Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215

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Sustainable Materials and Technologies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/susmat

Edible coatings and antimicrobial nanoemulsions for enhancing shelf life

and reducing foodborne pathogens of fruits and vegetables: A review
Nasser A. Al-Tayyar a, Ahmed M. Youssef b,⁎, Rashad R. Al-Hindi a
a
Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
b
Packaging Materials Dept., National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St. (Former El-Tahrir St.) Dokki, Giza, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the current review, food preservation methods were studied, as the food industry is facing the challenge of
Received 27 June 2020 storing and increasing the shelf life of cut fresh fruits and vegetables. Foodborne pathogens have been established
Received in revised form 16 August 2020 as one of the major reasons for the deteriorating human health; therefore, efforts should be made to decrease the
Accepted 25 August 2020
foodborne pathogens in fresh fruits and vegetables. The methods in which different coatings are applied to cut
fruits and vegetables to prevent the development of foodborne pathogen diseases were reviewed. These methods
Keywords:
mainly included coatings based on carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. For the biocontrol, such as gums as natu-
Edible coatings rally forming polysaccharides or carbohydrate polymers, were acquired from renewable sources. Moreover, the
Fruits and vegetables protein coating was found to be a value-added for application that faced less resistance from food authoritative
Essential oils personnel for use in food products. Essential oils (EOs) and its nanoemulsion possess antioxidant and antimicro-
Nanoemulsions bial characteristics which considered being unique additives in the food industry. Furthermore, physical stability
Shelf life was provided through nanoemulsions. Utilization of nanoemulsion increased the bioactivity and aimed to reduce
the effects on the organoleptic characteristics of food items.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Microbiota of vegetables and fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Chemical, physical, and biological methods for preservation of fruits and vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1. Chemical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2. Physical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Biological methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Various types of edible suitability and coatings for several fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1. Coatings based on polysaccharides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.1. Coating based on starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.2. Coating based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.3. Pectin-based coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.4. Chitosan-based coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.5. Coating based on gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1.6. Coating based on pullulan and alginates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Protein-based coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3. Lipid-based coatings and films. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Essential oils and nanoemulsion-based coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

⁎ Corresponding author at: Packing and Packaging Materials Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (former El Tahrirst.), Dokki, Giza, P.O. 12622, Egypt.
E-mail addresses: amyoussef27@yahoo.com, Drahmadyoussef1977@gmail.com (A.M. Youssef).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00215
2214-9937/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
1. Introduction
The intake of vegetables and fruits has been associated with different
health benefits for human beings. Recently, the consumption and pro-
duction of minimally processed foods has become very popular. Fresh
cut vegetables and fruits are highly preferred by consumers because of
the need for new and natural products together with certain lifestyle
changes of the consumers. However, the fresh cut industry has faced
the challenge of sustaining the fresh-like features of fresh cut food prod-
ucts for an extended storage time [1]. Vegetables and fruits form an im-
portant component of human diet.
Vegetables and fruits are living beings, and they consistently utilize
oxygen and generate carbon dioxide during respiration. In the respira-
tion process, the metabolism of substrates such as fats, proteins, and or-
ganic acids along with carbohydrates takes place. As soon as substrates
and carbohydrates get metabolized, the replenishment becomes diffi-
cult because the vegetable or the fruit gets separated from the plant
[2,3]. Over a period of time, the quality in relation to color, flavor,
weight, and nutritional value continues to deteriorate. Water loss is an
important element that plays an essential role in deteriorating the qual-
ity of vegetables and fruits and may result in a loss of nutritional value,
soft texture, flaccidness, shriveling, and wilting [4].
The quality of fruit is related to climatic conditions and management
during the phase of production; therefore, it is essential to utilize other
procedures to avert microbiological degeneration and reduce the bio-
chemical and physiological changes accountable for post-harvest de-
generation. A study on advanced packaging technologies, for instance,
the composition of atmospheric gas, is required to alter the metabolic
situations and to improve the quality and shelf life of fruits [5,6].
