Separation

Produced fluids from a well leave the Christmas tree via a flow line Ñ usually a 2-inch or 3-inch (5 to 8 cm) pipe,
which may be bellow or above ground at onshore installations, or perhaps on the seafloor for a subsea completion.
The flow line (gathering line) generally travels by the shortest route to the surface production facilities. If the
production facilities are shared by a group of wells, as is often the case, the flow line will probably connect to a
header or production manifold. This is an assembly of valves that allows each well's flow stream to be shut in or
diverted to a particular portion of the production facilities. For example, during a production test on an individual
well, the header valves will be adjusted to allow that well's production to be diverted to the test facilities, while all
other wells' production streams are unaffected. From the header, the commingled stream of production from several
wells moves on through the system, usually in a larger diameter pipe to handle the increase in volume.

Normally a separator is the first piece of production processing equipment that a produced fluid stream encounters.
Separators are usually classified by physical shape, and Figure 1 shows the basic vertical, horizontal, and spherical
separator configurations.

Figure 1

A conventional separator divides the produced fluid stream into oil and gas, or liquid and gas, and is known as a gas-
oil separator or gas-liquid separator. Sometimes separators are also called "traps." Conventional separators can be
two-phase or three-phase depending on whether they separate oil and gas, or oil, gas, and water.
Metering separators accumulate the separated oil, or oil and water, isolate the liquid phases in calibrated chambers,
and periodically discharge the measured volumes into separate outlets. Such separators can be designed to meter
only the oil, or both oil and water. Special designs are also available for very viscous oil, or oil that tends to "foam."

Let us discuss the operation of a typical vertical two-phase, gas-liquid separator, shown schematically in Figure 2 .

Figure 2

The oil-gas-water mixture enters through an inlet on the side of the tank-shaped vessel. The fluid stream
immediately strikes a metal plate, which diverts the flow around the inner surface of the cylindrical separator,
imparting a centrifugal motion. This motion throws the liquid to the outer edge of the cylinder and allows the gas to
remain near its center. The lighter gas portion of the fluid stream, now separated, rises through the center of the
vessel while the liquid falls. Some separators have an arrangement of metal fins at the inlet, which abruptly changes
the fluid's flow direction and velocity. In this case, the liquid's higher inertia carries it away from the gas and
downward, while the gas rises to the top of the separator. Still another feature of some separators is the presence of a
system of baffles, which spread the liquid out as it drops to the bottom of the vessel. This allows any gas bubbles,
carried in the liquid, to easily escape. The amount of time the oil is allowed to settle in the separator prior to being
dumped at the outlet is termed retention time. Normal retention time is usually 30 to 90 seconds. For a given liquid
flow rate through the separator, an increase in retention time will require an increase in vessel size or liquid depth.
The added cost of a larger separator may not be justified by the additional separation of gas that a longer retention
time allows. Our surface design, then, must be based on economical considerations as well as system performance.
The gas phase, which is directed to the upper portion of the vessel, is usually passed through a mist extractor (
Figure 3 ) to remove minute liquid droplets entrained in the gas.

Figure 3

Here, three processes act to separate liquid from the gas: flow velocity changes; direction changes; and
impingement, or the adherence and coalescence of liquid mist on a surface. A combination of these three processes
is incorporated into a coalescing pack-type mist extractor ( Figure 4 ) made of knitted wire mesh or layers of inert
particles with shapes designed for maximum surface area.
 Figure 4

Centrifugal-type mist extractors ( Figure 5 ) used in vertical separators have a set of vanes that cause the circular
motion of gas, throwing the heavier liquid droplets to the wall of the vessel to drain to the bottom. Its efficiency
increases as the velocity of the gas stream increases.
 Figure 5

The gas flow rate through the separator is controlled by a backpressure valve, which maintains the desired pressure
in the vessel. A liquid level controller causes oil to be discharged from the separator when the appropriate level is
reached, and prevents gas from escaping through the liquid outlet. The control is usually pneumatic (gas pressure-
operated), but in low-pressure applications, an internal, float-operated lever valve is employed.

Vertical separators are often used on low to intermediate gas-liquid ratio well streams. They are more readily
cleaned if sand or paraffin are produced, and occupy less floor space on offshore platforms. However, a vertical
separator can be more expensive than a horizontal separator with the same separation capacity. Horizontal
separators, therefore, are usually more cost-efficient, especially for high to medium gas-liquid ratio streams, for
liquid-liquid separation, and in applications where foaming oil is a problem.

