special focus India

Cavitation in reciprocating pumps

Cavitation is a common occurrence, but is one of the least understood of all pumping
problems. Here, Trinath Sahoo explains how acceleration head phenomena and net positive
suction head available are related to cavitation

The net positive suction head
(NPSH) is defined as the
difference between suction
pressure and vapour pressure
measured at the pump suction
nozzle when the pump is running.
In a reciprocating pump NPSH is
required to push the suction valve
from its seat and to overcome the
friction losses and acceleration
head within the liquid end.
The flow output from a recip-
rocating pump is unsteady and
the pumped fluid is constantly
accelerating and decel-erating. A
certain amount of energy, the
acceleration head, is required to
produce the acceleration.
The acceleration head is often so
large that the net positive suction
head required (NPSHR) cannot be
met. The acceleration head can be
reduced by increasing the pipe
diameter, shortening suction
piping, decreasing pump speed or
using a suction stabilizer. When
net positive suction head
available (NPSHA) becomes lower
than net positive suction head
required, or very close to it,
cavitation will occur
‘Displacement
machine’
A reciprocating pump is a
‘displacement machine’. At
constant speed, handling a given
liquid, reciprocating pumps
deliver essentially constant flow
regardless of system resistance.
Volumetric efficiency falls with
increasing differential pressure.
Unlike centrifugal pumps they
can achieve high pressure at low
velocities.
Another characteristic of a
reciprocating pump is that
capacity is a function of speed and
is relatively independent of
discharge pressure.
All reciprocating pumps contain
one or more pumping elements
(piston or plunger) that move into
and out of pumping chambers to
produce the pumping action.
Each chamber contains at least
one suction and one discharge
valve (Figure 1).
Pressure
As the pumping element is
withdrawn from the pumping
chamber, liquid within the
chamber expands and the
pressure decreases. Since most
liquids are relatively
incompressible, very little
movement of the element is
required to decrease the pressure.
When the pressure decreases
sufficiently below suction
pressure, the differential pressure
(that is, suction pressure —
chamber pressure), pushes open
the suction valve. This occurs
when the element is moving
slightly, so that the valve
opens gradually and smoothly
as the velocity of the element
increases. Liquid then flows
through the valve assembly and
follows the element on its
suction stroke. As the element
decelerates near the end of this
stroke, the suction valve gradually
returns to its seat. When the
element stops, the suction valve
closes.
The pumping element then
reverses and starts on its
discharge stroke. The liquid
trapped in the pumping chamber
is compressed until chamber
pressure exceeds the discharge
pressure by an amount sufficient
to push the discharge valve away
from its seat.
With a power pump, the velocity
of the element (piston or plunger)
varies approximately as the sine
of the angle of the crank throw.
The velocity of the liquid in the
piping is proportional to plunger
velocity.
Indicator diagram
The graph between the pressure
in the cylinder and volume swept
by the piston for one complete
revolution is called the indicator
diagram.
The volume swept by the piston
is equal to product of A
(cross-sectional area of cylinder)
and 2x (distance travelled by the
piston). Since A remains constant
during piston motion, the volume
swept by the piston is
proportional to x. This means that
we can substitute x for volume
swept by the piston. For hydraulic
pumps it is convenient to take
pressure head (p/w) in place of
pressure.

Reservoir level So, the indicator diagram

Delivery pipe
(Figure 2) for a reciprocating
Connecting rod pump is a graph between
hd Delivery valve pressure head in the cylinder
Cylinder
against distance travelled by the
h
piston for one complete
revolution of crank. If the
hs
pressure in the sump is taken as
Piston rod Crank
Sump level
atmospheric, then the pressure
Figure 1. Suction valve head in the cylinder during the
A reciprocating pump Piston
is a ‘displacement Suction pipe suction stroke will be constant
machine’. and given by Equation 1.