Edible coatings or films are biopolymers that are hugely being in-
vestigated for the packaging and preservation of food. Packaging has
been taken to the next level by these films, where dwindling bound-
aries are found to be present between packaging, preservation, and
food. Researchers have integrated the concept of packaging, preserva-
tion, and food into a film that is edible and biodegradable; transmits
functionality on fish, meat, and derived products; improves shelf life;
fights off odors, lipid oxidation, and fading color; and prevents the
loss of moisture. The idea of edible films has originated from environ-
mental concerns, increasing burden of disposing off the plastic waste
and using the industrial food waste, and the demands of consumers
for healthy, nutritional, and natural foods. These are biopolymers pro-
duced from the waste of the food industry or an underutilized means
of polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins that are edible and biodegrad-
able and play the role of active components such as nutraceuticals,
flavorants, antioxidants, and antimicrobials [7–12].
Both the water loss and the microbial proliferation of fresh products
can be prevented by taking into consideration the food coatings [13]. In
fact, edible films applied on the surface of food might improve the shelf
life by reducing the oxidation processes, gas exchange, soluble migra-
tion, and moisture transfer as well as by preventing or decreasing phys-
iological disorders [14–16]. Hence, edible coatings, generally consisting
of food additives or antimicrobial agents such as spices, nutrients,
flavors, colorants, and anti-browning agents, are gaining relevance as
important elements to minimize the deteriorating impacts of vegetable
and food processing [17–24]. The coating's effectiveness is highly im-
pacted by the features of the material; therefore, suitable edible coatings
are chosen while keeping in view the chemical and physical character-
istics of the components of the biopolymer and taking into consider-
ation the mechanical features and the film permeability as shown in
(Table 1) [[25,26]].
2. Microbiota of vegetables and fruits
As vegetables and fruits have different characteristics in terms of
their composition, the microbiota in these living organisms may signif-
icantly differ on the basis of the medium pH, water activity, and
availability of nutrients [41]. At a reduced storage temperature, most
of the bacterial population on the surface consists of Enterobacteriacae
(particularly Erwinia herbicola and Rahnella aquatilis) and Pseudo-
monadaceae (specifically P. fluorescens), and certain lactic acid bacterial
species (particularly Leuconostoc mesenteriodes) [42,43]. Moreover, dif-
ferent species of yeast belonging to Torulaspora, Pichia, Trichosporon,
Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, and Candida have been found during stor-
age [44,45]. The total counts of mesophilic bacteria on vegetables that
are minimally processed after packaging are in the range of 103 to 106
colony forming units (CFU)/g, but in different catering and retail market
outlets, they fall between 103 and 109 CFU/g [46,47]. The neutral to
acidic pH of the vegetables and fruits promote the growth of yeast and
bacteria in comparison to that of molds [48].
Foodborne diseases are important invisible elements of morbidity,
because a majority of the foodborne diseases are infrequent and most
of them go unreported. From 1996 to 2004, 14 outbreaks of foodborne
diseases were recorded, as a result of which, 859 illness cases were re-
corded by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and lettuce and to-
matoes were reported to be the cause of these illnesses [49]. Mesophilic
enteric pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella and Psycho-
tropic pathogen Listeria monocytogenes are a few of the most general
pathogens, which have contributed to the illness of human beings
[50,51]. Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 are of increased concern be-
cause even low doses lead to infections and they grow very rapidly
[52]. These two pathogens of humans made prominent headlines in
the news in 2006 and 2007 in the United States because of the outbreaks
associated with the consumption of different produce such as green
pre-prepared vegetables [53].
Some of the other fruit and vegetable pathogens associated with
outbreaks include Clostridium botulinum, Vibrio cholera Staphylococcus
spp., Shigella spp., and Yersinia enterocolitica [54,55]. Both epiphytic
and endophytic colonization have been observed for pathogenic
foodborne bacteria in fresh produce. The endophytic colonization
takes place by means of chemotaxis, damaged tissue, and natural open-
ings. The attachment mechanisms for epiphytic colonization generally
include the formation of a biofilm, flagella, fimbriae, and curli. Once
linked with the harmed component of tissue, a large number of patho-
genic bacteria grow in fresh vegetables and fruits. The interconnection
of the bacterial cell with the destructive tissue of a plant can give rise
to the gene upregulation involved in resistance, virulence, and attach-
ment to antimicrobial oxidative agents. This presents a big challenge
to the fresh cut market, as oxidative sanitizers are generally utilized
for the sterilization of the fresh cut produce, particularly leafy greens
[56].
