The Structure of Romance in Chrétien's "Erec" and "Yvain"

Author(s): Robert G. Cook

Source: Modern Philology, Vol. 71, No. 2 (Nov., 1973), pp. 128-143
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/436212
Accessed: 03-07-2017 11:53 UTC

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The Structure of Romance in Chretien's Erec and Yvain'

Robert G. Cook

Among students of Chretien de Troyes there has been an understandable urge to

analyze his large and rambling romances in terms of a simplified structure. William
S. Woods, for example, has drawn our attention to the similar plot structure in the
Guillaume d'Angleterre, Eree et Enide, the Chevalier au lion (Yvain), and the Conte
del Graal:

A hero achieves the realization of his worldly ambitions and desires in an introductory
passage. He is then made aware of some error or fault or of some less obvious reason
which forces him to abandon his lofty pinnacle of happiness. This point in the plot can be
likened to the initial impulse of a drama for it serves to motivate the main body of the poem
which is a series of adventures concerned with the hero's efforts to recover his former status,
presumably through his becoming more deserving of it by the correction of his error or by
the expiation of his fault.2

Of the four romances treated by Woods, two-Erec and Yvain-are especially

similar in structure, as various critics have noticed. Jean Frappier observes: "there
is a striking parallelism in the structure of the two poems [Erec and Yvain]. Both
narratives fall into three parts: both tell how the hero wins a beautiful and worthy
bride; both tell how their wedded happiness is seemingly lost for ever; both conclude
with a complete reconciliation after a period of trial."3 Similarly, T. B. W. Reid
comments:

Both these poems comprise (1) by way of exposition, a narrative which, beginn
Arthur's court, introduces the hero, relates the adventures through which
bride, and is rounded off with an account of Court festivities in such a way t
almost stand alone as an independent poem; then (I1), rather briefly and cas
duced, a crisis in the relations between husband and wife, which creates a conflict
a moral problem; finally (III) a series of progressively more formidable adventu
ultimately to the resolution of the conflict and the reconciliation of the hero
but the conclusion of the story is postponed by the insertion into the series of ad
(IV) an elaborate episode, complete in itself, which is not essential to the plot, b
display the prowess of the hero and to introduce fantastic or supernatural elem

On the assumption that a pattern twice used must have had some im
in the author's mind, this article will trace the structural resemblances be
and Yvain in greater detail than has been done before; the pattern of both
romances-Chr6tien's most original-should be more apparent after su
parison. But first a warning: "structure" will not be applied rigidly her
prefer to see a tripartite structure, where others see two sections or five,5

1/I am grateful to the Southeastern Institute of Medieval and Renaissance Studies for a
and to the late Professor Urban T. Holmes, in whose Southeastern Institute o
and Renaissance Studies seminar'I read a first version of this paper. I also wi
Tulane colleagues Charles T. Davis and William S. Woods for suggestions.
2/William S. Woods, "The Plot Structure in Four Romances of Chrestien de Troyes
Philology 50 (1953): 4.
3/Jean Frappier, "Chr6tien de Troyes," in Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A C
History, ed. Roger Sherman Loomis (Oxford, 1959), p. 181.
4/Introduction to the French Classics edition of Yvain (Manchester, 1942), p. xi.
5/Reto R. Bezzola (Le sens de I'aventure et de l'amour [Paris, 1947]) follows Wilhelm
(Aufbaustil und Weltbild Chrestiens von Troyes im Percetal-romnan [Halle/Saale, 1936
in seeing all the romances of Chr6tien as essentially bipartite. In Erec and Yvain, a
128

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 129

the arbitrariness of such schemes. More important than numbers is the shape and
tendency of the narrative. From such long and episodic romances as Erec and Yvain
it is possible to extrapolate structural patterns ad infinitum simply by redefining,
recombining, and renumbering episodes. Such analyses are of little value unless
they (1) relate to the meaning of the work or (2) demonstrate a convincing numero-
logical design, or both.6 The sens or meaning is what we are groping for, and my
hope is that the parallels noticed here will stimulate thinking in that direction.

In both Erec and Yvain the initial adventure of the hero comes as a result of
his having cut himself off in some way from Arthur's wishes for an enterprise
involving all his knights. In Erec, Arthur decrees, in spite of Gauvain's protest, that
on the next day they will all hunt the white stag:

"Demain matin a grant deduit

Irons chacier le blanc cerf tuit
An la forest avantureuse."
[63-65]7

But Erec seems to have disregarded this, for on the next day we see him riding, not
with the king and his knights, but with the queen and a pucele. They set out after