Horizontal separators ( Figure 6 ) often have closely spaced horizontal baffle plates that extract liquids.
 Figure 6

A double barrel horizontal separator ( Figure 7 ) has a higher liquid capacity because incoming free liquid is
immediately drained away from the upper section into the lower.
 Figure 7

This allows a higher velocity gas flow through the upper baffled section. Spherical separators ( Figure 8 ) are much
less common than vertical or horizontal types. They tend to have lower installation and maintenance costs. They are
more compact, but lack the capacity for high gas rates or liquid surges.
 Figure 8

Separators are sized according to the expected oil and gas production rates, the necessary operating pressure and
temperature, and the oil and gas proper-ties. For example, a vertical separator about 2 ft (0.61 m) in diameter and 10
ft (3.05 m) high, with a retention time of one minute, will handle about 1300 bbl/D (207 m3/d) of typical crude oil. A
single barrel horizontal separator 2 ft (0.61 m) in diameter and 10 ft (3.05 m) long will handle about 2000 bbl/D
(318 m3/d) and a 3 ft (0.91 m) diameter spherical separator about 1100 bbl/D (175 m3/d). For comparison, 100 to
200 bbl/D (16 to 32 m3/d) is about the output of a normal garden hose.

It is important to remember that the physical and chemical characteristics of the crude oil and gas entering the
separator help determine the degree of separation possible at a given operating temperature and pressure.
Separating the gas held as bubbles in the oil, or oil entrained as droplets in the gas, can be accomplished by
manipulating the fluid stream. However, the operating temperature and pressure of the separators will dictate the
degree to which solution gas and condensate are separated. In general, a greater degree of a separation occurs as the
pressure is lowered and the temperature is increased for a given hydrocarbon mixture.

When gas is removed from contact with the liquid as it is separated, the process is called differential separation.
This process results in the highest volume of oil being recovered from a produced stream of hydrocarbon fluids.
Because most operators are concerned with maximizing the oil volume, this approach is preferred. A long series of
separators, each operating at a slightly lower pressure and allowing for the removal of the liberated gas from each
stage, would provide the highest oil yield in the final storage tank. Although this type of progression is not
economically feasible, multistage separation with three or four separators can approach the yield of complete
differential recovery. Figure 9 ,

Figure 9

Figure 10 , and Figure 11 show three different examples of multistage separation involving separators and a storage
tank.

Figure 10

The gas that is removed at each stage is referred to as high-pressure, medium-pressure, or gas, depending on the
stage at which it is removed.
 Figure 11

Field production facilities will often have a high-pressure gas system and a low-pressure gas system. The low-
pressure system is often used for fuel to operate the treating facilities.

Oil Treatment

In many oilfields, following the initial gas-oil separation process, the oil must be treated to remove water, salt, or
H2S. Let us spend some time exploring the means by which water and salt are removed from oil, assuming our oil
well has a high water cut, an emulsion or a high salt content, or perhaps hydrogen sulfide contamination.

Most pipeline quality oil must have its water content reduced to the 0.2% to 2% by volume range. Because salt
water is generally associated with oil in the reservoir, its production along with the oil is not unusual. Almost all
well streams contain water droplets of various sizes. If, because of their higher density, they collect together and
settle out within a reasonably short time they are called free water. The water cut measured on one or several
samples of the well stream normally refers to free water, and is expressed as the volume of water relative to the total
volume of liquid.

(1)

The sample is assumed to be representative. A free-water knockout ( Figure 1 ) is a simple separation vessel located
along the flow stream at a point of minimum turbulence, where the oil and water mixture is allowed sufficient time
for its density differences to act to separate the phases.
 Figure 1

A more difficult separation problem arises when the oil and water are produced as an emulsion. Most oilfield
emulsions are the water-in-oil type, where individual water particles are dispersed in a continuous body of oil (
Figure 2 , magnified (x70), (a) a loose emulsion of water in oil (b) a tight emulsion of water in oil (c) an oil in water
emulsion).
 Figure 2

An inverted, or oil-in-water, emulsion can also occur, especially when the ratio of water to oil is very high. Two
things are necessary to produce an emulsion of water and oil: agitation and an emulsifying agent. As well fluids
move through the formation, through the perforations and completion equipment, up the tubing and through a choke,
turbulence and mechanical mixing provide the agitation necessary to disperse the droplets of water throughout the
oil phase, or droplets of oil throughout the water phase. Many crude oils also contain carbonates, sulfates, and finely
divided solids, which may act as emulsifying agents. These agents increase the stability of the interfacial films
separating the dispersed and continuous phases.