3. Chemical, physical, and biological methods for preservation of
fruits and vegetables
Different representatives can be taken into consideration for the
washing of vegetables and fruits with the aim of minimizing the possi-
bility of contamination by microbes, assisting in the avoidance of
foodborne illness and postharvest diseases.
3.1. Chemical methods
Initially, the hypochlorite or chlorine washing is continuously car-
ried out with varied concentrations of 50 to 200 ppm and with a general
proximity span of not more than 5 min [57]. Even though chlorine is
generally utilized as a sanitizer, the organic material inactivates and re-
sults in the creation of chlorinated detrimental by-products (DBPs) and
the release of chlorine vapors during production, with possible harmful
effects on human health [58]. However, the advantages of using chlorine
in the production industry are considered to be greater than the issues
concerning the possible creation of DBPs. Previous studies have shown
that the bacterial load can be reduced through chlorine washing and
the values generally fall between <1 log CFU/g to 3.15 log CFU/g,
 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215 3

Table 1
Recent applications of edible coatings on fruits and vegetables.

Ingredients and *Main Food products Properties of final coating References

ingredients

Alginate and chitosan *Flourensia
cernua Extract and
Nanolaminate
Alginate, *Chitosan
Chitosan Carboxymethyl
*Sodium Chloride
Pectin *Potassium Sorbate,
Sodium Benzoate, Nisin, Citric
Acid
*Gelatin, *Guar, *Chitosan
*EOs (Thyme, Oregano) Alginate
Guar Gum - Aloe Vera - *Spirulina
Platensis
Chitosan, *Chlorogenic acid
*Starch
Chitosan, Carboxymethyl
Cellulose (CMC), *Moringa
Leaf Extract
*Soybean Protein Isolate,
Chitosan
*Beeswax, Chitosan
*Zinc Oxide, Xanthan Hybrid
*Rhubarb extract alginate
*Soy protein Isolate, Honey
Tomato (Solanum Loss of weight reduced, oxygen and carbon dioxide gas Salas-Méndez et al., [27].
lycopersicum L.) exchange rates, ethylene production reduced aerobic
(Layer-by-layer coating) mesophilic microorganism, obstructed yeast and mold
proliferation.
Fresh-cut melon (cv. Yaniv) Reduced yeast, bacteria, and fungi counts by 1–2 log CFU; Poverenov et al., [28]
(Layer-by-layer coating) stopped growth in headspace carbon dioxide and controlled
concentration of ethanol
Minimally/fresh-cut processed Did not allow E. coli O157:H7 to grow on pears processed Xiao, Luo, Luo, & Wang, [29]
pear minimally
Pear quality improved due to SC+ CMCH treatment
Fresh-cut persimmon Brought enzymatic browning under control; reduced overall Sanchís et al., [30]
aerobic mesophilic bacteria “Rojo Brillante” (fresh-cut
persimmon) by storing it at 5 °C; allowed for a seven-day
commercial shelf life
Barhi date Extended the shelf life of Barhi date fruits in comparison with Abu-Shama et al., [31]
the control sample
Fresh-cut papaya Improved loss of weight; decelerated pH changes; delayed Tabassum & Khan, [140]
organic acid consumption; reduced rate of respiration,
causing a delay in senescene; enhanced anti-microbial
activity
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Showed considerable high firmness, decelerating the changes Ebrahimi & Rastegar, [32]
in this fruit's TSS; considerably improved bioactive
compounds in the mango-like phenol, ascorbic acid, and
flavonoids
Peach fruit Reduced ROS levels in peach; enhanced activity of Jiao, Shu et al., [33]
antioxidants with an increase in grafting ratio;
In vivo test: chitosan when grafted with treatment of
chlorogenic acid fared better in terms of firmness, titratable
acidity, soluble solid contents, and L-ascorbic acid content
Reduced the increase in the loss of weight, decay of index, and
rate of respiration of peaches stored for eight days at 20 °C
Apple fruit A coating of starch optimized formulation on apple, resulting Thakur, [34]
in a decrease in loss of weight, rate of respiration, change in
skin color, firmness, and greasiness of fruit, without affecting
its flavor (TA and TSS) and its phytochemical profile at the
post-harvest storage phase
“Fuerte” and “Hass” avocado Decreased respiration rate, loss of firmness, and moisture, Tesfay & Magwaza, [35]