Bezzola, the first part deals with the hero's initiation into love, the second with his initiation into
the social community at large. C. A. Robson ("The Technique of Symmetrical Composition in
Medieval Narrative Poetry," in Studies in Medieval French Presented to Alfred Ewert [Oxford,
1961], pp. 26-75) feels that Chr6tien's Yvain is essentially tripartite, but that if the long digres-
sions are removed, its form, like that in the Mabinogion version, is bipartite. It is wrong,
however, to think of such episodes as the giant Harpin, the daughters of the Lord of Noire
Espine, and the Castle of Ill Adventure as digressions. Arthur Witte ("Hartmann von Aue und
Kristian von Troyes," Beitriige zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 53 [1929]:
72-91) makes a thorough and precise analysis of Yvain into two symmetrical "books," each
consisting of an introduction, main section, and conclusion. Joseph H. Reason (An Inquiry into
the Structural Style and Originality of Chrestien's "Yvain," Catholic University of America
Studies in Romance Languages and Literatures, no. 57 [Washington, D.C., 19581) decides in
favor of a three-part structure: (1) the marriage of Laudine and Yvain (1-2169), (2) Yvain's
fault and consequent loss of happiness (2170-2780), and (3) Yvain's reconquest of love and
happiness (2781-6818). Wendelin Foerster divided Yvain into five parts: (1) Exposition,
celebration at Arthur's court, Calogrenant's tale; (2) Yvain's journey to the fountain; (3) Main
adventure: Yvain wins Laudine; (4) Yvain's guilt and atonement; (5) Reconciliation (Kristian
von Troyes: Worterbuch zu seinen saimtlichen Werken [Halle, 1914], pp. 98-99).
6/J. P. Collas ("The Romantic Hero of the Twelfth Century," in Medieval Miscellany Presented to
Eugene Vinaver, ed. F. Whitehead et al. [Manchester, 1965], pp. 80-96) finds a close but not
overwhelming coincidence in the structures of Erec and Yvain by dividing the two poems at the
first mention of the heroes' slackness (Erec) or possible slackness (Yvain) and again at the
point at which the heroes set out on new adventures. The middle sections of the two poems thus
divided are too small to be of weight; thus Collas concludes that we "seem to have two major
sections linked by a very minor one of little more than 300 lines" (p. 84). Following a suggestion
by Frappier, Collas sees the passage from one major section to the other as a passage from lai to
romance, "from a semblant of real life to an ideally arbitrary existence" (p. 89). Z. P. Zaddy
("The Structure of Chr6tien's Erec, " Modern Language Review 62 [1967]: 608-19) divides Erec
into nine episodes which group together in a symmetrical triptych: (1) the winning of Enide,
(2) estrangement and reconciliation, (3) return to court. These three sections present a unified
treatment of the main subject, the marriage of Erec and Enide. In "The Structure of Chr6tien's
Yvain " (Modern Language Review 65 [1970]: 523-40), Zaddy argues that Yvain is thematically
bipartite but structurally tripartite.
7/The edition of Erec cited is that of Wendelin Foerster, Kristian von Troyes: Erec und Enide,
2d ed. (Halle, 1909). References are to lines throughout.

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130 Modern Philology (November 1973)

the others (77), and in contrast to the hunters, who carry bow and arrows (76),
Erec carries only his sword (103-4). He is clearly not taking part in the hunt,
though the reason for this is not given.8 Similarly, although Arthur vows to see the
magic fountain (661 ff.)9 and "all the court" (674) wish to accompany him, Yvain
decides to set out secretly on his own:

Mes il ne les atandra mie,

Qu'il n'a soing de lor conpaignie,
Eincois ira toz seus son vuel
Ou a sa joie ou a son duel.
[691-94]

It is also common to both poems that in this opening episode Arthur is deficient
-even slightly ridiculous-and inferior to Guinevere. In Erec he is advised by
Gauvain of the folly of hunting the white stag, the slayer of which must kiss the
most beautiful maiden in the court (41-58), but haughtily insists that a king's word
must be obeyed, simply because it is a king's word:
"Ja ne doit estre contredite
Parole, puis que rois l'a dite."
[61-62]

Later, when Gauvain's warning proves to have been well founded and Arthur
seeks advice in a difficult situation (308-10), it is the queen who suggests that he
put off the kiss until the third day, on which Erec promised to return (336-39).
When Yder presents himself to the king to admit his defeat at the hands of Erec,
the queen pointedly reminds Arthur of her advice and how he did well to heed it:

"Mout vos donai buen consoil ier,

Quant jel vos loai a atandre.
Por ce fet il buen, consoil prandre."
[1220-22]

In Yvain, Arthur unaccountably rises during the Pentecost festivities at Carlisle and
retires to his chamber where he eventually "forgets himself and falls asleep" (52).
The queen, on the other hand, remains awake and joins the knights outside the
chamber door who are listening to Calogrenant's tale. It is she who effectively
rebukes Kai for his rudeness, and it is she who repeats the story of Calogrenant to
Arthur, after he has finally roused himself (649-60).
Both Erec and Yvain, then, as a consequence of having separated themselves
from a court in which King Arthur himself is seen as weak, enter upon their initial
adventures. The adventures have these things in common: each is an unexpected
encounter with a strange knight, prefaced by a meeting with an unnatural man (a

8/Bezzola, p. 109, and Mario Roques, p. vii of his edition of Erec et Enide (Paris, 1952), say that
Erec does not join in the hunt because he has no "amie" whom he can honor by means of the
custom of the white stag. Though it is clear that Erec does not have a sweetheart, it is not clear
that this is the reason for his not joining the others. In the first place, we are not told that all
except him had sweethearts, nor is this likely. In the second place, not having a sweetheart
should not exclude him from the hunt, in which Arthur has said "all" should take part.
9/References to Yvain are to the Wendelin Foerster text as reprinted in T. B. W. Reid's French
Classics edition (see n. 4).

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 131

dwarf in Erec, a seventeen-foot herdsman in Yvain); each hero also stays with a
hospitable vavassor0? prior to the combat, a host who has a surpassingly beautiful
daughter. Of course, these parallel elements do not occur in the same order in the
two works: in Erec the meeting with the dwarf comes before the entertainment by
the friendly host; in Yvain the hero first spends the night with the hospitable host
and then meets the giant herdsman.
In their initial adventures both Erec and Yvain are required to fight with the
strange knight as a result of having disturbed him in a matter in which he has a kind
of proprietary interest. It was generally understood that Yder would claim the
hawk for his lady without opposition, as he had for the two previous years:
"Par deus anz l'a il ja eii,
Qu'onques chalangiez ne li fu;
Mes se il ancore oan l'a,
A toz jorz desresni6 l'avra."
[595-98]

But Erec, an unexpected outsider, comes and takes away what Yder thought of as
virtually his own. In Yvain, Esclados is the guardian of the fountain which Yvain
disturbs. Another similarity is that neither Yder nor Esclados is a tyrant whose
defeat is necessary or beneficial (as will be the case with later adventures). Yder's
defeat brings forth mixed reactions (cf. 1073-80), and the slaying of Esclados brings
great grief to his people. In both poems, then, it is natural that the knight accuse the
hero of motiveless provocation. Yder, ignorant that Erec is the same knight whom
his dwarf had offended, asks innocently:
"Ha! jantis chevaliers, merci!
Por quel forfet ne por quel tort
Me doiz tu donc hair de mort ?
Ains mes ne te vi, que je sache,
N'onques ne fui an ton damache
Ne ne te fis honte ne let."
[1002-7]

