Stones

• Physical classification(stratified, unstratified,

foliated)
• Quarrying, dressing and seasoning
• Artificial stones-characteristics and uses
• Aggregate :classification and gradation
• Testing of aggregate
( water absorption, shape, abrasion, toughness,
impact, and reactivity for coarse and test for
organic material, clay and salts for fine
aggregates )
Physical classification of stones
The rocks may be classified as stratified, unstratified
and foliated.
Stratified:show distinct layers along which the rocks
can be split. The examples are
sandstone, limestone, shale, slate, marble, etc.
Unstratified: do not show any stratification and cannot
be easily split into thin layers.
The examples of such rocks are granite, basalt, trap, etc
Foliated: have a tendency to split up only in a definite
direction. Most of the metamorphic
rocks have a foliated structure, except for quartzite and
marble which have granulose structure
Quarrying of stone
• Production of natural stone is the quarrying process
• The open part of the natural rock from which useful
stone is obtained is known as quarry
• For selecting quarry it should have sufficient quantity
of the stone of desired quality, proper transportation
facilities
Stone quarrying tools
Methods of quarrying
1. Excavating : Stones buried in earth or under loose overburden
are excavated with pick axes, crow bars,chisels, hammers etc.
2. Wedging :suitable for costly, soft and stratified rocks such
as sandstone, limestone, marble and slate.
• About 10–15 cm deep holes, at around 10 cm spacing, are
made vertically in the rock.
• Steel pins and wedges or plugs (conical wedges) and
feathers (flat wedges) as shown in Figure are inserted in
them.
• These plugs are then struck
simultaneously with sledge
hammer. The rock slab
splits along the lines of
least resistance through holes
3. Heating: suitable for quarrying small, thin and regular
blocks of stones from rocks
 A heap of fuel is piled and fired on the surface of rock
in small area then two consecutive layers of the rock
separate because of uneven expansion of the two
layers.
 The loosened rock portions are broken into pieces of
desired size and are removed with the help of pick-axes
and crow-bars
4. Blasting: Explosives such as blasting powder, blasting
cotton, dynamite and cordite are used.
 Dressing Of Stone
• Dressing is done to obtain a definite and regular shape
• It provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding with
good mortar joints, special shapes for arches, copings,
pillars etc.
Stone Dressing Tools
 Seasoning Of Stone
• A freshly cut stone carries some natural moisture known
as quarry sap which make it soft and workable.
• Quarry sap is mineral solution and reacts chemically with
the mineral constituents when the stone is exposed to
atmosphere then stone becomes harder and compact.
• The process takes about 6 to 12 months for complete
seasoning.
• When the
• During seasoning, quarry sap evaporates, it leaves a
crystalline film on the faces of the stone and makes them
weather resistant.
Artificial Stone
• Artificial stone is made with cement and natural
aggregates of the crushed stone and sand.
• More durable than natural stone.
• It can be cast into any desired shape.
• It is free from defects that are likely to be present in
natural stones.
• Their strength can be regulated by suitably proportioning
the ingredients and by using steel reinforcing.
Classification Of Aggregate
On the basis of sizes:
a. Fine Aggregate: Aggregate passing through 4.75
mm sieve are fine aggregate.
b. Coarse Aggregate: Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm
sieve are identified as coarse.
Gradation Of Aggregate
• Gradation of aggregate is the art of
doing gradation(particle size distribution)
of an aggregate as determined by sieve
Analysis.
 Types of Gradation
I. High density gradation (Well Graded):
– has a good mix of all particle sizes which means the
aggregates use most of the volume and less cement or
asphalt is needed
II. One-size gradation (Uniform):
– all same size
III. Gap-graded:
– missing some sizes
IV. Open-Graded:
– missing small aggregates which fill in holes between
larger ones
 Bulking Of Sand
• The increase in the volume of a given mass of fine
aggregate caused by the presence of water is known as
bulking.
• The water forms a film over the sand particles, exerts
force of surface tension and pushes them apart
increasing the volume.
• Extent of bulking depends upon the percentage of
moisture present in the sand and its fineness.
• It increases with moisture content up to a certain point,
reaches maximum, the film of water on the sand surface
breaks, and then it starts decreasing as shown in fig.
below.