fruit resulting in an enhancement of the quality of fruit and its
shelf life
Apricot fruit Significantly affected the loss of weight, firmness retention, Zhang, [36]
SSC, as well as TA, WSP, and CSP content retention; thwarted
pectin degradation by using a coating of SPI-chitosan
Strawberries was beneficial in the case of fungal infection; reduced loss of Velickova et al., [37]
weight, rate of respiration, firmness retention, color retention,
and titratable acidity and pH retention, even for sugars and
soluble solids
Tomatoes and apples Exhibited next to zero weight loss; improved storage quality Joshy, [38]
of fruits and vegetables as compared to that of materials that
were not coated
Peaches (Prunus persica) Exhibited decent antifungal activity; proactive in lessening Li, [39]
post-harvest illnesses owing to Penicillium expansum; more
effective in impeding sensory deterioration of peaches;
advantageous effects on quality of the physiology in
comparison to the 1% SA coating as well as the control, with
reduced loss of weight, rate of respiration, MDA content, PPO
activity, and SSC and increased firmness
Fresh-cut Kajari melon Decreased the growth of microbes; honey treatment was Yousuf & Srivastava, [40]
successful in maintaining the taste and color of the melon
samples

depending on the inoculation process, the targeted bacteria, and the
time of contact of the concentration of chlorine [59–63]. Among the dif-
ferent substitutes of chlorine, peracetic or peroxyacetic acid (PAA) is
beneficial in destroying the pathogenic microorganisms at lower con-
centrations than those required in the case of chlorine [64,65]. Electro-
lyzed waters (neutral and acid) are disinfection methods that might
be effective in disinfecting the fresh vegetables and fruits as the alterna-
tives of the solutions using chlorine. The use of these waters decreases
the microbial contamination on surfaces and instruments [66,67].
The antimicrobial strength of a mixture of chlorine dioxide (ClO2, ox-
idation state +5, 0.954 V) is higher than or the same as that of chlorine.
Unlike chlorine, this mixture has immediate water solubility and is con-
sidered to be a monomer-free component. Because it has no water ion-
ization, it is slightly impacted by pH [68]. Its strength is the same as that
of hypochlorite for repelling the micro-organisms, but as it is considered
to be a less-oxidizing dissolved gas, its activity is sustained in a better
manner than that of hypochlorite, which is considered to be more reac-
tive when there is high suspended organic matter [69,70]. Moreover,
acidified sodium chlorite (Redmond, ASC; Alcide Corp.) is a useful anti-
microbial that is created by decreasing the pH (2.5–3.2) of a sodium
chlorite solution (NaClO2; SC) with any acid of GRAS [71]. The increased
ASC efficacy has been elaborated in numerous studies with the
4 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
approved FDA concentration implication of 0.5–1.2 g L−1 on pathogen
inactivation, such as Salmonella spp. and O157:H7 E. coli [72–74]. In ad-
dition, antimicrobial activity has been exhibited by bromine and iodine
even though their utilization has been restricted by a few health-related
problems in their production [54].
The development of pathogenic fungi can be prevented by the use of
trisodium phosphate (TSP); TSP also decreases the disease incidence of
peaches, jujubes, onions, and potatoes during storage [75,76]. Further-
more, in previous studies, several researchers have observed that the
development of pathogenic fungi is prevented by TSP treatment and
the disease incidence decreases for the storage of peaches, jujubes, on-
ions, and potatoes [77]. Moreover, awareness has been generated
about the fact that quaternary ammonium salt is generally an antibacte-
rial compound and is strongly hydrophilic; it is commonly considered a
monomer of polymerization and helps to bring considerable improve-
ment in the solubility of water and the antibacterial property of the
polymer. Additionally, it has been observed that the compounds of qua-
ternary ammonium do not immediately destroy the contacted bacteria
but have poor dissolvability in comparison to inorganic and organic an-
tibacterial agents [78].