This speech is very similar to Esclados's words to Calogrenant (which we can take
as applying to Yvain as well, since he goes through the same series of experiences
as did his cousin):
"Vassaus! mout m'avez fet
Sanz desfiance honte et let."
[491-92]

But although both Erec and Yvain are accused of gratuitous troublemaking, each
has his own sufficient motive: revenge. Erec is avenging the whipping which both he
and Guinevere's damsel received from Yder's dwarf, and Yvain is avenging the
shame to his cousin. In a word, each is taking vengeance for a honte:
"Mes itant prometre vos vuel
Que, se je puis, je vangerai
Ma honte ou je I'angreignerai."
[Erec, 244-46; italics added]

10/The term vavassor is not used of any other characters save these in the two romances.

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132 Modern Philology (November 1973)

"Se je vos ai 'fol' apel6,

Je vos pri qu'il ne vos an poist;
Car, se je puis et il me loist,
J'irai vostre honte vangier."
[ Yvain, 586-89; cf. 747-49; italics added]

At this point, of course, large differences between the two romances will occur
to the reader. Each hero wins his combat with the strange knight-Erec by forcing
his surrender, Yvain by killing him-but they are in quite different positions after
the victory. Erec is proclaimed a hero for having aided Enide (1075-78, 1251-68),
if not for having subdued Yder, whereas Yvain is hunted as a villain for the slaying
of Esclados. This difference between a hero and a prisoner is important in shaping
the widely different relationship between each knight and his lady; Erec is from the
beginning master in his marriage, where Yvain is the underling. But in this paper
differences are deliberately slighted in favor of similarities and parallels. To sum-
marize to this point: the initial adventures of Erec and Yvain have in common
Arthur's weakness, a solitary adventure (rather than a sharing in the general
adventure of Arthur and his court), a hospitable vavassor with a lovely daughter, a
giant/dwarf, and a fight motivated by the desire to overcome shame, this fight
against a not wicked opponent who is not aware of why he is being challenged.
In both Erec and Yvain the initial adventures terminate in (1) a reunion with
Arthur's court, (2) the hero's marriage, and (3) a clear winding up of the narrative
to this point. Erec first returns to Caradigan and marries Enide there, while Yvain
first marries Laudine in her own land and then receives the visit of Arthur and his
knights. Although the order is different the same elements of wedding and reunion
with Arthur are present. As for winding up the story, Erec began with the decision
to hunt the white stag and the offense to Guinevere's damsel; the two plots were
interwoven when it was decided that the bestowal of the kiss, the prerogative of the
one who should kill the stag, would await Erec's return; both plots are resolved when
Arthur bestows the kiss on Enide. Chr6tien expressly signals this as an ending in
line 1844: "Ci fine li premerains vers." Yvain, on the other hand, began with
Calogrenant's story and Kai's taunting (the latter in 71-85 and 590-611); these
matters are resolved when Yvain has slain Esclados and tumbled Kai.
The hero has now reached what Woods calls his "pinnacle of happiness," and
most readers would find nothing wrong if the story should end here. Erec and Yvai
have departed from Arthur's court, independently avenged a dishonor and prove
their valor, made a successful marriage, and returned to the company of Arthu
There seems no need for more, no need to disturb the pleasant equilibrium that ha
been achieved-and yet in both romances Chr6tien does exactly that.
Between the wedding and the time the hero sets out on a new series of adven-
tures, the romances have three common elements: (1) the hero provides addition
proof of his prowess by distinguishing himself in tourneying; (2) the hero is taunte
for uxoriousness, and sets out to disprove this; (3) he is shown to be guilty of a faul
and sets out to work off his guilt. In Erec the order in which these appear is (1
followed by (2) and (3) in combination; that is, the fault of which Erec is guilty
uxoriousness. The great tournament which is held after the wedding of Erec an
Enide would seem to establish Erec's valor for all time:

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chretien's Erec and Yvain 133

Or fu Erec de tel renon

Qu'an ne parloit se de lui non,
Ne nus n'avoit si buene grace:
Il sanbloit Assalon de face,
Et de la langue Salemon,
Et de fiert6 sanbloit Sanson,11
Et de doner et de despandre
Fu parauz le roi Alixandre.
[2263-70]

Yet when they return to Erec's own country he loses interest in such matters:
Mes tant l'ama Erec d'amors
Que d'armes mes ne li chaloit,
Ne a tornoiemant n'aloit,
N'avoit mes soing de tornoiier;
A sa fame aloit donoiier.
[2434-38]

This leads, justifiably, to the general report that Erec is recreant (2555), which s
saddens Enide that Erec notices and thus learns of the low esteem into which he has
fallen. Accepting the judgment as correct (2576-77), he immediately orders Enide
to prepare to set out with him. He refuses all other company, saying that he intends
to go alone (2692-95).
In Yuain the elements listed above occur differently, in the order (2), (1), (3).
Following the wedding and the elaborate entertainment of Arthur and his knights,
Gauvain persuades Yvain that his reputation will decline unless he comes tourneying
with him:

"Ronpez le frain et le chevoistre,

S'irons tornoiier moi et vos,
Que l'an ne vos apiaut jalos."
[2500-2502]

Yvain is convinced by this and spends a successful year jousting in tournaments,

firmly establishing his reputation (2672 ff.). Then, because he has violated his
promise to return to Laudine in one year's time, he is accused of deceit by a damsel
sent from her (2704-73). He knows that she is right, having already acknowledged
his guilt before the damsel's arrival (2695-2703), and in his misery and self-hate he
departs at once for wild terrain, completely alone (2785). In both cases the hero
leaves the pleasures and company of a court for the second time; this time, however,
it is not because of a desire to avenge a honte but because of a sense of guilt. Both
men have wronged their spouses, Erec through excessive attention, Yvain through
excessive neglect. They have failed, in opposite ways, to live up to the twin obliga-
tions of love and chivalry.
Also common to the two romances is the fact that when the knight sets out
this time he does not look for one particular adventure but instead travels without

11/The manuscripts all give lion here, which would suggest an additional parallel between the two
heroes; nonetheless, Foerster's emendation to Sanson is reasonable in view of Samson's
frequent appearance in lists of men made negligent by love (see M. B. Ogle, "The Sloth of
Erec," Romanic Review 9 [1918]: 1-20).

