1

HOW SPORTS AFFECT STUDENTS’ BEHAVIOR IN BOTH PUBLIC

AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES?

By
Semaan Sleiman

A thesis submitted to the Department of physical education in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Master in sports management

Faculty of arts and sciences

University of Balamand

July 2020
 2

Copyright © 2020, Semaan Sleiman

All Rights Reserved
 3

University of Balamand

Faculty of arts and sciences

This is to certify that I have examined this copy of a Master’s thesis by

Semaan Sleiman

and have found that it is complete and satisfactory in all the respects,
and that any and all revisions required by the final
examining jury have been made.

JURY MEMBERS:
Approved: ____________________

Supervisor

Approved: ____________________

Jury member

Approved: ____________________
Jury member

Date of project defense: August 2020

 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Eddy Zakhem for his support, motivation, his
huge knowledge and being there when I needed him. He has always pushed towards
achieving this project.

I also would like to thank my family for supporting me spiritually throughout my life.
 5

ABSTRACT

Introduction - The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of physical activity (PA) on

the stress level and mental wellbeing scale.

Methods - A number of 122 students from private and public universities participated in this

study. We divide our students in two groups. The first group, named insufficiently active

students, contains students that doing some physical activity but less than 150 minutes of

moderate-intensity. The second group, named active students, contains students that doing at

least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity. Height (m) and weight (kg) were measured, and

body mass index (kg/m2) was calculated. Physical activity level, stress level and mental

wellbeing scale were evaluated using validated questionnaires.

Results- weight, height, BMI and mental wellbeing scale were positively correlated to

physical activity. Stress level was negatively correlated to physical activity and was

significantly higher in insufficiently students compared to active students. However, clinic

characteristics and mental wellbeing scale were not significantly different among the two

groups.

Conclusion- As a conclusion, we can suggest that active students, doing at least 150 min/wk

of moderate physical activity, can decrease the level of stress compared to insufficiently

active students or those who do less than 150 min/wk.

 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES S
vii

LIST OF FIGURE viii

LIST OF ABREVIATIONS ix

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

1.1 Effect of sports on the academic performance 4

1.1.1 Sports have a positive effect on the academic performance 4

1.2 Effect of sports on physical and mental health 61.2 Effect of sports on physical and
mental health 5

1.2.1 Sports and stress 61.2.1 Sports and stress

5

1.2.2 Effect of sports on visual skills 8

1.2.3 Sports help students to maintain a healthy weight 10

1.2.4 Sports improve students’ mood 10

1.3 How sports help students to get into social life? 12

1.3.1 Sports and leadership 12

1.3.2 Sports and teamwork 14

1.3.3 Respect the Rules of Law and others 171.3.3 Respect the rules of law and others
16

1.3.4 Play fFair or dDon’t play 17

 7

1.4 How sports help students to improve self-esteem? 18

1.4.1 Sports and self-confidence: 18

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 21

2.1 Recruitment of the students 21

2.2 Data collection: 21

2.2.1 Classification of groups

21
2.2.2 Assessment method 30
22
2.2.2.1 Global physical activity questionnaire
22
2.2.2.2 Level of stress (International Stress Level Association)
2222
2.2.2.3 Mmental wellbeing scale
22
2.3 Statistical Analysis 23

CHAPTER 3: RESULTS 24

CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION 27

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE 30

REFERENCES 31

ANNEX A: Template of the Quetionnaire

355
 8

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Clinical characteristics of the study population

2624
Table 3.2 Correlations between clinical characteristics, stress level, 26
mental wellbeing scale and physical activity of the study population.
24
Table 3.3 Difference between public and private students
257
Table 3.4 Difference between insufficiently active students and active students
257
 9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Relation between sports and academic performance 5

Figure 1.2: Elimination of the stress 6
Figure 1.3: Fighting the stress 78
Figure 1.4: Visual skills on a sports team 9
Figure 1.5 &1.6: sports lead to an ideal body weight 10
Figure 1.57: Positive mood while practicing sport. 12
Figure 1.8: leadership in sport. 14
Figure 1.69: Teamwork leads to success 15
Figure 1.710: Respect the rules 17
Figure 1.811: Fair play or don’t play
1817
Figure 1.13: sports and self confidence 19
Figure 3.43.41: Difference in level of stress between insufficiently active students and
active students 276
students adjusted stress level
28
 10

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

LDL Low-Density Lipoprotein

BMI Body Mass Index
 11

INTRODUCTION

Physical activities are important to ensure a healthy life and have a positive effect on

people performance. The practice of physical activities can enhance the concentration, reduce

stress, anxiety and depression, boost self-esteem and gain leadership skills which help them

in building a better future (Sadi, 2020). People start to focus on physical activities and how to

improve themselves rather than focusing on negative thoughts. The benefits of physical

activities are not only to control our weight and improve heart health, but also to enhance the

brain (Sadi, 2020). Moreover, there are many sports games that helps us to have a healthier

brain such as volleyball, tennis, football, running, bicycling….. (Sadi, 2020). In addition,

other kinds of sports such as dancing, yoga, and golf help people to concentrate more.

Physical activities can also improve the quality of sleep. People will be capable of having

more time and energy the next day. Good sleep has many benefits such as improving memory

performance and increasing athletic abilities such as speed, accuracy and reaction (Sadi,

2020).

The practice of physical activities does not only affect the body type; it also has many

effects on the humans’ health. According to Ghezelbash (2020), physical activities affect our

heart, mood, bones, joints and cancer risk. The heart is considered one of the most important

muscles. Without the practice of physical activities, our heart will get weaker. This will

directly affect the blood pressure, circulation and cardiac output. Moreover, exercising on a

regular basis will show an improvement in the mood, where it will lead to a decrease in

depression and anxiety (Ghezelbash, 2020). However, if we practice in a safe method, we

will be able to decrease the bone mass loss and increase bone stiffness. Furthermore, cancer
 12

is being considered the second most fatal virus in the world. Many studies have shown that

the absence of physical activities will increase the cancer risks (Ghezelbash, 2020).