Organic acids (for instance, tartaric acid, citric acid, and lactic acid)
have been considered powerful antimicrobial agents because of the dis-
ruption in permeability and membrane transport, a decrease in the pH
of the environmental accumulation of the anions, or a decrease in the
cellular internal pH [54,79]. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a different
sanitizing element that has been considered protected by FDA and has
shown a possible biocide impact on a wider spectrum of microbes. It
has shown to have a variety of effects on the concentration of bioactive
and nutritional compounds, sensorial characteristics, and quality [80].
Calcium is considered an important macronutrient and plays an im-
portant role in managing different physiological procedures in plants.
Post- and pre-harvest treatments with numerous salts made up of cal-
cium, such as calcium gluconate, calcium propionate, calcium phos-
phate, calcium chloride, and calcium lactate, have been proven to be
beneficial in decreasing the physiological defects in vegetables and
fruits [81]. Moreover, ozone can be useful in food markets with respect
to improved shelf life and food preservation because it is a strong ster-
ilizing component. It aims to decrease the microbial counts in the pro-
duction of fresh fruits and vegetables. Thus far, ozone has been
utilized as a disinfectant of fruits and vegetables, and its effectiveness
has been proven in previous research studies [82,83].
Moreover, some additional worldwide chemical coating methods
which might have prospective to be used in the future such as pulsed
electrodeposition technique. In Pulsed electrodeposition was assumed
to decorate one-dimensional (1D) ZnO nanorods with CdS nanocrystals.
Furthermore, pulsed electrodeposition method has developed and been
engaged to overcome the challenges of manufacturing homogeneously
coated hybrid nanostructures such as ZnO-CdS, CuInS2-ZnO, and Cu2O-
TiO2. Therefore, the lead coating method of pulsed electrodeposition has
the great potential to be practical as a universal way to create other an-
isotropic hybrid nanostructures [84]. Correspondingly, Nanocellulose
films can be nowadays offer a substitute to conventional packaging ma-
terials, and readily recycled as well as reused into a prospective barrier
material. This procedure leads to international sustainability through
changing non-renewable polluting synthetic plastic packaging and lam-
inates by a product which can be reused directly into a barrier material
or might be used in the conservative paper recycling method [85].
3.2. Physical methods
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) shows increased depen-
dence on the alteration of the composition of the nearby gas through in-
termediation between the rate of respiration (RR) within the package
and the permeability of the film to gases (O2 and CO2) [86,87]. It has
been reported in different research studies that the MAP system can
sustain the quality of new production, the composition of the optimum
gas, and the film permeability [88,89]. However, the development of
MAP systems is a complicated activity, which should focus on gaining
a deeper insight into the combined knowledge and varying communica-
tion of product features, atmospheric conditions, and packaging mate-
rial for a specific product [90,91].
Radiation provides a large number of advantages for horticultural
fresh producers of food, importers, and exporters. Irradiation involving
a low dosage offers an immediate treatment that does not change the
temperature of the product, does not make use of residues, ensures
that the fruit remains appropriate in terms of its nutritional content,
and can improve the fruit's shelf life [92].
Short-wave ultraviolet (UV-C) light is considered an appropriate ad-
ditional processing procedure for food because of its low cost of process-
ing as well as the positive image between consumers. The utilization of
UV-C light at 253.7 nm for the processing of food products is safe and
has been considered to be a substitute treatment to decrease microor-
ganisms, such as pathogens, in the handling, processing, and production
of food [93].
Pulsed light (PL) is believed to be a non-thermal and effective tech-
nology used for the decontamination of food products. This technology
is considered to be a substitute for the contact treatment of UV light for
effective and immediate microbial inactivation in liquid and solid foods
[94,95].