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134 Modern Philology (November 1973)

direction, passively exposing himself to whatever adventures happen to come his

way. This new beginning, prompted by a sense of guilt, initiates a series of adven-
tures which take up the remainder of the romance and almost twice the space of
what has gone before. In comparison with what follows, the earlier adventures
seem trivial, of no consequence beyond the displaying of the hero's bravery and
prowess that Auerbach describes as characteristic of chivalric romance.12 Auerbach
touches only briefly, unfortunately, the moral development of a hero and the pos-
sibility that a series of adventures might display progressively higher qualities in the
hero. To mention one detail that indicates such development in the romances at
hand, up to the point when the hero sets out for a second time in search of adventure
neither Erec nor Yvain has faced serious moral evil in an external form, though each
has sensed some fault within himself. Their first adventures have been suitable
contexts for a sense of shame; the succeeding adventures will be appropriate for
sense of guilt.
From this point it is not possible to trace complete parallelism, adventure for
adventure, but if we treat all of the experiences of each hero between the time of hi
new setting forth and his final reestablishment (the return to Arthur and the corona
tion, for Erec; for Yvain, the return to the fountain and the reconciliation with
Laudine), we can discover a number of interesting similarities. Defining an episod
as any fresh encounter, involving an action, with other persons or creatures, w
can speak of nine separate episodes for each hero in this interval and chart them as
in the table below. (The last four adventures of Yvain, with their complicated
interlacing structure, have been assigned numerical position according to the comba

PARALLELS

Erec Yvain

1. Three robbers
(2814-26)
2. Five knights attack (2925-3085) 2. Cared for by hermit (2827-87)
3. Count Galoain's effort to seduce 3. Two girls cure him with Morgan's
Enide (3124-3662) salve (2888-3130)
4. Guivret the Little attacks (3663-3930) 4. Defeats Cou
5. Reunion with Arthur, cured by 5. Rescues lion fro
Morgan's plaster (3931-4307)

6. Rescues Cadoc from two giants 6. Slays Harpin de la Montagne

(4308-4579) (3770-4312)
7. Count Oringle of Limors (4580-4938) 7.
8. Incognito fight with Guivret 8. Chastel de la Pesme Avanture
(4939--5366) (5107-5809)
9. Joie de la Cort (5367-6410) 9. Incognito fight with Gauvain in defense
of younger sister (4703-5106, 5810-6506)

Return to Arthur; coronation (6411-6958) Return to fountain; reconciliation with

Laudine (6507-6818)

12/Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard
R. Trask (Princeton, N.J., 1953), pp. 123-42.

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chretien's Erec and Yvain 135

which culminates the adventure. Thus the defense of Lunete is listed here after the
slaying of Harpin, even though Yvain first commits himself to the defense of
Lunete before the adventure involving Harpin begins.13 The reason for the division
after the fifth adventure will become apparent shortly.)
In drawing parallels we must first go back to a point in Yvain just prior to
this series of adventures, for Erec's reunion with Arthur (adventure no. 5) has
obvious parallels with Yvain's return to Arthur after his year of tourneying with
Gauvain, and even with Yvain's earlier reunion with Arthur just after his marriage
to Laudine. This can be simplified by noting that each hero makes two returns to
Arthur, one at the time of his marriage (Erec, 1479-2292; Yvain, 2172-2638), and
another after a period of adventuring or tourneying (Erec, 3931-4307; Yvain,
2680-2801)."1 Erec's second return, now under consideration, has in common with
Yvain's first reunion the contrast between Kai's rudeness and Gauvain's courtesy.15
When Arthur and his knights come to visit the magic fountain, Yvain tumbles the
offensive Kai from his horse; this is accompanied by references to Gauvain and a
lavish comparison of Gauvain with the sun (2400-2408). In Erec (3931 ff.) Kai tries
unsuccessfully to bring the wounded and unrecognizable Erec into the company of
Arthur, but when his customary coarseness leads him to use force, Erec throws him
to the ground. Gauvain then tries and succeeds, with the use of tact and the trick
of having Arthur move his tents into Erec's path. Also common to Erec (3931 ff.)
and Yvain (2172 ff.) is the hero's concern for the horse from which he has unseated
Kai. In Erec Kai's confession that the horse belongs not to him but to Gauvain
persuades Erec to relinquish it (4055-74). Yvain takes the horse of the fallen Kai
and returns it to Arthur, saying,
"Sire! feites prandre
Cest cheval; que je mesferoie,
Se rien del vostre retenoie."
[2272-74]
In both poems the hero shows a courtesy toward the horse and its owner which
emphasizes his scorn for Kai.
Erec's second reunion with Arthur also has a clear parallel with Yvain's
second reunion (2680-2801): in both cases it is Arthur who must come to the hero,
instead of vice versa. In Erec, as we have just noted, Gauvain plays a trick on the
hero, distracting him with courteous conversation while Arthur has his tents taken
down and set up again directly in front of him (4112-56). Realizing that he has been
outsmarted, Erec reveals himself to Gauvain and agrees to accept the hospitality
and medicine of Arthur's court. Similarly, in Yvain (2685-93) the hero and Gauvain,

13/Norris J. Lacy ("Organic Structure of Yvain's Expiation," Romanic Review 61 [1970]: 79-84)
makes the interesting suggestion that this interrupting and postponing of adventures amounts
to a kind of contrappasso for Yvain, whose fault has been a failure to keep an obligation. By
the same token, the way that Erec's adventures 6-8 lead one into another (as pointed out by
Bezzola, pp. 182-83) might be an appropriate contrappasso for that hero, whose fault was that
he did not want to do anything. The use of the Dantesque term, however, should not mislead us
into thinking that the heroes' state is more infernal than purgatorial.
14/For a discussion of the structural role of scenes at Arthur's court in Chr6tien's romances, see
Wilhelm Kellermann (n. 5 above), pp. 11-13.
15/This motif, a favorite with Chr6tien, appears also in Perceval, 4163-4608.