The lack of physical activities could harm our body. Booth et al. (2012) states that

people are aware of the dangers that are caused by the lack of physical activities and its

advantages. The lack of physical activities will lead to poor metabolism, poor body

composition, sluggish brain response, irregular blood pressure, depression and anxiety (Booth

et al., 2012). (ref). Metabolism is considered as a chemical reactions that happens in our

body. When people do not practice physical activities, the chemical activities take longer

time and they will start gaining fat. Body composition is considered as the adjustment

between muscle mass and fat mass. The lack of physical activities will negatively affect our

body composition and results in more fat mass than muscle mass. This will lead to many

problems such as obesity. Moreover, the absence of physical activities could also negatively

affect the brain response. When people do not exercise often, they will have insufficient

supply of oxygen where it slower the brain response. Furthermore, absence of physical

activities will increase the LDL level in the blood. This will cause irregular blood pressure,

congestion in arteries and may lead to heart attack (booth et al., 2012).

This year, the coronavirus has swept the entire world. Murray (2020) states that the

coronavirus pandemic has negatively affected the social, physical, educational and health

benefits that are provided by physical activities. During this global crisis, practicing physical

activities play an important role in keeping our mood positive, improving reasoning and

staying healthy. Leadership is important during this crisis. Professional athletes are trying to

send a message to all people. During the coronavirus pandemic, athletic events got canceled

in order to protect the people. However, many online fitness sessions were available to keep

the people physically active at home. Moreover, governments have played a major role
 13

during the outbreak. They used to provide the people with important information regarding

staying safe and doing physical activities at home (Murray, 2020).

As known, sport is very important in life. The purpose of this study is to examine the

effect of physical activity (PA) on the stress level and mental wellbeing scale. We want to see

the students who practice at least 150 min/wk of moderate physical activity decrease the

stress level and the mental wellbeing scale compared to those who practice less than 150

min/wk of moderate physical activity.

 14

CHAPTER 1

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1Effect of sports on the academic performance

1.1.1 Sports have a positive effect on the academic performance

Sports have a positive impact on the academic performance of university students.

Fortes, Rodrigues, and Tchantchane (2010) state that improving the students’ academic

performance is based on academic motivation, career athletic motivation and student athletic

motivation. Moreover, the nationality of the students play a big role in the athletic motivation

but it’s not related to the students’ GPA (grade point average). Some researchers found that

other variables have impacts on the students’ motivation such as socio-economic status,

gender, parents’ education level and ethnicity. The researchers found out that sports usually

affect positively the academic motivation of males. In addition, the socio-economic class of

the parent affects the students’ motivation. The higher the class of the parents, the more they

motivate their kids. The students will get more motivated and it will affect their performance.

A research in the UAE found that there’s a relationship between academic performance and

athletic performance because the students in the UAE focus more on their career

development (Fortes et al., 2010). Moreover, universities and colleges should develop an

awareness program in the field of sports due to the misbelieve that athletic activities have no

impact on the students’ career. This program will help the students that have a natural talent

and they will focus on developing it. According to Fortes, Rodrigues, and Tchantchane

(2010), student counselors can help the students to reach a certain academic level. These

counselors can create a program to motivate the students to have a better academic

performance. For example, university or college athletes are passionate on their performance.

Student counselors could set a certain GPA to continue training with the university team.
 15

This program will balance between sports and the students’ academic performance and

motivate the students to get a higher GPA so they can be allowed to train with the team.

Figure 1.1 Relation between sports and academic performance (“Elearning in India can
give sport academic career the right balance”, 2017)

Figure 1.1: Relation between sports and academic performance (Family name, year)

1.2 Effect of sports on physical and mental health

1.2.1 Sports and stress

Nowadays, health experts have found out that stress and depression harm the physical

and mental health of the people. They also discovered that university students are facing high

levels of stress and depression due to several reasons such as courses selection, time

management, maintaining academic success, career selection and handling difficult tasks.

According to Xu et al. (2018), a survey was done by Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance

System in 2006 found out that youth between the age of 18 and 24 face the highest level of

stress and anxiety which was around 12.5 percent. Another study has showed that physical

activities have positive impacts in the reduction of depression and anxiety levels among the

youths. A study testified that there’s an inverse relation between physical activities and

depression symptoms. Other studies have recommended that university students must

practice physical activities for around 150 minutes or more per week in order to reduce the

depression among them (Xu et al., 2018). Moreover, physical activities benefit the mental

health of the students. A study has showed that the most common physical activities that are

practiced by university students are walking, jogging and running. These types of aerobic
 16

activities help in the reduction of depression symptoms. Furthermore, 21 percent of the

students who practice physical activities for less than 150 minutes on a weekly basis are

facing high levels of stress and depression. Xu et al. (2018) state that universities should be

responsible for reducing the stress level among its’ students. Universities should have clubs

that organize a program that consist of different physical activities among all students. These

activities should help in the reduction of anxiety level among the students.

Figure 1.2 Elimination of the stress (“Relaxation techniques: Breath control helps quell errant

stress response”, 2015)

To establish a healthy lifestyle, we require the practice of physical activities. Some

people claim that physical activities are found in sports only. However, it may also be found

is several activities such as walking, climbing stairs or even shopping. Sports and physical

exercise are different types of physical activities. Physical activities may lead to several

health benefits on three different levels which are physical level (helps in the reduction of

cardiovascular diseases), cognitive level (helps in improving self-esteem and the reduction of
 17

stress) and social level (helps in the development of many social relationships). Chacón-

Cuberos et al (2019) state that universities can lead to stress for the students due to the

sudden change at the social and educational level. Academic stress can be caused by several;

reasons such as exams, academic work and oral presentations. Many studies have proved that

the practice of physical activities can lead to a better health statues at physical level (such as

body composition) and cognitive level (reduction of stress). Moreover, many studies have

proved that absence of physical activities can lead to psychological stress. It also showed that

the participation in physical activities can lead to better academic performance. Physical

activities can enhance the attention capacity, increases cerebral oxygenation and stimulates

the production of endorphins. Poor academic can be related to stress, anxiety and depression

(Chacón-Cuberos et al., 2019). Furthermore, several researches found out that physical

activities decrease stress and depression. Physical activities can decrease frustration and

muscle tensions. It also increases the level of endorphins and cortisol and norepinephrine

levels which are linked to stress and anxiety.