High pressure processing (HPP) is considered to be a useful preser-
vation process, attaining enzymatic and microbial inactivation and pre-
serving the nutritional and sensory quality of fresh fruits and vegetables.
Furthermore, its impact has been noted in the cases of different vegeta-
bles and fruit nectars and juices [96–99].
An important benefit of ultrasonography over other methods in the
food industry is that sound waves are believed to be environment
friendly, non-toxic, and safe [100]. The integration of ultrasonography
with some biological, physical, or non-thermal procedures makes it an
appealing method to improve the prevention and inactivation of mi-
crobes [101–104].
Cold plasma treatment has shown potential in the protection of food
products and is considered a unique non-thermal procedure [105]. Cold
plasma is a gas that has been ionized and is characterized by active ele-
ments, such as atoms, free radicals, ions, and electrons that are gener-
ated by the application of energy to a mixed gas system or simply the
gas [106,107].
3.3. Biological methods
In an effort to stop the development of spoilage microorganisms and
pathogens in the produce, research has been conducted on the imple-
mentation of biocontrol agents. This process is called bio-preservation
and mainly involves the improvement of the shelf life and the safety
of food products by using metabolites or microorganisms. A few of the
specific microorganisms that have been examined to have an antagonis-
tic effect on pathogens are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This group of bac-
teria is naturally found in food products and has been recommended in
certain studies; when surfaces are produced through the application of
LAB, they are considered to be powerful rivals for physical nutrients and
space and might generate a large variety of antimicrobial metabolites,
such as bateriocins, diacetyl, hydrogen peroxide, and organic acids
that have an adverse effect on pathogens [108]. Bacteriocins are com-
monly considered safe and have been generally deployed in combina-
tion with other additives of food products [109,110].
4. Various types of edible suitability and coatings for several fruit
Thus far, edible coatings have been formulated from various mate-
rials having the appropriate characteristics. The primary materials to
be taken into consideration in the creation of edible coatings can be
categorized into three different types: lipid compounds, proteins, and
polysaccharides. Edible coatings acquired from various lipids, proteins,
 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
Fig. 1. Edible coating on one side. The uncoated side has an open lenticel and free passage
for water and gas (a) the coated side has a completely covered lenticel and a complete
barrier to water and gas (b) [1].
and polysaccharides assist in improving the food's shelf life by acting as
an obstacle to vapors, gases, and solutes, as shown in Fig. 1 [1].
4.1. Coatings based on polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are naturally occurring polymers and are exten-
sively used to develop edible coatings or films, such as pectin, cellulose,
starch, chitosan, alginates, and pullulan, and the derivatives of all these
substances [111]. Polysaccharides are the basic coatings that are consid-
ered to be an effective blocker of oxygen because of the well-ordered
shape of the hydrogen-bonded network. However, they do not act as a
barrier to moisture, as they appear to be hydrophilic in nature
[112,113]. Because coatings consisting mainly of polysaccharides form
a poor barrier to water vapor, these coatings are considered to be a
major factor affecting the decision of the marketers to not focus on
delaying the moisture loss [114]. The polysaccharide coatings are oil
free and colorless. They have a small amount of calories and can be ap-
plied to improve the shelf life of meat products, shellfish, vegetables,
and fruits by considerably decreasing dehydration, oxidative rancidity,
and surface darkening [115].
4.1.1. Coating based on starch
Starch, as the main carbohydrate for storage in seed endosperm and
plant tubers, can be acquired from different resources, such as cereal
grains, cassava, potato, and corn [116]. Starch is chemically composed
of high linear amylose (6–19 chains, slightly branched on average)
[117]. The formation of starch occurs by small granules, and its charac-
teristics are affected by the distribution of the granules, shape, morphol-
ogy, size variation, and botanical origin. Other elements such as the
climate and the area of cultivation also affect the properties of starch.
The granules of starch generally contain amylopectin, amylose, and
two polysaccharides, making up 98%–99% of the dry weight. Approxi-
mately 10.7 million tons of products containing starch have been pro-
duced by the European Union, which indicated an increase of 30%
since 2004 [118]. Eliminating the co-products of starch, we found that
the starch consumption increased to 9.3 million tons in 2018 in the
European Union.