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136 Modern Philology (November 1973)

after their year of successful tourneying, come to Arthur's court at Chester but set
up their tents outside the town rather than lodge in the city. Arthur, in order to see
them, is forced to come to their court.16
Another parallel between the two romances is that both Erec and Yvain are
cured by medicine which comes from Morgan, the sister of Arthur. The king sighs
when he sees the wounds which Erec has received in the successive attacks on his
life, and he has him treated with the antret (plaster) which Morgan gave him. Its
power is such that it can heal any wound within a week, provided it is applied daily
(4218-28). Yvain, on the other hand, is not suffering from physical wounds but
from madness-a mark of the greater depth of this romance. The two damsels of
the Dame de Noroison find him naked and asleep in the forest, clearly mad. The
lady recalls that she has at home an ointment given to her by Morgan which is
capable of curing any madness. In a curious episode which I have discussed else-
where,17 one of the damsels cures Yvain by applying the ointment to his entire
body, even though in so doing she disobeys her lady's strict instructions to put it
only on his temples.
The first five adventures of Erec (2795-4307) and the first five episodes in
Yvain's life (2814-3484) in the second phase of the romances are not otherwise
strikingly similar in story motifs. In general, however, they represent the same
stage in the hero's career, which we might label Rehabilitation. By the time these
series of adventures have been completed, the problem or fault which initiated them
has apparently been solved. On four successive occasions Enide has disobeyed Erec,
and saved his life, by warning him. After the fourth time, however, we read:

Cil la menace,
Mes n'a talant que mal li face;
Qu'il aparqoit et conoist bien
Qu'ele l'aimme sor tote rien,
Et il li tant que plus ne puet.
[3765-69]

16/Although the motif of the obdurate hero is the same, it is used differently in these two episodes:
in Erec it is humility which causes the hero to want to avoid Arthur, in Yvain it is pride. This is a
consequence of the moment in the hero's history that Chr6tien chose to use the motif; had he
arranged such an encounter at a later point in Yvain's career, corresponding to that in Erec's,
Yvain would have shown a similar reluctance to meet the king. We see this very reluctance,
based on humility, when Yvain sends the four sons and the daughter whom he has rescued from
Harpin de la Montagne to Gauvain: he refuses to give them his name, tells them to report
simply that it was "li Chevaliers au Lion" (4291) who saved them. It seems that the hero's
attitude toward Arthur's court is a good indication of his inner state. When he is successful and
proud he shows no hesitation in returning to Arthur, or may even camp near him and force him
to move; when the hero is remorseful and conscious of guilt he wishes to avoid Arthur's court.
When Yvain has been accused by the messenger from Laudine, it is taken for granted by the
court that he will go off on his own:
D'antre les barons se remue;
Qu'il crient antre aus issir del san.
Et de ce ne se gardoit l'an,
Si l'an leissierent seul aler.
Bien sevent, que de lor parler
Ne de lor siecle n'a il soing.
[2796-2801]
17/Robert G. Cook, "The Ointment in Chr6tien's Yvain," Mediaeval Studies 31 (1969): 338-42.

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 137

Following this adventure (the defeat of Guivret) comes the interval at Arthur's
court, and again it seems to the reader that the romance could well end. Enide's
love for Erec, which he doubted from the time she confessed her uneasiness about
the rumors of his slackness, has been successfully demonstrated, and on his part
Erec has given sufficient refutation of the rumors. Both have been tested (cf. 4921,
"Bien vos ai del tot essaiiee") and both have passed. In addition, Erec's wounds have
been cured by Morgan's plaster. Again we have come to a point in the romance
where we can ask, what need for more?
In Yvain there has been a similar rehabilitation. The hero has recovered from
his madness, has performed two acts of valor and assistance (the defeat of Count
Alier, the rescue of the lion), and has returned home, or at least as far as Laudine's
magic fountain. He sees his former error and repents it:
Au revenir mout fort se blasme
De l'an, que trespass6 avoit.
[3528-29]
Why does he not now pour water on the slab and force Laudine's hand, as he
does later on? In the answer to that question lies a key to the meaning of the
structure of these romances. For the second time in both poems the reader feels
he is close to an ending, and yet both start off once again, into a third series of
adventures. This time the hero sets out with a trusted companion: Yvain has the
lion, Erec has Enide (whom he was testing before and therefore did not fully trust).
The immediate problem which troubled each hero before has now been overcome-
and yet it is perhaps this very fact which is our clue to the structure of new starts
which is axiomatic both for Chr6tien and for his heroes. Having recognized a fault
in themselves and having struggled to make up for it, Erec and Yvain must now
perform disinterested service for their fellowmen, acts of charity unrelated to their
immediate needs and problems.
The first adventure for both Erec and Yvain in this new series (no. 6 in the
table) is a fight with a giant or giants: Erec rescues Cadoc de Tabriol from two
giants who were beating him with whips as he sat nearly naked and bound on
a horse. Yvain rescues the four sons of Gauvain's sister from a giant who has them
whipped by a dwarf as they ride on horses, bound and in rags. Also common to
both romances is the fact that the hero first hears about the plight of the giants'
victims from someone close to the victims. Erec learns from the mistress of the
captured knight, Yvain from the father of the four sons. Several new elements
enter the romances with this episode: (1) the hero fights a superhuman creature for
the first time, and (2) he undertakes a deed of charitable valor, not simply because
it is thrust upon him and he cannot avoid it, but because he is petitioned to give
help. The initial adventures of both heroes were deliberate and comparatively
trivial in effect. Following the crisis in their lives, they reacted more than acted:
Erec's first four adventures were simply matters of self-defense, in which he had no
choice but to fight; Yvain was a guest in the castle of the Dame de Noroison and
was thus obliged to answer the attack of Count Alier. To be sure, his rescue of the
lion was closer to a deed of voluntary charity, but was not a response to a human
plea for assistance. With the slaying of the giants, Erec and Yvain freely perform
needed service for others for the first time.