In order to "break" the emulsion and separate the oil from the water, a variety of processes have been developed.
Treating vessels, which utilize more than one treating process to attack particularly stable or "tight" emulsions, are
common. Chemical treatment uses chemical action to rupture the tough film surrounding the dispersed droplets. The
selection of the most effective chemical demulsifier for a given crude oil-water emulsion is usually a trial and error
process. Chemicals are normally added continuously to the produced fluids, as far upstream from the treating or
separation facilities as possible. Heat treatment to reduce the viscosity of the emulsion and promote gravity
segregation is also used in treating emulsions. In direct heaters, the crude oil emulsion is passed through a coil of
pipe that is exposed to a direct flame. In indirect heaters the pipe carrying the emulsion passes through a water bath,
which obtains its heat from a fire-tube. Sometimes an internal heater is used in a "gunbarrel" treater - an older but
still useful treating method shown in Figure 3 .
 Figure 3

Here the emulsion flows into the central flume and enters the tank at the bottom, rising through a water layer heated
by internal coils. Heater-treaters ( Figure 4 ) heat the emulsion and separate the oil and water in the same processing
vessel. The raw emulsion is preheated by the warm, clean oil leaving the vessel, and the water level is controlled by
a siphon.
 Figure 4

Collision and coalescence of dispersed water droplets in an emulsion can be accomplished by inducing electrical
charges in the particles through the application of an electric field. Electrostatic treaters are normally horizontal
vessels, such as that shown in Figure 5 .
 Figure 5

The emulsion enters this form of treater and passes through an initial separating section where it is heated and must
pass upward through a water layer. Any emulsion not yet broken then rises through an electrically-charged grid. The
salt water droplets then become dipoles with oppositely charged ends. The droplets are attracted to one another.
They collide, coalesce, and form larger drops until they are heavy enough to settle to the water section of the vessel
and be drained. Electrostatic forces can be hundreds of times greater than the gravitational forces acting to separate
oil and water in a conventional treater.

A tough crude dehydration problem was solved with electrical dehydration in offshore Indonesia's Udang field. Here
a system was designed to handle 27,000 bbl/D (4293 m3/d) at 50% water cut. The production is processed in a
three-phase separator/free-water knockout unit, after which a fairly tight emulsion remains. This emulsion is then
processed through electrostatic treaters and the effluent water contains only 300 ppm oil, while the oil has only a
trace of water (Aulenbacher 1982).

The simplest and least expensive method for breaking an emulsion is generally the most practical. Chemical
treatment is usually the preferred method if it will suffice. The addition of heat and/or electrostatic coalescence is
necessary and economically attractive when emulsions are particularly stubborn. As older fields begin to produce
increasingly higher water cuts, and when water injection projects are begun in depleting fields, the need for
emulsion treating processes can increase.

Most produced oil still contains small amounts of emulsified water with solids dispersed within it even after
separation and treatment. Contract specifications require that this BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water) be reduced to
a small percentage before sale. Even such small amounts of water can still cause problems, particularly if the salinity
is high. Salty crude will cause severe problems during the refining process by producing corrosive compounds under
high temperatures and depositing mineral residues within the refining equipment. Desalting of the crude is necessary
if the salt content is greater than 15 to 25 lb (6.8 to 11.3 kg) of salt per 1000 bbl (159 m3) of crude. The procedure is
relatively simple: the crude oil is first separated and treated, and free water is removed; the remaining oil and oil-
water with small amounts of emulsified water-solids is mixed through a nozzle with fresh water; the intimate mixing
of fresh water and salty water in the emulsion forms a new emulsion with a lower salt concentration. This new stable
emulsion is broken, usually using electrical dehydrators, and the processed crude oil has a salt content bellow the
required limit. The crude oil in the Indonesian field mentioned above has a salt content of 48 lb (2.18 kg) per 1000
bbl (159 m3) before treating. A combination of electrical dehydration and chemical additives reduced the salt and
water content of the crude to trace amounts, without the need for fresh water desalination (Aulenbacher 1982).
However, many Middle Eastern fields employ the fresh wafer mixing technique.

In areas such as the Middle East, where enormous volumes of oil must be handled and prepared for transport on a
daily basis, a crude stabilizer may be part of the oil treatment process. Crude stabilizers separate the most volatile
fluids remaining in the oil after normal separation. They insure that the oil is suitable for storage and transport, that
vapors from the storage tanks are not lost, and that the hydrogen sulfide content of the crude is reduced to within
acceptable limits. The lighter hydrocarbons recovered from this fractionation process are usually sold as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG).

Hydrogen sulfide is usually removed from the oil by means of cold or hot stripping. In cold stripping a stream of
low hydrogen sulfide content gas is mixed with the oil in a stripping tower. This results in the separation of
"sweetened" oil and hydrogen sulfide laden gas. Hot stripping uses a reboiler to remove the hydrogen sulfide laden
gas from the oil.

Oil Metering
Crude oil metering can be classified as either the automatic or manual measurement of the produced oil volume. The
types of automatic measurement devices can be subdivided into four classes: positive volume, positive
displacement, turbine, and mass flow meters. Manual "gauging" of oil production involves a hand measurement of
oil level in a storage tank before and after oil is removed to the sales line. Appropriate samples are taken from the
tanks to insure the oil is of pipeline quality. This approach is still used in some areas but most measurement
techniques utilized in large fields, offshore, or in recently developed areas, involve automatic measurement.