We face stress in our life on a daily basis and the stress level is increasing every year.

Removing the stress from our daily life is impossible. However, we are capable of managing

the stress level and reduce it through physical exercises. Health care professionals

recommend the people to exercises so they will be able to control the stress level. Many

activities, such as walking, jogging and yoga, can be beneficial for the health. Stress can

drain our energy and concentration. Physical activities can reduce the fatigue and improve

awareness and concentration. Experts found out that even 5 minutes of an aerobics can lead

to anti-anxiety (Physical Activity Reduces Stress, n.d.).

 18

Figure 1.3 Fighting the stress (Kunin, n.d.)

1.2.2 Effect of sports on visual skills

Vision is one of the main senses for every human and it is the main source for

acquiring information from the world around us. We use the sense of vision in our daily life

tasks, whether it is small or big, such as reading and writing. Du Toit et al. (2011) state that a

study has showed that there are two main vision groups which are the experimental group

(Simultaneous Ball Throw, Crossover throw, Crucifix Ball drop, Vertical ball hit and find the

letters) and the control group (Visual Acuity, Eye Dominance, Focusing, Tracking, Pencil-

push-ups, Sequencing, Egg – carton catch, ace to seven and reflex test). The experimental

group showed an enhancement in the sequencing and eye-hand coordination. However, the

control group didn’t show any improvement in the visual acuity, and tracking. Moreover, a

study has showed that sports vision training does not improve visual skills only, it also lead to

the improvement of motor and cognitive learning. Sports experts are focusing on the effect of

sports vision on the students. They discovered that sports vision can help students to use the

three stages of visual processing effectively and efficiently. These stages are: perception,

integration and response. Researchers were trying to prove that visual exercises improve the

analysis implementation to improve the athletes’ performance. Visual training is being taken

into consideration in different sports (Du Toit et al., 2011). These studies were performed on
 19

professional athletes who always aim to enhance their skills through training. This

improvement can lead to significant change in the neuronal architecture in which it leads to a

better and (Du Toit et al., 2011).

Developing and training the visual skills is important for students since it leads to the

improvement of the reasoning and motor performance. Moreover, training the visual skills for

professional athletes is important. It has a positive effect on their performance. Du Toit et al.

(2016) state that a study has shown that visual skills is made of two main components which

are the hardware skills (which is made of the physical characteristics of the eye) and the

software skills (which depend on reasoning). We can witness a difference in visual skills

between professional and non-professional athletes which gives the professional athletes the

advantage especially when professional athletes rely on the software skills. Furthermore, the

absence of hardware skills will also affect the reasoning of the athletes. Professional athletes

undergo for several hours of training per day. Neurological brain activity tests showed that

professional athletes can visualize information more effectively and efficiently due to the

brains’ diversity. Moreover, brain activation show that professional athletes have better

reasoning process in which it affects the frontal lobe and the par hippocampus positively (Du

Toit et al., 2016).

 20

Figure 1.4 Visual skills on a sports team (Haddrill, n.d.)

1.2.3 Sports help students to maintain a healthy weight

Playing sports regularly is a healthy way to maintain weight. Individual sports, such

as running, cycling, and weightlifting, are all particularly effective ways to burn calories

and/or build muscle. Staying within a recommended weight range reduces the likelihood of

developing diabetes, high cholesterol, and hypertension (Watson, 2002). Ah Ha, Lee, Kim et

al. (2016) reported that obese children hold negative attitudes toward physical education and

participate less in physical activity compared to normal weight children. Obese children do

exercise frequently, although they do not exercise vigorously or enjoy it and prefer being

sedentary. Clearly, obesity is the result of modern lifestyles, such as irregular physical

activity and being sedentary. In conclusion to prevent children obesity, it is necessary

important to perform some physical activities. Moreover, the advantages of practicing regular

physical activity with regards to physical and mental health are equal. Regular, moderate

physical activity is associated with a considerable decrease in all-cause mortality, a lesser risk

of ischemic heart disease, obesity, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension,

cerebral vascular disease, type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, and a reduced reactivity

to stress. Adding to this, physical activities improve muscle function, cardiovascular function

and physical performance (Franz & Feresu, 2013).

 21

Figure 1.5: &1.6: sports lead to an ideal body weight (What Is the Key to
Maintaining a Healthy Weight?, n.d)
Figure 1.6: sports lead to an ideal body weight (What Is My Ideal Weight? Find
your ideal weight using our ideal weight chart, n.d)

1.2.4 Sports improve students’ mood

Watson (2002) states that whether someone is playing sports, working out at a gym,

or taking a brisk walk, physical activity triggers brain chemicals that make him feel happier

and more relaxed. Team sports afford a chance to calm down and involve in a satisfying

challenge that improves fitness. They also offer social benefits by allowing to link with

teammates and friends in an amusing setting.

Annesi et al. (2017) state that there’s a direct relation between the physical activities

and change in mood. A study has showed that the practice in physical activities for at least 2

days/week will play a major role in reducing negative mood. Moreover, an increase in

physical skills during adulthood will reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and

hypertension. Furthermore, it will reduce the risks of depression, stress, anxiety and negative

moods. Physical activities will help university students to get rid of the negative mood and

anxiety in which it will leads to improvement in the academic performance. According to

Annesi et al. (2017), when students enter colleges, their lifestyle changes completely. Their

registration in instructional physical activity courses will increase the physical activity

volume and improve in the mood. Moreover, a study has showed that an increase in the

physical activities is capable of mastering the mood swings. In order to master the feeling we

are required to be more efficient and effective. Many theories and studies have shown that the

practice of physical activities for only 2 days a week can make our mood change constant.