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138 Modern Philology (November 1973)

Following his rescue of Cadoc from the giants, Erec falls into a deathlike
swoon because of loss of blood. Enide reproaches herself for what she takes to be
his death and decides to slay herself with his sword. She draws the sword from its
sheath and begins to contemplate it (4670-71) when Count Oringle rides up and
has his men take the sword from her. This Pyramus-and-Thisbe motif is paralleled
in Yvain when the hero and the lion return by chance to the magic fountain (3485-
3525). Yvain swoons, not from wounds but-in character with this romance-
because of his distress at seeing again a reminder of his guilt. He falls and grazes
his neck on his sword. The lion, thinking him dead, takes the sword with his teeth,
leans it across a fallen tree, secures it, and prepares to rush against it. Just at this
moment, fortunately, Yvain revives and the lion halts his planned suicide.18
The adventures numbered 7 are both rescues of women in trouble. Count
Oringle is beating and threatening Enide (4819-52), whom he has married by for
when Erec recovers from his swoon and slays him. Yvain rescues Lunete from b
burned to death by defeating the seneschal who had accused her of treacher
together with his two brothers. These three knights ate then burned on the
intended for Lunete (4570-75). In each adventure the hero dispatches a knigh
who has mistreated a woman who is close to him and has aided him.
Taking adventures 8 and 9 together, we see that the similarities appear in a
reversed or chiastic order. Erec's fight with Guivret (8) and Yvain's fight with
Gauvain (9) are both single combats between close friends who do not recognize
each other. In addition, each is the most difficult battle that the hero fights. Erec i
thrown from his horse by Guivret and is on the point of being killed when Enid
intervenes and begs for mercy (5021-46). Yvain, after exchanging blows with
Gauvain all day, is the first to admit that his opponent (still unrecognized) had
dealt him harder blows than he had ever received.l9 Fortunately, in both poems the
combatants discover each other's identity before ultimate damage is done, and
they enjoy a happy reunion.
Likewise, adventure 9 in Erec (Joie de la Cort) and 8 in Yvain (Chastel de la
Pesme Avanture) have many things in common, beginning with the fact that bot
episodes have their ultimate origin in visits to the Other World.20 Even apart from
their sources and lingering traces of fairy enchantment and disenchantment, how-
ever, the two episodes have many surface likenesses which are probably more
important for Chr6tien's purposes. In both cases the hero and his companions are
on their way somewhere (Erec to join Arthur, Yvain to fight for the disinherite
sister) when they come by chance to a town which contains a dangerous adventure.

18/The parallel between Enide and the lion as faithful companions is also apparent elsewhere: in
Erec (3090 ff.) Enide refuses to sleep, insisting that she is the one who ought to stay awake and
keep guard. She also keeps an all-night vigil for him when they are in danger at the hands of
Count Galoain (3445-55). In similar fashion the lion looks after Yvain; see esp. 3478-84.
The lion, like Enide, also disobeys Yvain's orders and comes to his aid (4509 ff., 5594 ff.).
19/Julian Harris ("The R6le of the Lion in Chr6tien de Troyes' Yvain," PMLA 64 [1949]: 1161)
points out that Yvain's admission of defeat when he has not been defeated constitutes a supreme
gesture of humility in this, his last, adventure.
20/See Arthur C. L. Brown, " Yvain: A Study in the Origins of Arthurian Romance," [Harvard]
Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature 8 (1903): 1-147; and R. S. Loomis, Arthurian
Tradition and Chretien de Troyes (New York, 1949), pp. 168-84.

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 139

Both heroes are discouraged from undertaking the adventure. Erec is warned by
Guivret (5419-46, 5461-63), by the inhabitants (5517-25), and by King Evrain
(5608-41); Yvain by the rude townspeople (5115-35) and by the elder, courteous
lady (5145-74). Each hero gives as the reason for staying the fact that it is late and
he is in need of a night's lodging (Erec, 5449-53; Yvain, 5166-67). The custom of
each place is that errant knights must be the guests of the lord-the townspeople
are forbidden to receive them (Erec, 5479-92; Yvain, 5155-58). Thus both Erec
and Yvain are entertained by the gracious yet imperious lord of a town containing
a dangerous adventure which the hero voluntarily embraces, in spite of the fact
that everyone assures him that the outcome will be fatal. Both adventures have
been undertaken, with fatal results, by a series of predecessors to the hero. And
both adventures have a story behind them: after he has been defeated by Erec,
Mabonagrain tells him of his betrothal and the promise which committed him to
defend the garden against all comers (6047-6117); Yvain, on the other hand, learns
of the king of the Isle of Maidens and his agreement to deliver thirty maidens
annually to the two devils (5256-5337) before he fights the devils. Each of these
stories turns on the unhappy results of a man's promise, from which he can be
released only by the hero's successful completion of the adventure.
Furthermore, in these adventures the defeat of the opponent brings with it
relief to a great number of persons, not just one. Yvain liberates the 300 damsels
who have been doing needlework at slave labor terms, earning four deniers (one-
third of a sou) instead of the twenty sous a week that they deserve. Erec is told by
Mabonagrain that his victory will not only release him but also bring great joy to
the whole court:

Mout avez an grant joie mise

La cort mon oncle et mes amis,
Qu'or serai fors de ceanz mis;
Et por ce que joie an avront
Tuit cil qui a la cort seront,
JOIE DE LA CORT l'apeloient
Cil qui la joie an atandoient.
[6118-24]