Positive volume metering involves the filling of a predetermined volume, the automatic discharge of that volume by
liquid level-actuated valves, and the recording of the discharge by some type of counter. Positive volume meters
may be found in metering separators and heater-treaters, dump tank meters, and weir tanks. Some separators and
treaters are equipped with liquid level controlled valves, which periodically release volumes of oil or liquid and
record the action. When several wells produce to a central tank battery, this type of vessel may be used for
individual well tests, but the final metering of commingled oil is often accomplished by using a series of tanks as
shown in Figure 1 ,
 Figure 1

Figure 2 ,

Figure 2
Figure 3 ,

Figure 3

Figure 4 and Figure 5 .

Figure 4

At least two tanks are required - one to collect the surge of production, and one to act as a measuring volume to be
filled and emptied into the pipeline.
 Figure 5

If continuous rather than intermittent flow to the sales pipeline is required, additional tanks may be needed to allow
for alternate filling and discharge, and to provide a full sump tank from which oil can be pumped to the sales line.
Sometimes these functions can be combined in a single vessel where an enclosed weir ( Figure 6 and Figure 7 )
 Figure 6

is filled and emptied to another portion of the vessel for transfer.

Figure 7

There are several versions of this system available.

Positive displacement meters are highly efficient fluid motors used for measuring oil volumes. They consist of a
measuring chamber and a sealing section between the inlet and outlet connections ( Figure 8 ).
 Figure 8

These meters are operated by fluid pressure. The fluid stream is divided into segments within the meter and the
movement of these segments through the meter is registered on a counter. For electric metering, the movement of
the counter transmits an electrical pulse or signal. Because each pulse represents a discrete volume, the total number
of pulses, integrated over time, represents the volume metered. The signals are amplified, then converted and
displayed as totalized flow via electronic instrumentation.

When oil or gas is delivered into a sales line at a metering point, a legal custody transfer takes place. In many cases
this is accomplished before the oil or gas leaves the lease on which it is produced. In offshore situations, the
produced fluids may travel quite some distance to shore before being separated, metered, and transferred to the sales
line.

Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) refers to a system designed to provide continuous unattended transfer of
crude oil from the producer to the pipeline. This approach is particularly useful where large numbers of wells are
located in a remote area. In addition to accurately metering the liquid, the unit must also monitor the quality
(BS&W) of the production, or obtain a representative sample at line conditions. LACT units utilize turbine or
positive displacement-type oil meters, and some incorporate a capacitance probe, which determines the BS&W
content of the oil by measuring the dielectric constant of the passing fluid. If the crude is not of pipeline quality, it is
automatically diverted for reprocessing.

Oil collected in stock tanks still has varying amounts of gas in it. The separation of this gas and evaporation of light
hydrocarbons from the settled oil may be lost due to the normal "breathing" of the tank or when filling and discharge
takes place. Vapor recovery systems are designed to draw off the vapor from the tank, recover the condensate, and
return it to the tank while sending the gas to the gas sales system. This prevents a reduction in oil volume and
gravity, both of which reduce the sales income. An efficient crude stabilization system may help eliminate the need
for a vapor recovery system at the tank battery.

Gas Treatment

Gas can be separated from the production stream in several stages at several pressures. The low-pressure gas is often
used for lease fuel requirements. It may also be compressed to a higher pressure and mixed with the high-pressure
separator gas, or perhaps with high-pressure gas from producing gas wells nearby. Before gas may be sold it must be
brought to pipeline quality and be delivered to the pipeline at an appropriate pressure. The major quality control
requirements are met by the removal of liquid condensate, water vapor, and any hydrogen sulfide. The appropriate
pressure is realized by reducing pressure (if too high) or installing a compressor (if too low).

Contracts for the sale of gas to transmission companies always contain provisions regarding the quality of gas that is
delivered to the pipeline. Water vapor must be removed to prevent the formation of hydrates when the gas is
compressed or cooled. Acid gases, usually hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide, are particularly corrosive in the
presence of water and must be removed also. High sulfur content fuels are environmentally unsatisfactory, and
hydrogen sulfide is extremely toxic. Additionally, these impurities reduce the heating value of the gas in which they
are found. For these reasons, operators process gas to meet certain quality standards, e.g.,

 It cannot be in excess of 20 grains (a grain is 0.0648 gram) of total sulfur per 100 cu ft (0.46 g/m 3).

 It cannot be in excess of 0.25 grains of hydrogen sulfide per 100 cu ft (0.0057 g/m 3).

 The heating value must be at least 1000 to 1150 British Thermal Units (BTU) per cu ft at standard surface
conditions (37.3 to 42.9 106 J/m3).

 It cannot be in excess of 0.2% by volume of oxygen.

 It cannot be in excess of 2% by volume of CO2.