24 0262 1762/06 © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved WORLD PUMPS January 2006
 special focus India

pressure head in cylinder = Velocity of water in the pipe is:

Pa/W – hs (absolute) (Equation 1) d c

This can be represented by line ab = (A/a)r ωsinωt = (A/a)r ωsinθ

p
in Figure 2. (Equation 4) hd
w
o o'
Pressure head in the pump where A is the area of cross-
cylinder during the return or section of the cylinder and a is the hs
delivery stroke must be hd metres area of the cross-section of the b
pipe. Differentiating once again pa a
of liquid above atmospheric Length of stroke
with respect to time, we obtain w
pressure and is represented on
the acceleration of the water:
the indicator diagram by line cd. Datum

At the end of the suction stroke = (A/a)rω2cosωt = (A/a)rω2cosθ

the pressure head must jump
from suction head hs to delivery
head hd before the beginning of
the delivery stroke. This jump is
represented by line bc. Similarly,
at the end of the delivery stroke,
the pressure head must fall from
hd to suction head hs, before the
start of the suction stroke. This is
shown in the figure by line da. In
this way, quadrilateral abcd
represents the indicator diagram
(Figure 2).
Effect of acceleration
It is obvious that in the
reciprocating motion under
consideration, the velocity of
the piston is not uniform at all
points. It is zero at the end of
each stroke, and reaches a
maximum at the centre — if
the motion of the piston is
assumed to be simple harmonic
in character.
(Equation 5)
The mass of the water to be
accelerated is:
= wal/g (Equation 6)
where l = length of pipe.
The force required to accelerate
the water in the pipe is:
F = (wal/g)(A/a)rω2cosωt
(Equation 7)
The intensity of pressure caused
by the acceleration is given by:
P = F/a = (wlA/ga)rω2cosωt
(Equation 8)
Pressure head (Figure 4) or
acceleration head ha
= p/w = (l/g)(A/a)rω2cosωt
(Equation 9)
Effect of pipe friction Figure 2. The
indicator diagram.
The pump also provides pressure
to overcome loss of fluid head
because of friction:
hf = (4flv2/2gd) (Equation 11)
where f is Darcey’s coefficient of
friction.
hfs = [4fls(Arωsinθ)2]/2gds
(Equation 12)
hfg = [4fld(Arωsinθ)2]/2gdd
(Equation 13)
From the above equation, it is
clear that loss of head because of
friction is zero at the beginning
and end of each stroke when
θ = 0º or θ = 180º, and a maximum
at θ = 90º of each stroke.

Starting from point IDC after time
t, the crank and piston are in the
position that is shown in the
diagram (Figure 3). Let θ be
the regular distance travelled by
the crank. Then the distance
travelled by the piston is given by
Equation 2.
x = r – rcosθ = r – rcosωt (Equation 2)
By differentiating x with respect
to time t we obtain the velocity of
the piston (Equation 3).
It is clear from these equations
that the acceleration head
required by the pump is maximum
at the beginning of each stroke
when θ = 0º, zero in the middle θ =
90º, and a maximum negative at
the end of each stroke, when θ =
180º. The magnitude of maximum
acceleration is:
= (l/g)(A/a)rω2 (Equation 10)
that is, when cosωt = 1, (θ = 0º).
hf(max) = [4fls(Arω)2]/2gds
(Equation 14)
Discussion
When net positive pressure head
at the inlet falls below vapour
pressure head (Pv /w) then
cavitation occurs.
From the diagram shown in
Figure 5 we can see that the point
of lowest pressure during suction
stroke is a’, that is, at the

dx/dt = rωsinωt = rωsinθ

(Equation 3)
ω
Since the quantity of liquid l r
flowing from the pipe to the θ
I.D.C L.D.C O.D.C
cylinder, or from the cylinder to x x
the pipe is the same at any time,
the velocity of water in the pipe is
Figure 3. Rotary
equal to the velocity of the piston
motion converted
(r is the radius of crank; and L = 2r, into reciprocating
is the length of stroke). motion.