Each adventure also has something of the supernatural about it: in Erec the garden
in which the adventure takes place is surrounded by a magic wall of air, grow
flowers and fruits all year round (though the fruits can only be eaten there), and
produces all types of spices and roots useful in medicine (5739-64); the two demon
whom Yvain fights have supernatural shields which cannot be cut by any sword
(5622-24). Even such a detail as a row of sharp, pointed stakes is common to both
adventures (Erec, 5774-86; Yvain, 5191-92). Finally we might note that one result
of each adventure is that the person most responsible for the adventure is in some
way dissatisfied: Mabonagrain's lady is upset when she fears that now she will see
less of her lover (6192-6229); the king of the Isle of Maidens offers Yvain his
daughter, and is rude in his discontent when Yvain refuses (5699-5770).
These adventures (Joie de la Cort in Erec, Chastel de la Pesme Avanture in
Yvain) are reminiscent of the first adventures of each hero-the hospitable host
with a lovely daughter (though the daughter is missing in Joie de la Cort), the

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140 Modern Philology (November 1973)

forebodings of defeat, the disruption of a custom by means of the defeat of a knight

who had maintained it-but the differences between the later adventures and the
earlier are a measure of the heroes' growth. Yvain's combat with Esclados over th
magic spring and Erec's combat with Yder over the sparrow-hawk were prompted
as we saw, by the desire to repair their honor. Subsequent adventures were either in
self-defense or in response to a request for aid. In Joie de la Cort and Pesme
Avanture, however, there is almost no motivation at all on the hero's part-he just
comes upon the adventure by chance, while he has some other destination on his
mind, and is not put off by discouraging remarks. Once he is in the town, Yvain is
obliged to fight the two devils whether he wants to or not (5334-37). Erec has more
choice in the matter, but decides to attempt the adventure when he knows nothing
about it except its name and the fact that it is dangerous. Bezzola's description of
the Joie de la Cort as "l'aventure cherch6e"21 is misleading; Erec "seeks" it only
when he is already there and when he has no idea of what good or evil might be the
result. The casual manner with which Erec and Yvain enter these great adventures
ironically underscores the successful outcome and the great good that is achieved.
With a minimum of intent they achieve a maximum of benefit, bringing relief not
just to themselves or to one or two, but to a large number of people. Their good
fortune suggests that through their third stage of adventures they have reached the
internal maturity required to perform deeds of general welfare.
Following this series of adventures each hero makes a return, Erec to Arthur's
court and his eventual coronation in Nantes, Yvain to the magic fountain where he
creates another tempest and is reconciled with Laudine through the agency of
Lunete. Erec, of course, has already been reconciled with Enide, but Yvain is still
estranged from both his wife and his country, so that for him the twofold return is
necessary. The ending of Yvain is the more dramatic, for the problem of coming
to terms with Laudine remains unsettled until the very last lines of the poem. There
is no final denouement in Erec-the death of his father and his coronation are
predictable events which do not resolve any problems. The similarity between the
two romances lies in the fact that the hero's adventures have come to an end, his
worth has been amply demonstrated, and it remains simply to restore him to his
deserved position. In these last scenes the hero has nothing more to do; his role is
now essentially passive. It is the death of Erec's father which brings about the
coronation, and it is the machinations of Lunete which bring about Yvain's
restoration.

If, however, we pursue for a moment the idea that the plot of Erec is complete
with the episode of the Joie de la Cort, while Yvain is not finished until the recon-
ciliation with Laudine, we can notice a similarity between these two "final" episodes.
Both have to do with the relaxing of a woman's harsh attitude toward her husband,
an attitude based on the enforcement of an arbitrary decision. Mabonagrain's wife
had made him promise to remain in the garden and defend it against all comers,
and he was bound by that promise. Laudine had made Yvain promise to return
within one year, and when he failed to return, her love promptly turned to hate
(2564-67) Both of these arbitrary decisions are reversed or overcome in the final

21/Bezzola (n. 5 above), p. 190.

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 141

episodes, making it possible to say that both romances end with the establishment
of a mature relationship.

The main points which these two romances have in common can be sum-
marized:
1. The hero, as a consequence of separating himself from a court in which
King Arthur appears weak, is entertained by a gracious vavassor with a lovely
daughter, encounters a man of unnatural size (dwarf or giant), and-as something
of a trespasser-defeats a strange knight in order to avenge a honte.
2. The hero then (a) marries a lovely lady and (b) is reunited with Arthur's
court. The introductory narrative is wound up at this point, and a peaceful equilib-
rium, on which the romance could well end, has been achieved.
3. This equilibrium is shattered when the hero is accused of a fault-a fault
connected with the fear or reality of uxoriousness.
4. The hero acknowledges his guilt and sets out alone, or nearly alone, on a
new set of adventures.
5. These adventures have certain parallel motifs, such as the Pyramus-Thisbe
motif, the faithful companion who keeps an all-night vigil, and the cure by medicine
from Morgan, Arthur's sister.
6. After a number of episodes (five by this reckoning), the hero seems to have
done enough to return comfortably to the previous equilibrium, and the narrative
is arranged in such a way that the ending is tantalizingly near (Erec has forgiven
Enide and been reunited with Arthur, Yvain is cured of his madness and has
returned to Laudine's spring).
7. Yet Chr6tien sends each hero through an additional series of four adventures
in which he performs deeds of charity and prowess exceeding previous achievements.
8. These last four adventures include (a) a rescue from giants on the petition
of an intimate of the victim(s), (b) the deliverance of a woman close to the hero
from cruel treatment, (c) an incognito fight with a close friend, and (d) an elaborate
episode which the hero seems to enter casually and which leads to the release of a
whole community from the oppression of a custom which has bound it for a number
of years (seven in Erec, ten in Yvain).
9. The hero is returned to full status as husband and lord of his land.
These points of similarity have been coaxed out of the two romances without
regard for the differences which make them each a unique work. As much or more
could be written about these differences as has now been written about their
similarities, but suffice it to say here that Yvain is the more mature work and states
a more profound problem. In Erec the hero and heroine have disappointed each
other: Enide has registered a lack of confidence in Erec's valor by listening to the
talk of his slackness, and his own negligence is responsible for this talk. Reparation
is then needed on both sides (thus they travel together): Erec needs proof of her
love, and she needs proof of his valor. In Yvain the fault is on one side, and it is
more serious than either Erec's or Enide's: he has broken a promise, failed in his
loyalty. His affliction is accordingly more serious and he has a longer road to travel
before he is restored to his wife. But both romances follow the same pattern of early
success, commission of a fault, rehabilitation, and restoration at a higher level.