This study took a sample of overweighed students who does not practice physical activities

and showed that they had a negative mood. Students who practice physical activities will

reduce their routine in which it will lead to a better mood (Annesi et al., 2017).
 22

Recent studies have showed that there’s a direct relation between the youngsters’ physical

activities and mental health. Lagerberg (2005) states that many studies have shown that

physical activities affect depression, anxiety, self-esteem and reasoning. Moreover, many

studies have revealed that physical activities have helped students in developing their

reasoning skill which lead to an improvement academically. Physical activities require bodily

movement in which it enhances the production of skeletal muscles that require expenditure. It

also has a positive effect on the blood flow; increase the level of oxygen, increased levels of

norepinephrine and endorphins in which it leads to the reduction of stress, anxiety and

positive moods. A university start giving the students 20 minutes of cardio exercise before

starting the session and it had positive results on the students. Some students weren’t able to

sit for more than 15 minutes, after the cardio exercise, they sat quietly and made their

assignment for the first time. Other students felt more energized and were able to control their

anger and concentrate better. Furthermore, it had an increase from 25 to 30 percent in their

reading, writing and math abilities. Moreover, students are picking their physical activities in

which it makes them feel more competent, self-determining and connect positively with other

students (Lagerberg, 2005).

 23

Figure 1.75 Positive moods while practicing sport (Drobot, n.d.)

Figure1.7: positive mood while practicing sport.

1.3 How sports help students to get into social life?

1.3.1 Sports and leadership

Leadership is a crucial element that most athletes thrive to gain. Burtka (2018) states

that leadership skills will help the athletes to deal with difficulty and problems they are

facing. In addition to the strategic thinking when needed. Leadership skills are required by

the athletes at their workplace. Even though wisdom is subjective, many studies have

revealed the methods that athletes uses in order to gain leadership skills. Moreover,

researches have revealed that student-athletes have scored more than non-athletes in

transformational leadership. There are two signs of transformational leadership which are

self-management (which include considering others thoughts) and management of feelings

(which it includes motivating others in their work). Practicing physical activities can help in

building confidence and a better character to adapt to any change in their daily life. They will

start to encourage others in order to reach the teams’ goals and objectives rather than

individual prizes. Non-athletes might face difficulties in the practice of such concepts in real-

life situations. Other studies have revealed that entrepreneurs around the world, who were

part of the sports world, state that sports have helped them in building confidence, passion
 24

and resilience. They are using these traits in order to develop their companies and achieving

their goals in life. When gaining leadership skills, student-athletes will become more

analytical and critical. They will be able to cope with any change and know when to change

their plans at the workplace especially when their first plan isn’t working. Furthermore,

athletes will have the experience that is required in tough situations. They are able to manage

problems and challenges. The most important thing is that athletes are able to make their

coworkers listen carefully in order to reach the teams’ objectives (Burtka, 2018).
 25

Athletic clubs are now offering different experiences that might enhance the

leadership skills. Many clubs state that leadership could be gained over time. Extejt & Smith

(2009) state that most leadership trainers refer to the traditional way to develop their

leadership skills. Many studies have revealed that sports play a major role in developing

skills that are essential in order to succeed academically, in the workplace and throughout

their life. The participation in sports throughout college is important since it help in

developing interpersonal skills, peer relationships and leadership abilities. These skills are

important for university students since it helps the students to work under pressure, handling

failure, communicating and working as a team. More studies revealed that the universities

team captains require high levels of verbal interaction, interpersonal characteristics and task

behaviors. The participation in physical activities and sports will contribute in building

leadership skills that are essential in critical situations. Many studies revealed that the

students, who participate in sports, have higher level of leadership skills than those who does

not participate. Moreover, the participation in sports will also provide the students a better

social life and self-confidence. Furthermore, many companies are now hiring graduates that

were part of the college athletic teams due to their leadership skills, teamwork abilities and

motivation skills (Extejt & Smith, 2009).

Figure 1.8: leadership in sport. ((https://www.google.com/search?

q=leadership+in+sport&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiyz5aYiLfqAhUJ7xoKHVgoCHE
 26

Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=leadership+in+spor&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgIIADICCAA
yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMg
YIABAIEB4yBggAEAgQHjIGCAAQCBAeOgQIIxAnOgQIABBDOgUIABCxA1C
s8QZYn58HYIqtB2gBcAB4AIABnAOIAZEVkgEKMC4xNy4xLjAuMZgBAKABA
aoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1n&sclient=img&ei=NEcCX7LlMYnea9jQoIgH#imgrc=klhW
VRYdwsYR1M

1.3.2 Sports and teamwork

Teamwork is a main component for university students in every major. However,

university students lack the knowledge concerning teamwork and the ability to work as a

team. The main goal behind teamwork is to reach the goals and objectives of the team. We

can witness that university student, when working as a group, focus on the individual work

rather than focusing on the groups’ goals and objectives. Lumpkin (2013) states that

university students either try to take control over the entire group or abandon the whole work

or rely on others. Most of the sports require a lot of teamwork in order to reach the teams’

goals. For example, basketball teams has a star players which all players try to assist him in

order to reach the teams’ object and it has a man-to-man zone in which every athlete has to

cover a certain area which requires a lot of team coordination. Football is one of the sports

that require a lot of team coordination. Team members are required to handle and pass the

ball from one member to another. And when they lose the ball the team require to work

together in order to recover it. In volleyball, each team member must know how to react

when the ball falls in their area. In wrestling, the players present individuals skills. However,

they might be put in a tag team match where the players get “stuck” they tag the other player

to get in the match. Even car racing, teamwork is required. Team members are required to

change the tires and put fuel in the car as fast as possible (Lumpkin, 2013).
 27

Figure 1.96 Teamwork leads to success (Raes, 2016)

Teamwork has a great impact on the player not only on the field but also in their lives.