These are typical, but by no means universal standards.

There are several types of gas treating vessels that remove condensate from the gas stream. A scrubber is a separator
designed to handle streams with high gas-to-liquid ratios. Often a scrubber is used in gas gathering systems to
handle a rather homogeneous production stream, as opposed to conventional oil and gas separators, which might
have to handle slugs of liquids. Dry-type gas scrubbers use internal vanes or woven wire mesh mist extractors to
coalesce the small droplets of liquid from the gas stream. Wet-type gas scrubbers allow the gas stream to pass
through an oil (or similar liquid) bath that removes dust, scale, rust, etc. before it passes through the mist extractor.
Extremely small (<5) contaminant particles may be removed by passing the gas stream through a fine high-quality
filtering medium such as fiberglass in a filter-separator. If the gas stream contains substantial liquids, a combination
of filtering and mist extraction may take place within the filter separator vessel. Passage through filter elements
causes a pressure drop in the flow stream, which must be monitored to determine when the elements need changing.

Another method of separating liquids from a gas stream is by low-temperature extraction. This process is an
efficient method for separating high-pressure gas and condensate well streams.

Essentially, the process causes the pressure on the gas stream to be reduced by having it flow through a restriction
(choke). Throttling the gas in this manner leads to a sharp reduction in temperature and the condensation of water
and liquid hydrocarbons. Hydrates (water-hydrocarbon compounds that resemble ice) would normally form in a
conventional separator under these conditions and prevent its operation. The low temperature separator, however, is
designed to use heat from the warm fluid upstream of the choke to melt any hydrates that form. This type of
separation simultaneously removes both condensate and water from the gas.
Removing water vapor or dehydrating natural gas can also be accomplished by two other practical methods:

 Absorption with liquid desiccants, such as glycol or methanol; and

 Adsorption with solid desiccants, such as alumina, silica gel, or calcium chloride.

The difference in these two methods is that liquid desiccants, such as glycol, react chemically with water molecules
and hold them (absorb them) until heated. Dry desiccants, on the other hand, such as activated alumina or silica gel,
adsorb the water molecules on their surface rather than absorb.

In the absorption process, a lean glycol-water solution (95% to 99% glycol) enters at the top of the absorber column
( Figure 1 and Figure 2 ) and is first cooled by the previously dehydrated gas leaving the unit.

Figure 1

Wet gas enters the column from the bottom.

 Figure 2

The glycol falls through a series of bubble-cap trays where the "dry" glycol and ascending wet gas are intimately
mixed and the water vapor is absorbed. As the glycol descends, it becomes more water-rich. To remove the water
vapor, the water-rich glycol solution is delivered to a reboiler, where it is heated and the water is separated from the
glycol by fractional distillation in a stripper column. The glycol is then ready to be reused and the water can be
disposed.

Solid desiccant dehydrators are not as common as liquid dessicant dehydrators. In such dehydration, the wet gas
passes through a separator, which removes as much free liquid as possible. The gas is then passed downward
through the contactor column that is packed with adsorbing desiccant. After a period of usage, the desiccant
becomes saturated with water, and a portion of the main gas stream is heated and used to drive the adsorbed water
from the desiccant so that it may be reused. A solid desiccant may be used in this way for one to four years before it
loses effective surface area through plugging.

Removal of acid gases, also called gas sweetening, is achieved primarily through one of two processes:

 the amine process, which removes both CO2 and H2S; or

 the iron oxide process, which removes H2S selectively.

The amine process is based on the chemical reaction of weak organic bases with weak acids (H 2S or CO2) to
produce a water-soluble salt. The natural gas is contacted with the amine solution in a series of bubble-cap trays in a
contactor tower (similar to a liquid dehydrator).
In the iron oxide process (also called iron sponge) a chemical reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen sulfide
produces iron sulfide and water. As the sour gas flows through a bed of iron oxide-impregnated wood chips, the iron
sulfide remains in the bed. When the ability of the bed to remove H 2S is exhausted, the wood chips are replaced or
regenerated. A similar process uses zinc oxide powder in a slurry solution.

After being sweetened and before being dehydrated, the gas stream may need to be compressed to enable it to enter
the sales pipeline. The size capacities, and inlet and outlet pressures for compressors vary over a wide range. As a
rule of thumb, the compression ratio for a single stage of compression should not exceed 4:1. Thus, it is possible to
raise the pressure from 100 psi to 400 psi in a single stage, but two stages would be needed to go from 50 psi to 400
psi. Compressors may be found at other points in the field, whenever it is necessary to increase the pressure of a gas
stream. When gas has been separated, sweetened, compressed, and if necessary, dehydrated, it is then metered and
sold.