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142 Modern Philology (November 1973)

The structure which Erec and Yvain have in common may be contrasted with
that shared by Lancelot and the Conte del Graal, in which a hero (nameless for the
first 3,500 lines) is specially marked to fulfill one main adventure (freeing the
prisoners from the land of Gorre, healing the Fisher King). Both Lancelot and
Perceval make an unwitting mistake which hinders their progress, though it also
schools them in their devotion. Their adventures are balanced by those of asecondary
figure (Gauvain) who is exceptionally worthy but lacks the special commitment
and election which characterizes the hero. A major difference is that Perceval
develops significantly as he moves toward religious devotion, while Lancelot
remains almost static in his passion for Guenevere, but both are marked by a deep
commitment and are meant to fulfill one particular adventure.
The structure of Erec and Yvain is that of a progress through stages. On one
level this progress has to do with the relations between the sexes and the problem
of the conflicting demands of love and chivalry. Both Erec and Yvain begin at the
court of a uxorious king, experience uxoriousness or the threat of it in themselves,
and are finally secure in marriages in which private passion and public welfare find
full and equal expression. Concurrent with this is an ethical development from
action because of a sense of honor, to humiliation and action atoning for a fault,
to disinterested action on behalf of others.
This second level has echoes of higher versions of the progress of the soul.
Erich Auerbach and R. W. Southern have commented on the resemblances between
Chr6tien's romances and the stages of Cistercian mysticism, though they tend to
see these resemblances merely as expressions of parallel movements.22 "The
religious and the romantic quests were born in the same world ... and drew in part
on the same sources of inspiration, but they were in the twelfth century kept rigidly
apart."23 H. B. Willson, on the other hand, studying Hartmann von Aue's versions
of Erec and Yvain, argues for an analogical relationship between them and Christian
patterns of thought. "The exile of Erec and Enite from courtly society reflects
analogically the exile of humanity from the paradise of similitude with God. Courtly
society is universalized, as it were, to represent the community of mankind within
the wider unity of the divine ordo. The duty of chivalrous manhood is to realize its
true self by overcoming sin through caritas, to redeem itself and others by selfless
sacrifice."24 Willson's theory may apply equally to Chr6tien, who as a twelfth-
century writer would have found it difficult to keep the romantic and religious
worlds rigidly apart. It is natural to expect that Chr6tien's descriptions of the progress
of a knight will have some resemblance to formulas of Christian progress, perhaps
especially those of Saint Bernard, for whom the progress of the soul toward God
was an incessant topic.25

22/Auerbach, p. 136. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (London, 1959), pp. 254-55.
23/Southern, p. 255.
24/"Sin and Redemption in Hartmann's Erec," Germanic Review 33 (1958): 5-14; the quotation
is from p. 14. See also the same author's "Love and Charity in Hartmann's Iwein," Modern
Language Review 57 (1962): 216-27; and "The Role of Keii in Hartmann's Iwein," Medium
Aevum 30 (1961): 145-58.
25/See the article referred to in n. 17, in which I argue that a puzzling passage in Yvain can be
explained by Chr6tien's familiarity with the sermons of Saint Bernard.

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 Cook/The Structure of Romance in Chr6tien's Erec and Yvain 143

In The Steps of Humility Bernard describes the three steps to truth. The first is
knowledge of self, or humility, "that thorough self-examination which makes a man
contemptible in his own sight."26 The second step is knowledge of others, which
leads to love and compassion. The third step is knowing God. "Since there are there-
fore three steps or states of truth, we ascend to the first by the toil of humility, to
the second by the emotion of compassion, to the third by the ecstasy of contempla-
tion" (chap. 6, para. 19). These stages correspond to the second, third, and fourth
degrees of love as Bernard describes them in On Loving God: (1) love of self, (2) love
of God for the sake of self, (3) love of God for God's sake, (4) love of self only for
God's sake.27 This is one of four different divisions of love in the writings of
Bernard, according to Etienne Gilson,28 who has also explicated their basic pattern:
a beginning in carnal love, or love of self; then an apprenticeship in humility, by
which one learns compassion; "now compassion is charity, and charity is the Holy
Spirit, the Third Person of the Trinity. Thus is man led to a more and more intimate
and complete union with the life of the Three Divine Persons, and, we may add, he
is now ready for the supreme initiation, should it please the Father to bestow it on
him." 29 The careers of Erec and Yvain bear no analogies to the final stage or mystic
vision, which is totally self-denying and seldom granted in this life,a0 but they do
resemble the three earlier stages by which man begins in self-love and rises, by
means of humility, to service of others and love of God. I suggest that Chr6tien had
such analogies in mind when composing these romances.

Newcomb College, Tulane University

26/The Steps of Humility, chap. 1, para. 2. References are to the edition and translation of
George Bosworth Burch (Notre Dame, Ind., 1963).
27/De diligendo Deo, chaps. 8-10, 15 (Patrologia Latina 182: 987-92, 998).
28/Etienne Gilson, The Mystical Theology of Saint Bernard, trans. A. H. C. Downes (London,
1940), p. 245.
29/Ibid., p. 98.
30/De diligendo Deo, chaps. 10, 15 (Patrologia Latina 182: 990, 998).

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