Bowen (2017) states that teamwork was beneficial for athletes. Athletes started to consider

their team and the fans as one family. Athletes start to rely on the skills of other players in

which it made them reach a higher level. They believe that strategy is much more important

than individual performance. Moreover, even small chores at home, like taking out the

garbage, require team coordination and cooperation. Each team has their own goals and

objectives and every member of the team must have some responsibilities. Even in individual

sports, all athletes thrive to reach a higher level. They push each other forward and start to

train more frequently. Athletes should manage to consider trainers as part of the team so they

can reach a better level. Studies have shown that a common responsibility is one of the main

elements for the teams’ success. It also benefits the players on and off the pitch. There are

three types of responsibilities that players must be taught which are: “Own their facilities,

own their equipment and own the role of representing your school in competition”. When the

athletes take into consideration these three responsibilities, they will be more aware of the

benefits of teamwork in which it helps them reach higher levels in sports. Moreover, athletes

will start to help their communities as they start to feel as part of their live such as “Not
 28

littering and caring for green spaces, supporting local businesses and charities and being

involved in community efforts and fundraisers”. Such practices not only affect the athletes

but also start to affect the children as they start to act the same way as their idols do and

enhance their communities and make it a better place to live in (Bowen 2017).

1.3.3 Respect the rules of law and others

Rosario (2017) states that sports teach us to respect people and societies, like our

parents, laws, and our boss. While respecting authority is a good characteristic, respecting

others is even more important. Respecting opponents is a central part of every game and great

sportsmanship. Some biggest rivals in the history of the sport have nothing but praise for their

opponents. Good results take time, dedication, abstinence from life’s pleasures and hard

work. That deserves marvelous respect from almost everyone. Respect others the way you

want to be respected; this can be applied in all aspects of life.

Hanson & savage (2012) state that all athletes should respect their teammates,

opponents, coaches, and rules. All coaches too, should respect their players, opponents,

official, and rules, and the same things for the parents who should respect the rules of the

field and the opponent fans. Respecting each other’s in sports has a positive effect on our

personal moral and our ethical attitude outside sports competitions. They add that respecting

the rules and encouraging yourself to respect your opponents, lead you to your best.

Respecting the rules in sports is very important because it teaches us how to respect the rules

of life.
 29

Figure 1.710 Respect the rules (Cass, 2016)

1.3.4 Play fair or don’t play

Rosario (2017) declares that all sports have an important rule: Fair Play. Even though

there are always some cheaters in sports but we should always remember that shameful

actions will not result a happy ending. Unfair acts are penalized and rejected by society and

other professionals. More importantly, they’re not easily forgotten. Sport encourages fair and

rightful comportment. Honesty and fairness are respected and recognized qualities in life.

Figure 1.811 Fair play or don’t play (Nooruddean, 2018)

 30

Northshield (2019) states that fair play is a concept that unites numerous benefits. It is

a complex word made up of ‘fair, in accordance with the rules and standards, and ‘play’,

engaging in activity, participating, or in other words ‘acting in agreement with the spirit of

the game’. Engaging in a sport is to respect the game, applying the rules, to respect other

players, do not cheating, and to respect the decision made by the officials. In life, fair play is

just as much an attitude as it is a behavior towards oneself and others. It is synonymous with

integrity, self-control and respect for colleagues and opponents.

1.4 How sports help students to improve self-esteem?

1.4.1 Sports and self-confidence

Physical activities can help the young people to “be themselves”. When practicing

such activities, the young people will start to identify themselves in a new way. Bailey (2014)

states that Samuels has found her true capabilities when practicing physical activities. She

started to push herself in order to achieve her goals, even though she was putting herself at

risk. Some theories have showed that the practice of physical activities can be directly related

to boosting our self-esteem. Self-esteem could be boosted by success, praise and love from

another. However, it can be also lowered by failure and criticism. Sometimes failure could

lead to bad habits such as drug consumption and unprotected sex. Success could help young
 31

people in dealing with the changes. Moreover, studies have revealed that practicing physical

activities can lead to the feeling of independence which is directly linked to boosting self-

confidence. Students, who practice physical activities, had higher self-confidence, better

social adjustment, less stress and have a better life. Furthermore, studies revealed that females

could be affected more than males.. In addition, feminist males and females could boost their

self-confidence by practicing physical activities. Psychologists revealed that self-esteem is

boosted between the ages of 6 and 11 where children start practicing sports (Bailey, 2014).

Figure 1.13 sport and self confidence (https://www.google.com/search?

q=sports+and+self+confidence&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjOwY3rk7fqAhURAhoKHU
7LAvMQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=sports+and+self+confidence&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECCMQJzoE
CAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6AggAOgQIABAYUN_WBViFgAZgxYcGaABwAHgAgAGBA
YgBwhWSAQQ2LjIwmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWc&sclient=img&ei=a1MCX
47gH5GEaM6Wi5gP#imgrc=HYoocsowHgbgzM)
Professional athletes’ performance could be affected by the level of confidence they

have. If they feel confident about themselves, their performance would be superior. However,

the lack of confidence could negatively affect the athletes’ performance. Hamilton (n.d.)

states that we can witness a high level of self-confidence. Their confidence is most likely to

be reflected on and off the field by their performance, what they say and what they wear.

Self-esteem is defined by the level of sureness which is characterized by the level of belief in

their abilities and ego to overcome the difficulties that they face. Athletes believe that self-

confidence is considered as their guardian angel that could be used to defeat their rivals.

There are 6 sources for self-confidence which are: Performance accomplishments, being
 32

involved with the success, verbal persuasion, imagery experiences, physiological states and

emotional states. Performance accomplishments depend on the performance of the athletes.

Whenever the athletes perform better, they will be motivated. Motivation is an essential

element for the success of the athletes. It helps in mastering each step and develops them.

