the
final version of the paper.
• Abstract: All article must have one paragraph of abstract within
150 to 250 words and also the keywords in English.
• Style: MJMS follow the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style
(University of Chicago Press). References are using the Author-
Date System and authors are responsible for the accuracy and
completeness.
• Figures, Tables and Illustrations: These materials should
accompany the manuscripts on a separated sheet of paper. They
should be numbered and should have informative titles. Figures
and illustrations should be professionally drawn in black ink.
• Editing: Editors will edit the manuscript according to fixed style
and specification.
PUBLICATION
The author will receive one complimentary copies of the issue in which
the article appears. Additional copies may be ordered directly from the
publisher.
CORRESPONDENCE
Articles and enquires can be sent to the Editor by e-mail (hasmahz@
um.edu.my / rahman_shaari@um.edu.my) or by post on a CD (The
Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

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Pengajian Media

Malaysia Malaysian Journal of Media Studies

Role-Taking: An Important Public Relations Process

Perhubungan Awam dan Teknologi Baru

Branding an Airline: A Case Study of AirAsia

Malaysia’s Role in National Development: Media Policy and National Stability

Regulator and Enforcement: A Case Study on Malaysian Communication and Multimedia

Online Newspaper in Malaysia: A Preliminary Study

Asean Delights: A Study of Asean Programs on Malaysian TV

Pengaruh Barat dalam Persuratan Melayu Awal di Malaysia

Menulis dengan Budaya Pascakolonial: Analisis Catatan Kembara

Jalinan Kesukanan Malaysia-China: Mempelajari Kejayaan China dalam Sukan

Malaysia Malaysian Journal of Media Studies

LEMBAGA EDITORIAL EDITORIAL BOARD

PENASIHAT EDITORIAL EDITORIAL ADVISOR

PERUNDING EDITORIAL EDITORIAL CONSULTANT

KETUA EDITOR CHIEF EDITOR

Pejabat Editorial dan Langganan Editorial Office and Subscription:

Tel : (6) 03-7967 5419/ 5423

Role-Taking: An Important Public Relations Process

Malaysia’s Role in National Development: Media Policy and National

The symmetric approach, in particular, indicates that process – two-way

TWO RESEARCH STREAMS

Second, an important body of research on client-public relationships has looked

A focus on process seems especially important today in light of at least two

TWO CONTEMPORARY PHENOMENA

This switch seemed hypocritical to many and contributed to a public relations

2. Breadth of perspective. This is defined as high accuracy despite low agreement.

a conflict as almost inevitable 20 years ago.

3. Congrency or perceived level of agreement (Chaffee & McLeod, 1968). A great

4. Method of role-taking. Projection, assuming high congruency, is one method.

A fifth dimension of role-taking – appreciated by savvy campaigners but seldom

We now turn to a sixth dimension.

6. Standpoint as defined by sociologist Ralph Turner (1956). Here we consider only

First, many observers bemoan a tendency toward negative campaigning in the

Second, public ownership of companies sews seldom-recognized seeds of discontent.

We now turn to a seventh and final dimension.

A CHALLENGE FOR RESEARCHERS

At a basic level, role-taking involves gauging similarity or difference between

Boje, D. M. (1997). Restorying reengineering. Communication Research, 24(6), 631-668.

Culbertson, H.M. (1983). Three perspectives on American journalism. Journalism Monographs,

Chaffee, S. H. & J. M. McLeod. (1968). Sensitization in panel design: A coorientational

Grunig, J. E. (1992). Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management. Hillsdale,

Heclo, J. (2000). Campaigning and governing: A conspectus. In N. J. Orenstein & T. E.

Ledingham, J. A. & S. D. Bruning. (2000). Public Relations as Relationship Management: A

Perhubungan Awam dan Teknologi Baru

Kata kunci: perhubungan awam, teknologi baru, internet, e-mel, blog.

PERHUBUNGAN AWAM DAN TEKNOLOGI BARU

PERHUBUNGAN AWAM DAN TEKNOLOGI BARU

Teknologi baru menyebabkan banyak strategi dan teknik perhubungan awam

Pengamal perhubungan awam perlu bersaing dengan kemajuan teknologi terbaru

Secara kesimpulannya penggunaan teknologi baru dapat mengubah aktiviti harian

INTERNET DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM

Penggunaan internet telah mencetuskan perpindahan teknologi tradisional kepada

Perkembangan ICT telah membolehkan maklumat dihantar dan diterima dengan

Penggunaan internet dengan cara yang tidak bertanggungjawab adalah dianggap

E-MEL DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM

E-mel merupakan antara aplikasi yang membolehkan pengamal perhubungan awam

Menurut Rambeau (2005) pengamal perhubungan awam organisasi perlu

BLOG DAN PERHUBUNGAN AWAM

KESAN TEKNOLOGI BARU KEPADA PENGAMAL PERHUBUNGAN AWAM

Perhubungan awam keseluruhannya dianggap dapat mempengaruhi khalayak

Pengamal perhubungan awam memainkan pelbagai peranan dengan tujuan untuk