Gas Metering

An important concept in natural gas metering is the definition of a basis for measurement. The unit of measurement
must be defined, and the conditions on which the unit is based must be specified. Most of the natural gas industry
measures gas in units of volume- cubic feet or cubic meters. However, the volume a quantity of an ideal gas
occupies varies directly with absolute temperature and inversely with absolute pressure. Therefore, the standard, or
base temperature and pressure, which defines the unit of volume, must be specified. Unfortunately, there is no
currently accepted universal set of standard conditions. A standard pressure of 14.73 psi (101.6 kPa) and a standard
temperature of 60 F (288.7 K) are the most common examples normally found in gas purchase contracts. A standard
cubic foot (SCF) or standard cubic meter then, is a unit of volume at the specified standard conditions. Gas may also
be measured in other units such as BTUs, therms, pounds, etc. , but these units must be defined as well.

Gas metering, or any fluid metering for that matter, is accomplished by measuring quantity (positive displacement
meters), or rate of flow (inferential meters). Both types of meters employ a primary element, which interacts with the
fluid, and a secondary element, which translates the interaction into volumes, weights, or flow rates, and compiles or
records the results. A wide variety of metering devices have been developed for application in different industries.

A particular type of inferential meter relies upon the measurement of differential pressure across a restriction in the
flow stream to estimate flow rates. Pressure differential meters operate on the fact that a change in pressure
accompanies a controlled change in a fluid's velocity. By introducing a restriction in the pipeline to change the
velocity of flow, and by measuring the pressure differential across the restriction, the flow rate can be determined
under certain conditions. Several types of pressure differential meters are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 .
 Figure 1

The orifice meter ( Figure 1 (a))

 Figure 2

is the most widely used method for metering natural gas production. It has as its primary elements, the orifice plate,
orifice fittings, and adjacent meter tubes. The entire assembly is manufactured according to standards determined by
extensive research and testing. In the United States, these standards are published by the American Gas Association.
Devices for measuring the differential pressure across the orifice plate, and for measuring the flow pressure
downstream of the orifice plate, make up the secondary element.

Other measuring instruments exist. For example, the Venturi tube ( Figure 1 (b)) consists of a narrow cylindrical
restriction (throat) between converging and diverging tubing sections. As with the orifice plate, the throat of a
Venturi tube causes a pressure drop, which can be measured and related to volume. Another option is the flow nozzle
( Figure 2 (c)), a polished curved restriction that is placed into the flow stream much like the orifice plate. Both flow
nozzles and Venturi tubes can handle about 60% more flow than an orifice plate under the same conditions, and
therefore are often used to handle higher velocity flows. However, both are usually more expensive and more
difficult to change and maintain than an orifice plate. A pitot tube ( Figure 2 (d)), or impact tube, measures the
difference between the static pressure and the dynamic pressure at the same point. The apparatus consists of small
bent tubes inserted into the flow stream with openings parallel to and perpendicular to the direction of flow. The
pitot tube is used principally in the open-flow testing of gas wells. A critical flow prover is a short pipe section (12
inches or 0.305 m) with an orifice plate on one end. Critical flow occurs when velocity through the orifice reaches a
maximum (sonic velocity) and remains constant. At this point, the rate of flow is directly proportional to upstream
pressure and is independent of downstream pressure. This technique requires venting the gas into the atmosphere.

The differential pressure-type meters rely on a relationship between the square of the flow velocity and the pressure
drop across the restriction. Figure 3 shows that as the fluid approaches the orifice, the pressure increases slightly and
then drops as it passes through the restriction.

Figure 3

The gas flow stream actually decreases in diameter and pressure to a point some distance past the orifice plate. The
decrease in pressure is a result of the increased velocity of the gas. Velocity then decreases and pressure increases as
the gas moves farther downstream. However, some permanent pressure loss is suffered due to turbulence and
friction. This pressure loss is relatively greater in orifice meters than in most other differential-type meters.

It is important to specify where the pressure differential is taken ( Figure 3 ).

Pipe taps are common in the central and eastern United States. Flange taps are used primarily in Europe.

Figure 4 shows one type of orifice fitting designed to allow easy changing of orifice plates for better accuracy; plates
are changed as the flow rate changes.
 Figure 4

Orifice plates are made from precision-machined stainless steel or special alloys. Usually the plates are 1/8-inch to
1/2-inch (0.318 to 1.27 cm) thick and have orifices that vary in diameter according to size of the pipeline and the
location of the pressure measuring points, usually from 0.15 to 0.7 of the pipe diameter. The orifices have a sharp
edge on the upstream side of the plate. Sometimes bundles of tubes or straightening vanes are placed inside the
meter tube upstream of the orifice plate to help eliminate swirls and turbulence in the flow stream and to reduce the
length of meter tube required to achieve the same effect.