WORLD PUMPS January 2006 www.worldpumps.com 25

 special focus India
d (max)
had
(max)
d'
o o'
hs
pa
w a
has
a b
(max)
a'
Figure 4. The
indicator diagram
with acceleration.
beginning of the suction stroke.
Hence, cavitation during the
suction stroke — if it occurs — is
likely to occur at the beginning of
the suction stroke, and will
obviously occur at the highest
point of suction pipe, that is,
where the suction pipe meets the
pump cylinder.
Net positive pressure head at the
point a’ is:
= Pa/w – hs – has(max) (Equation 15)
= Pa/w – hs – ls/g(A/as)rω2
(Equation 16)
Cavitation will start to occur when
this value falls below vapour
pressure head (Pv /w). This means
that cavitation puts a limit on the
suction height of pump suction
pipe length and the speed of the
pump, because acceleration head
is proportional to ω2.
The principal component of a
reciprocating pump’s NPSHR is the
pressure differential required to
open the suction valve. Therefore,
NPSHR, expressed in pressure
terms, increases with pump speed
and valve closing force. The net
positive suction head is defined as
the difference be-tween suction
pressure and vapour pressure,
measured at the pump suction
nozzle when the pump is running.
In a reciprocating pump, NPSH is
required to push the suction valve
from its seat and to overcome the
friction losses and acceleration
head within the liquid end. This is
because, a significant portion of
the required NPSH is used to open
the valve (particularly at low
pump speeds), and because this is
a pressure rather than a head
requirement (NPSHR). For a
reciprocating pump this is
26
c'
had
c
hd
b'
has
hs
(max)
Datum
normally expressed in pressure
units. For example, if a power
pump requires 2 psi of NPSH when
pumping water, it will also require
2 psi NPSH for propane.
As the suction valve is kept
vertical, the valve can operate
without a spring if the pump
speed is kept low. The NPSH
requirement for a bigger plunger
and higher speed is greater than
that of a smaller plunger and the
lower speed, when tested with
the same fluid. 9The speed of the
pump is limited by the ability of
the suction valve to ‘keep up’ with
the plunger. If a higher speed is
desired, stiffer springs are
needed.
NPSH test
Power pump NPSH tests are
performed by holding the pump
speed and discharge pressure
constant and varying the NPSHA
in the system.
The capacity remains constant for
all NPSHA values above a certain
point. As NPSHA is reduced below
this point, capacity begins to fall.
A 3% capacity drop is the criteria
for defining NPSHR.
Remedies
There are a number of ways to
increase NPSHA. These are:
• enlarge the diameter of
suction line;
• reduce the length of suction
line by moving the pump closer
to the suction vessel;
• install a suction bottle;
• elevate the suction vessel or
level of liquid; and
• reduce the speed of the power
pump, or select a larger pump
running at a lower speed.
Rotating speed
One of the most important
parameters for power pumps is
the maximum allowable speed.
The velocity variation in the
piping for a triplex pump is 25%,
regardless of the pump size or
speed. For the same capacity, a
smaller pump, running faster, will
produce the same maximum and
minimum flow rates and more
pulses per second. Since the
acceleration head increases in
direct proportion to frequency,
doubling the pump speed doubles
the acceleration head, thereby
reducing NPSHA from the system.
Also doubling the speed requires
a stiffer valve spring, thereby
increasing NPSHR. As previously
stated, if NPSHA drops below
NPSHR, cavitation will occur.
The speed of the pump is limited
by the ability of the suction valve
to ‘keep up’ with the plunger.
When there is no spring to push
the valve back onto its seat,
gravity is the only force acting to
close the valve against the
existing fluid. If the pump is
running too fast the valve will still
be off its seat when the plunger
reverses and starts to re-enter the
pumping chamber. The liquid
will then momentarily flow
backwards through the seat, and
the valve will be slammed onto its
seat, sending a shock wave to the
suction manifold and piping.
The pressure in the pumping
chamber will quickly exceed
discharge pressure, and the
discharge valve will be driven
from its seat. A shock wave will be
transmitted from the pumping
chamber, though the discharge
manifold to the discharge line.
Valve spring factor
At low speeds (100 rpm or less)
the characteristics of the suction
valve spring are of little
consequence, and a low suction
pressure can be tolerated.
Many low-speed pumps operate
without the valve spring. The
pump suction pressure require-
ment depends on the pump speed
and the valve spring rate. The
volumetric efficiency of the pump
improves when the pump is
running at low rpm and the valve
has a higher spring rate.
WORLD PUMPS January 2006