However, consecutive failure will lessen the motivation. Being involved in success will boost

the athletes’ confidence, especially when they start to motivate each other and they start to

believe in the abilities of their team-mates. Verbal persuasion is important because due to the

motivation given by the coaches to the athletes. Coaches start challenging and praising the

athletes’ performance will boost their self-esteem. Imagery experiences are when the athletes

start to imagine how success experience would look like. This step will motivate them and

push them to work harder in order to reach their goals. Physiological state could negatively

affect the self-confidence of the athletes due to muscular tension palpitations and butterflies

in the stomach. Athletes should take stress management courses in order to control such

effects. Emotional state is the last source of self-confidence. Athletes should know how to

control their feeling of self-doubt and anxiety in order to succeed. Moreover, a study has

revealed that there are 5 exercises that will help athletes in gaining self-confidence and

reducing the stress level. Exercise 1 is to know the reasons that lead to higher and lower self-

confidence. Exercise 2 depends on visualizing the peak levels of success and it will help the

athletes to have better abilities and higher confidence. Exercise 3 is used when the athletes

reach a low level of self-confidence. It is presented by self-talk in order to get motivated. The

most important part of this exercise is that the self-talk must be believable. Exercise 4 is to

study and analyze the weaknesses of our rivals. This exercise will help the athletes and boost

their confidence and start to work on the weaknesses of their rivals. Exercise 5 is the final

exercise. It is based on the power of sound. Some songs are capable of motivating the athletes

due to their lyrics or even their tunes (Hamilton, n.d.).

 33

CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

2.1 Recruitment of the students

A number of 122 students from private and public universities participated in this

study. 80 students were from private universities and 42 students were from public

universities. The students of the public university were from the Lebanese university, and the

students of the private universities were mixed among different private universities here in

Lebanon. We chose different types of students from different faculties, and, some of them

practice sports and some no. None of the students participated suffer from injuries or any

health problem.

2.2 Data collection

A questionnaire was send to the students via email, or the application “WhatsApp” to

fill it. The questionnaire discusses the physical activity, stress level and mental wellbeing

scale. Each part of the questionnaire is calculated differently. The stress level is measured

according to the “International Stress Level Association” scale, and the mental wellbeing

scale is measured according to the “Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale”.

2.2.1 Classification of groups

In our study we divide our students in two groups. The first group, named

insufficiently active students, contains students that doing some physical activity but less than
 34

150 minutes of moderate intensity. The second group, named active students, contains

students that doing at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity (WHO, 2010).

2.2.2 Assessment method

2.2.2.1 Global physical activity questionnaire

The global physical activity questionnaire was invented by the “World Health

Organization” to collect information about the physical activities in countries. The

information collected is divided into three domains which are: activity at work, travel to and

from places, and recreational activities.

2.2.2.2 Level of stress (International Stress Level Association)

According to Chinawa et al (2015) the international Stress Management association

(ISMA) demonstrates the importance of stress test in which it reveals some future stress

related illnesses. The ISMA developed a stress questionnaire, which has dichotomous

answers (all of the questions were yes/no questions), in order to complete their study. 1 point

goes for a ‘yes’ and 0 point goes for ‘no’.

The scores are computed and rated as shown below:

● 4 points or less: You are least likely to suffer from stress-related illness.

● 5 - 13 points: you might suffer from stress related ill health either mental, physical or

both. You would profit from stress management / counseling or advice to help in the

recognized areas.

● 14 points or more: You are the most disposed to to stress showing a great many traits

or characteristics that are creating un-healthy behaviors.

 35

This means that you might suffer from stress & stress-related illness e.g. diabetes,

irritable bowel, migraine, back and neck pain, high blood pressure, heart

disease/strokes, mental ill health (depression, anxiety & stress...)

2.2.2.3 Mental wellbeing scale

According to Warwick medical school, the main goal of Warwick-Edlnburgh Mental

Wellbeing Scale was to enhance the mental health and wellbeing which was getting

supported by the Scottish Government’s National Program. It is developed by the University

of Warwick and owned by 3 owners which are the NHS Health Scotland, University of

Warwick and the University of Edinburgh. According to Warwick medical school, data

analysis was based on a comparison between the mean and standard deviations and the results

of the t-tests that was conducted by the students. However, another method could be applied

when analyzing their data. Other investigators prefer to divide the results into different

categories such as high, average and low using several cut points. There’s a combination of

both methods where the investigators use some cut points and they add and subtract one

standard deviation. When using the students’ t-test, the results should be given based on age

and gender differences. When working on categorical scales, it’s common to find a point in

between the low and average categories especially when measuring mental sicknesses such as

depression. If someone scores below 40 on this test, it means that they might have a low

depression level. Moreover, they did not set a standard for high mental illnesses and the cut

points were taken randomly. A score of 60 and above could be related to the top 15% of the

scores. The results were not developed and monitored on an individual level. The higher the

score of the mental wellbeing scale, people will get relieved and this is a sign that they do not

suffer from depression, anxiety or stress.

 36

2.3 Statistical analysis

The means (± SD) for all clinical data have been calculated. Correlations between

clinical characteristics and physical activity h/w were given as Pearson correlation

coefficients. T test is used to compare the means of two groups (insufficiently active students

and active students). Stress measurement was compared between the 2 groups (insufficiently

active students and active students) after adjustment for weight using a 1-way analysis of

covariance. Data were analyzed with Number Cruncher Statistical System (NCSS, 2001);

NCSS, Kaysville, UT). A level of significance of p < 0.05 was used.

 37

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS

Table 3.1 Clinical characteristics of the study population

Age 21.51 ± 1.98

Weight/kg 70 ± 18

Height/m 1.72 ± 0.13

BMI 23.34 ± 4.9

Physical activity h/w 8.48 ± 7.6

Stress measurement 12.86 ± 4.4

Mental wellbeing scale 48.19 ± 8.5

Age, weight, height, BMI, physical activity, stress level and mental wellbeing scale of the

whole population was mentioned in the Table 3.1

Table 3.2 Correlations between clinical characteristics, stress level, mental wellbeing scale and physical
activity of the study population.