The secondary element of the orifice meter is designed to measure and record the pressure differential across the
orifice and the static line pressure. A U-tube or manometer-type pressure measuring device has been widely used in
the industry. A mercury level is used to indicate the difference between upstream and downstream pressure and to
actuate a pen arm across a clock-driven chart ( Figure 5 ,
 Figure 5

orifice meter chart, and Figure 6 , pressure recording assembly).

 Figure 6

The result is a record of the variation in pressure drop over time. The static line pressure is also recorded with a
second pen, usually using a simple bourdon tube-type mechanism. The charts obtained from all such devices must
be changed periodically. They are then integrated to give an accurate record of cumulative production and average
flow rate over the chart recording time.

More recently developed devices employ pressure sensing transducers that convert the pressure signals to electrical
signals at the meter and transmit them to a flow computer located either on-site or at a remote location. With these
and similarly obtained temperature signals, the flow computer uses a microprocessor to determine automatically and
display both instantaneous flow rate and total flow volumes. The calculation is both instantaneous and continuous
rather than periodic as with manual chart integration. A variety of pressure and temperature transducers, as well as
various brands of flow computers, are available.

Other types of gas measuring devices are found less frequently in the field. The gas turbine meter ( Figure 7 ) relies
on the flowing gas to impart a force to rotor blades, and the rotor movement is converted to volume measurement.
 Figure 7

This type of meter is more commonly used for liquid measurement. Positive displacement meters have many forms,
but basically they meter gas by using rotating, semisealed chambers to measure discrete volumes of gas moving
through the meter. For metering relatively small volumes of gas at low flow rates (such as residential sales in the
U.S.) a type of positive displacement meter, the bellows meter, is commonly used.

Water Treatment & Disposal

Produced water, after separation and treatment, is normally disposed of by injection into disposal wells, reinjection
into the reservoir as part of a waterflood project, or pumping to open pits where it is allowed to evaporate or drain.
At some offshore locations if the environmental regulations permit it, the water may simply be pumped into the
ocean. Obviously, the removal of oil from produced water must be extremely efficient and complete to eliminate any
environmental hazards. This is just as true when the water is being reinjected, because traces of oil in the injected
water can decrease the permeability near the wellbore where it is injected.

In most cases, the primary oil-water separation vessel is the free-water knockout. Water may also be obtained from
three-phase separators, treaters, dehydrators, etc. The water leaving this equipment usually contains a thin film or
tiny droplets of oil. If the equipment should malfunction, the amount of oil in the water may increase. There are
numerous oil field devices for removing small amounts of oil from water. Nearly all rely on gravity differences of
oil and water acting through a loosely-packed chamber in a baffled vessel where solid surfaces, such as hay or
charcoal, aid in collecting oil droplets and in separating them from the water. Coalescing elements are often added to
free-water knockouts to improve their efficiency. Figure 1
 Figure 1

and Figure 2 shows how the oil droplets coalesce and quickly separate when they reach a certain size.
 Figure 2

Sometimes gas is dissolved in the water and then released, pulling along to the surface the oil and solids that adhere
to the bubbles. Sometimes chemical coagulants are used. There are a variety of designs that employ combinations of
the above methods to reduce the oil content of water to less than 10 ppm. Some production systems employ skim
tanks, where the produced water is allowed to settle and the small amount of oil rising to the surface is mechanically
skimmed off the surface. In all cases, the recovered oil is returned to the oil flow streams, usually to the treater.
When the water is of acceptable quality it is usually disposed. In many cases, the water is metered because an
accurate figure can help in reservoir and production engineering calculations.

Offshore Considerations
We should take a moment to consider the special problems inherent in production from wells located offshore. Early
offshore drilling in the 1940s was done from steel and wooden platforms with minimum equipment, supplied by
"tender" vessels. As the search extended into deeper water, the technology for constructing and installing more
complex, self-contained platforms was developed. The ability to drill wells in deep water currently exceeds
industry's ability to produce them. Wells have been drilled in water depths over 6000 ft (1830 m), and drillships
have the ability to go even deeper. Production has been achieved from depths near 1000 ft (305 m).

Most of the production platforms in the world's oceans are steel platforms with driven pile anchors ( Figure 1 ).
 Figure 1

These structures have become increasingly large and more structurally complex to enable them to withstand waves
and currents. Concrete or steel gravity structures ( Figure 2 ,

Figure 2
a conventional piled platform, Figure 3 ,

Figure 3

concrete gravity structure, and Figure 4 ) have been developed for use in the North Sea, where sea conditions
require an extremely stable structure. These platforms may weigh more than ten times that of a steel structure, and
the concrete base contains compartments for oil storage. In both types of platforms, the production is initially
processed on the structure before being sent to shore. The wells are drilled through conductors located between or
inside the structure supports.