The higher spring rate increases
efficiency at the cost of higher
suction pressure. Lower suction
pressure diminishes the volu-
metric effici-ency. A higher valve
spring rate increases the
efficiency.
When stiffer springs are added to
the suction valves, the spring
force and the valve weight must
be overcome to open the suction
valve, so NPSHR increases. These
springs return the valves to their
seats quickly so that operation is
smooth at higher speeds. Light
springs should be used for a low
pressure and low speed, while
heavy springs should be used for
a high speed and high pressure.
Plunger size
Generally, in reciprocating pumps
the size of the plunger can be
changed. The larger clearance
that results from using a smaller
diameter plunger lowers
volumetric efficiency. However,
for the same rotational speed
and service conditions NPSHR
rises if the plunger size is
increased.
Entrained gas
Reciprocating pumps will com-
press gas, but the pressure
developed is limited by the
usually large clearance volume.
Unless the pump can discharge
some gas during each stroke, it
will not clear itself.
A second and potentially more
serious problem arises if the pump
is able to raise the pressure
sufficiently to force the gas into
the liquid solution. Should this
happen, the sudden change in
volume can produce a destructive
pressure pulsation.
When the liquid contains air or is
exposed to gas other than its own
vapour, the vapour pressure of the
solution increases. The Hydraulic
Institute, based in the USA,
recommends an NPSH margin of
3 psi for power pumps in systems
where the pumpage has been
exposed to a gas other than the
liquid’s own vapour. To minimize
the problem of dissolved air, the
NPSH tests are performed with
water near its boiling point, in the
suction vessel.
WORLD PUMPS January 2006
The stuffing box packing is a
source of air ingress when the
suction pressure is below
atmospheric pressure. In that case,
air is drawn through the stuffing
box packing into the pumping
chamber on the suction stroke. Air
ingress will cause a drop in
capacity and make the pump
operate noisily.
Differential pressure
When a pump operates with a low
differential pressure the effect of
cavitation is difficult to detect.
However, when a pump handles
liquid with a high discharge
pressure, the effect of cavitation is
more pronounced.
Liquid properties
When reciprocating pumps are
used in viscous service, there is a
corresponding decrease in the
maximum allowable speed at
which they are able to operate
satisfactorily. A decrease in the
speed reduces the volumetric flow.
This decease limits the flow range.
Increasing viscosity has two
effects. Firstly, the motion of the
valves is impeded. At constant
speed this leads to greater valve
leakage, hence, lower volumetric
efficiency. Alternatively, for a
given volumetric efficiency, the
pump speed must be reduced as
viscosity increases.
The second effect is increased
head loss through the suction
valve and post, resulting in higher
NPSHR. The extent of this effect
increases with pump design
pressure.
Pumps with a high fluid temp-
erature must be run at a reduced
speed in order for them to
operate properly.
Suction line
The suction line is sized to limit the
fluid velocity 1-3 ft/s. This low
velocity reduces the acceleration
head of the system, maximizing
NPSHA of the pump. The long
radius elbow minimizes pressure
drop and maximizes the NPSHA.
The eccentric reducer decreases
the line size from the larger
suction pipe diameter, drawn to
the inlet size of the pump. This
reducer is orientated in such a way
special focus India
that air pockets cannot form in
the pipe. The suction stabilizer
usually contains internal parts
such as a bladder, diaphragms,
choke tubes or baffles. It is used in
front of the pump to reduce the
pressure pulsation in the pipe and
acceleration head in the system.
Suction stabilizer
Suction stabilizers greatly
decrease the pulsation that is
passed on through the piping
system, or even the pulsation that
is reflected back to the pump.
Generally, these are pressurized
vessels or containers with a
gas–liquid interface. Some have a
direct interface, others use an
elastomeric sheet to keep them
separated. The energy from the
pressure pluses is partially
absorbed and the peaks on the
pulsation curves are reduced.
Using a pulsation dampener
reduces acceleration head and
friction losses (to minimize
NPSHA) when installed as a
suction stabilizer in the suction
piping. Using a suction stabilizer
produces steady flow and reduces
high pressure fluctuations in the
pipe system.
hfd (max) c'
had
(max)
d
c
d'
hd
hs b'
a b
has
(max) a'
e hfs (max)
Conclusion Figure 5. The
indicator
The NPSHA must be greater than diagram with
the NPSHR, for the pump to acceleration and
deliver its rated flow. When the friction.
NPSHA is below the NPSHR, the
pump’s capacity is reduced. In
severe cases, the shocks associated
with the vapour collapse (a
sudden reduction in pumped fluid
volume) can cause major parts of a
pump to fracture. ■
CONTACT:
Trinath Sahoo
Deputy maintenance manager (FOB)
Indian Oil Corp Ltd , Haldia Refrinery
Dist-Midnapore, West Bengal
India, 721606
Email: sahoot@iocl.co.in
www.worldpumps.com 27