Physical activity

Age 0.22*

Weight/kg 0.20*

Height/m 0.36***

BMI 0.02

Stress level -0.25**

Mental wellbeing scale 0.19*

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

 38

Age, weight, height, BMI and mental wellbeing were positively correlated to physical

activity. However stress level was negatively correlated to physical activity. Table3.2

Table 3.3 Difference between public and private students

Public students Private students P value

(n=42) (n=80)

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

Age 21.7 ±1.7 21.4 ± 2.09 P=0.42

Weight/kg 64 ± 14** 73 ± 19 P<0.007

Height/m 1.67 ± 0.08*** 1.74 ± 0.1 P<0.001

BMI 22.1 ± 4.9 23.9 ± 4.9 P=0.061

Physical activity h/w 8.07 ± 6.2 8.6 ± 8.3 P=0.67

Stress level 13.07 ± 4 12.7 ± 4.7 P=0.70

Mental wellbeing 48.42 ± 7.90 48.07 ± 8.8 P=0.82

scale

Insufficiently active Active students p Value

students (n=22) (n=102)

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

Age 20.9 ± 1.9 21.6 ±1.9 P=0.12

Weight/kg 65 ± 15 71 ± 18 P=0.19

Height/m 1.68 ± 0.08 1.72 ± 0.105 P=0.081

BMI 22.8 ± 3.6 23.4 ± 5.2 P=0.62

Stress level 14.76 ± 3.36* 12.50 ± 4.56 P=0.034

Mental wellbeing 45.1 ± 9.4 49 ± 8.06 P=0.055

 39

Clinic characteristics (age, weight, height and BMI) and mental wellbeing scale were not

significantly different among the two groups. However, the stress level is significantly

higher in insufficiently active students compared to active students.

Stress level
18 *
16

14

12

10

0
Insufficiently active students Active students

Figure 3.43.4 Difference in level of stress between insufficiently active students and active

students
 40

After adjusting for weight, stress level remained significantly higher in active students

compared to insufficiently active students.

 41

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION

This study conducted on a group of young students shows that insufficiently active

students have significantly higher level of stress compared to active students. To our

knowledge, this is one of the few studies that show significant difference regarding level of

stress between insufficiently active students and active students.

In our study, we found a relation between physical activity and weight. The

relationship between physical activities and our weight is directly related. Tiruneh (2009)

states that this relationship is due to the energy intake of a person. A normal person would

have equal level of energy intake and energy expenditure. One of the best methods to

maintain the energy balance is by the practice of physical activities Tiruneh (2009).

For the age, there is also a relation between physical activity and age. Aging is

considered as an inevitable process which we will pass through it. DiPietro (2001) confirms

that the process of aging is something unavoidable.

BMI was positively correlated to physical activity. Tiruneh (2009) showed in his

study that the effect of physical activities on BMI is different for the people who practice for

a longer time than those who practice for a shorter period of time.

However, a negative correlation was found in our results between physical activity

and the level of stress. These results are in agreement with some experts who claimed that the

practice of physical activities is beneficial and help in reducing stress and anxiety (Chang et

al., 2017). The training of professional athletes, almost every day, will lead to a psycho-

physiological symptom called burnout (Chang et al., 2017).

 42

Moreover, we found a relation between physical activity and mental wellbeing scale.

Our results are in agreement with Harris (2018) who showed that the practice of physical

activities directly linked with mental health wellbeing. According to Harris 2018, people who

face mental health issues show that they lack the practice of physical activities. This study

has examined the change in the mental health wellbeing for people that do not participate in

physical activities (Harris, 2018). The World Health Organization is recommending people,

who are facing mental health problems, to practice physical activities in order to relief the

stress and anxiety that they are facing in their life (Harris, 2018)WHO year)...

No difference was found between active and insufficiently active students at the level

of mental wellbeing scale. Our results disagree with the results of Harris (2018), who states

that the study that has been conducted on people, who are active and inactive, revealed that

there was a huge difference between these two groups.

Another result that matter the most is the difference in level of stress between active

and insufficiently active students. The more you are active; less is your stress level. Physical

activities are a crucial element for a human to acquire a healthy lifestyle. Murphy et al.

(2018) states that practicing physical activities enhance the health of the people who are not

sedentary. Physical activities play a major role in the improvement of the mental health of a

person because it is capable of reducing the stress, anxiety and depression. Additionally, the

practice of physical activities has helped many students in the development of mental skills in

which it helps them improve their academic performance (Murphy et al., 2018).

Our study has several limitations. The cross-sectional nature of this study is a

limitation since it cannot evaluate the confounding variables. The second limitation is the

small size of the studied population in the insufficiently active students group. The third
 43

limitation is that the filling out questionnaires was during the epidemic of coronavirus. The

fourth limitation was the type of students’ majors who filled out this survey.
 44

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE

In our study, we can conclude that active students, doing at least 150 min/wk of

moderate physical activity can decrease the level of stress compared to insufficiently active

students or those who do less than 150 min/wk. To our knowledge, this is one of the few

studies that find significant differences regarding stress level between 2 groups of young

students. As a conclusion, students who are physically active will have the potential to

decrease the stress level faced in their daily life.

 45

REFERENCES

Annesi, J. J., Porter, K. J., Hill, G. M., & Goldfine, B. D. (2017). Effects of instructional

physical activity courses on overall physical activity and mood in university

students. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 88(3), 358-364.

Bailey, R. (2014, August 07). Do Sports and Other Physical Activities Build Self-Esteem?

Retrieved May 05, 2020, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/smart-

moves/201408/do-sports-and-other-physical-activities-build-self-esteem

Booth FW, Roberts CK, Laye MJ. Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic

diseases. Compr Physiol 2012: 2: 1143– 1211.

Bowen, T. (2017, April 04). Why It's Important to Develop Teamwork Skills in Sports ⋆

StateChamps.com. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from https://statechamps.com/teamwork-

skills-sports/

Burtka, A. T. (2018, September 10). Studies show athletes bring leadership skills to the work

place. Retrieved July 06, 2020, from https://globalsportmatters.com/culture

/2018/07/10/studies-show-athletes-bring-leadership-skills-work-place/

Chacón-Cuberos, R., Zurita-Ortega, F., Olmedo-Moreno, E. M., & Castro-Sánchez, M.