An alternative is to use subsurface completions in which the wellhead and tree are located on the sea floor and the
well is produced through underwater flow lines to a central production facility ( Figure 5 ).
 Figure 5

This approach can allow acceleration of production to a floating production facility while the more permanent
facility is installed. These completions also permit widely spaced wells to develop shallow accumulations. Both wet
trees and dry trees (with production compartments at surface conditions) have been developed ( Figure 6 , wet, and
Figure 7 , dry).
 Figure 6

The development of diving capsules and remote controlled vehicles for underwater work will extend the capabilities
of subsea completions.
 Figure 7

The tension leg platform ( Figure 8 (a)) is a floating platform that drills wells through a sub-sea system, produces
and processes them, and then pipes the oil and gas to shore.
 Figure 8

Tensioned cables hold the platform in place. The guyed tower is a bottom founded structure, which is given
additional support by guy wires, much as a radio antenna tower is supported on land ( Figure 8 (b)). In the Arctic,
special artificial "islands" have been created to protect the drilling and producing equipment from sea ice. In
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, monopod platforms, with a single central support, have been designed to withstand ice packs.

All of these production systems are designed to allow the oil and gas to be processed, to some extent, before being
moved to shore.

Field Examples of Production Systems Worldwide

Several examples of production systems have been collected here to illustrate the variety of producing conditions.

The Middle East

Figure 1 is a flow diagram of a typical GOSP (Gas Oil Separation Plant) found in Saudi Arabia.
 Figure 1

The prolific wells in the Saudi fields, such as Ghawar and Abqaiq, flow from zones from 5000-9000 ft (1524-2743
m). The flow streams come first to one of about 60 GOSPs strategically located throughout the Saudi oil fields. Here
the oil and water are separated from the gas in a large three-phase separator. The oil is sent to a desalination treater
before being metered and pumped to the pipeline. Water is pumped to nearby injection wells. The gas recovered
from the separator and treater is sent through a scrubber for further cleaning. Then it is compressed, dehydrated via
refrigeration, and sent through one final condensate separator, or "trap," before entering the pipeline to one of
several gas plants. These plants are each served by several GOSPs. The gas plants remove hydrogen sulfide and
additional water and solids from the gas, and then recover essentially all the hydrocarbon components except
methane as natural gas liquids ("NGL"). The NGL is sent to fractionation plants where the butane and propane are
separated into streams. The remaining methane is used as fuel or added to the gas distribution network where it is
used for power generation.

Offshore Gulf Coast

This example is a simplified description of one of the largest fields in the Gulf Coast. It encompasses about 44,000
acres (178 106 m2) of offshore leases and has approximately 180 active oil wells and 90 active gas wells located on
22 production platforms. Located about 19 miles (30.58 km) offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, the field's production is
routed from the individual producing platforms to a central collection complex. This complex consists of several
platforms where the oil, gas, and condensate are collected and separated. The gas is cleaned, metered, and sold, and
the liquids are sent to shore for further processing. The water is directed to the shore base with the oil. Current
production rates are over 20,000 bbl (3179.9 m3) of crude and condensate and 130 MMCF (3.723 106 m3) of gas per
day. Total water production is about 70,000 bbl/D (11,129 m3/d), not unexpected because water drive is the
dominant recovery mechanism for most of the 118 separate reservoirs in the field. About 240 million bbl (38.16
million m3) have been produced along with almost one trillion cu ft (28.32 billion m3) of gas.

Figure 2 shows a schematic of the central production complex.

 Figure 2

Incoming streams are routed to either intermediate or high-pressure pipelines. The inter-mediate-pressure oil-water-
gas line goes through a two-stage primary separation, from which the oil-water is pumped to shore and the gas is
compressed and added to the high-pressure system. The high-pressure oil-water-gas line travels to a high-pressure
separator, from which the oil-water is returned to the intermediate-pressure oil system. The gas is mixed with the
high-pressure gas well stream and compressed gas streams, and sent through a scrubber and dehydrator before being
metered and sold. The point of sale for the gas is here, on the separator platform. For safety reasons and space
requirements, the pumps, compressors, separators, and the crew's quarters are located on separate platforms
connected by walkways.

The oil and water leaving the platform complex travel through a 16-inch (40.6 cm) pipeline to the shore base (
Figure 3 ).
 Figure 3

Here the oil and water are mixed with incoming production from other areas and passed through another series of
separators. The gas from these separators is compressed and sold. The oil and water are then sent through a heater-
treater and electrostatic treater system.

From here the oil is sent to one of several storage tanks equipped with a vapor recovery system and then pumped to
a metering station and one of several oil pipelines. The produced water from the treaters goes to a retention tank,
from which any excess oil is recovered and the water is passed through further settling pits and finally, it is either
pumped into the ocean or injected into a disposal well.

It will be noted that before the oil and gas are received at the offshore complex and routed to the shore base, they are
already a commingled mixture of many well streams from various platforms. It is on these producing platforms that
the individual well streams are passed through test separator facilities to measure individual well production rates.