(2019). Relationship between academic stress, physical activity and diet in university

students of education. Behavioral Sciences, 9(6), 59.

Chang, K. H., Lu, F. J., Chyi, T., Hsu, Y. W., Chan, S. W., & Wang, E. T. (2017). Examining

the stress-burnout relationship: The mediating role of negative thoughts. PeerJ, 5,

e4181.
 46

Chaput, J. P., Klingenberg, L., Rosenkilde, M., Gilbert, J. A., Tremblay, A., & Sjödin, A.

(2011). Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation. Journal of

Obesity, 2011, 1-12. doi:10.1155/2011/360257

Chinawa, J., Chinawa, A., Aniwada, E., & Amadi, O. (2015). Prevalence and factors associated

with Susceptibility to stress-related Illnesses among medical students in a Nigerian

medical school. Int J Med Health Dev, 20(2), 19-25.

DiPietro, L. (2001). Physical activity in aging: changes in patterns and their relationship to

health and function. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and

Medical Sciences, 56(suppl_2), 13-22.

Du Toit, P. J., Kruger, P. E., Mahomed, A. F., Kleynhans, M., Jay-Du Preez, T., Govender,

C., & Mercier, J. (2011). The effect of sports vision exercises on the visual skills of

university students: Sport science. African Journal for Physical Health Education,

Recreation and Dance, 17(3), 429-440.

Du Toit, P. J., Van Rensburg, A. J., Van Rensburg, D. J., Grant, C. C., Mahomed, A. F.,

Nortje, E., ... & Fletcher, L. (2016). Influence of two sports vision training techniques

on visual skills performance of university students. African Journal for Physical

Activity and Health Sciences (AJPHES), 22(2.1), 428-444.

Extejt, M. M., & Smith, J. E. (2009). Leadership development through sports team

participation. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(2), 224-237.

Fortes, P. C., Rodrigues, G., & Tchantchane, A. (2010). Investigation of academic and athletic

motivation on academic performance among university students. University of

Wollongong. Research Online. Retrieved from https://ro.uow.edu.au/dubaipapers/233

Franz, D., & Feresu, S. (2013). The relationship between physical activity, body mass index,

and academic performance and college-age students. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 3.

4-11. DOI:10.4236/ojepi.2013.31002.
 47

Ha, S. A., Lee, S. Y., Kim, K. A., Seo, J. S., Sohn, C. M., Park, H. R., & Kim, K. W. (2016).

Eating habits, physical activity, nutrition knowledge, and self-efficacy by obesity status

in upper-grade elementary school students. Nutrition Research and Practice, 10(6),

597-605.

Hamilton, A. (2017, February 17). Sports psychology: Self-confidence in sport – make your

ego work for you! Retrieved July 08, 2020, from

https://www.peakendurancesport.com /endurance-psychology/coping-with-

emotions/sports-psychology-self-confidence-sport-make-ego-work/

Hanson, K. O., Savage, M. (2012). What role does ethics play in sports? Retrieved May 2nd,

2020 from Santa Clara University website: http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications

/submitted/sports-ethics.html

Harris, M. A. (2018). The relationship between physical inactivity and mental wellbeing:

Findings from a gamification-based community-wide physical activity

intervention. Health Psychology Open, 5(1), 2055102917753853. doi:

10.1177/2055102917753853

Lagerberg, D. (2005). Physical activity and mental health in schoolchildren: A complicated

relationship. Acta Paediatrica, 94(12), 1699-1701.

Lumpkin, C. (2013, September 26). Using sports to teach teamwork. Retrieved May 06,

2020, from https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/effective-teaching-strategies/using-

sports-to-teach-teamwork/

Murphy, M. H., Carlin, A., Woods, C., Nevill, A., MacDonncha, C., Ferguson, K., & Murphy,

N. (2018). Active students are healthier and happier than their inactive peers: The

results of a large representative cross-sectional study of university students in

Ireland. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 15(10), 737-746. Retrieved from

https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jpah/15/10/article-p737.xml
 48

Murray, D. (2020). Sport is an important team player in the fight against coronavirus.

Retrieved June 29, 2019, from https://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/sport-

important-team-player-fight-against-coronavirus

Northshield, K. (2019, July 31). Fair play: Sport's universal code of ethics fair play: Sport

Code of Ethics. Retrieved July 08, 2020, from https://togethermag.eu/fair-play-sports-

universal-code-of-ethics/

Physical Activity Reduces Stress. (n.d.). Retrieved May 08, 2020, from

https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/related-illnesses/other-related-

conditions/stress/physical-activity-reduces-st

Rosario, S. (2017, May 15). Social and emotional benefits of playing sports. Retrieved May

08, 2020, from https://www.workinsports.com/blog/social-and-emotional-benefits-of-

playing-sports/

Sadi, A. (2020, May 30). Exercises and sports are important for healthy life. Retrieved July

08, 2020, from https://blurbgeek.com/sports-are-important-for-health/

Stewart-Brown, S., & Janmohamed, K. (2008). Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being

scale. User guide: Version 1. Retrieved from:

http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/resources/user-guide.pdf

Tiruneh, G. (2009). The Relationship between Physical Activity and Body Mass Index: Issues

in Model Specification. Nature Precedings. doi:10.1038/npre.2009.2758.2.

Warwick Medical School. (n.d.). Retrieved July 08, 2020, from

https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/med/research/platform/wemwbs/using/howto/

Watson, D. (2002). “Positive affectivity: the disposition to experience pleasurable emotional

states,” in Handbook of Positive Psychology, eds C. R. Snyder and S. J. Lopez (New

York, NY: Oxford university press), 106–119

 49

World Health Organization. (2012). Global physical activity questionnaire (GPAQ) analysis

guide.

Xu, F., Liu, W., Rose Chepyator-Thomson, J., & Schmidlein, R. (2018). Relations of

physical activity and stress vulnerability in university students. College Student

Journal, 52(1), 65-73.

ANNEX A: Template of the Questionnaire

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67