Among these, the consumption of 2% of the starch occurred in feed,
58% in food, and 40% in non-food applications. Of the 9.3 million tons of
consumption, 53% was attributed to starch sweeteners, 28% to native
starch, and 19% to modified starch [119]. Coatings based on starch are
odorless and colorless. They possess less oxygen permeability and
have an oil-free appearance. They can make an important contribution
5
to the decrease in the respiration rate for the fresh fruits and vegetables.
Furthermore, they can be utilized along with other biopolymers to pre-
vent a few disadvantages, such as increased permeability of water
vapor, greater water sensitivity, and phenomenon of retro gradation
during storage [120]. Similarly, various gums of microbes such as
xanthan gums or gellan gums are considered to be the improvers of
the mechanical starch film resistance, while reducing their retrograda-
tion and water sensitivity [121–123]. In starch blends, the functional
characteristics of the starch matrix was improved by the addition of
10% to 20% of gellan gum, while active compounds were taken into con-
sideration to effectively control the shelf life of a product through the
antifungal effects [124].
4.1.2. Coating based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
In this section, we will discuss the use of different biopolymers.
Among these, a polysaccharide called as carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC) was developed using cellulose carboxymethylation. Besides its
biodegradability, CMC is soluble in water, and can be fabricated as trans-
parent films [125,126]. However, edible films developed on the basis of
CMC are restricted because of the poor water barrier features. CMC
blending along with other biopolymers, such as collagen [127], starch
[128], and chitosan [129], were believed to increase the inherent CMC
shortcomings [130].
4.1.3. Pectin-based coating
Pectin is a soluble element found in plant fiber and has been ex-
tracted from the plant's cell walls. These polysaccharides derived from
plants are poor barriers of moisture and therefore, show better perfor-
mance with foods having low moisture. Pectin and other materials
were used by Martinon, Moreira, Castell-Perez, & Gomes [131] for the
creation of a multilayered system of coatings to improve the shelf life
of cantaloupe. A combination of glutathione at 0.75% (w/v) and pectin
(2%, w/v) was explored to examine its impact on microbial stability
and the quality of fresh-cut pears by Oms-Oliu, Soliva-Fortuny, and
Martin-Belloso [132]. It has been indicated that a coating based on pec-
tin has been effectively developed and can sustain the sensory charac-
teristics of pear wedges for two weeks [1].
4.1.4. Chitosan-based coating
Chitosan is an example of a material with intrinsic antimicrobial ac-
tivity that is commonly composed of glucosamine and N-
acetylglucosamine units bound by 1–4 glucosidic bonds and are com-
monly developed by the alkaline deacetylation of chitin [133]. Being
non-toxic, biodegradable, biocompatible, and microbe-resistant, chito-
san is currently attracting considerable attention and its scientific test-
ing at a large scale is in progress to explore its possible applications in
different fields [134]. Chitosan is believed to prevent the growth of a
large number of bacteria and fungi. In these procedures, because of its
polycationic properties, the bio-based polymer is integrated with nega-
tively charged residues and is then absorbed on the bacterial surface
[135–137].
Several researchers have reported that chitosan molecules not only
change the permeability of the cell membranes of the bacteria, as gas
exchange is impeded between the exterior and interior of the cells,
but also give rise to cellular dysfunction by cell penetration or mem-
brane rupture [138–141]. Chitosan forms edible coatings and films,
which aim to secure foods from microbial spoilage and contamination
[142]. Hence, it helps to sustain the quality and improve the shelf life
of food to a considerable extent, as shown in (Fig. 2). Additionally, it is
a natural biopolymer and is an integration of different components
such as nutraceuticals, antioxidants, and antimicrobials, such as EOs.
Furthermore, it has gained utmost importance because of its biological
characteristics [143,144].
6 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
Fig. 2. Effect of chitosan coating on fruits and vegetables [144].
4.1.5. Coating based on gums
Gums are basically groups of naturally forming carbohydrate poly-
mers or polysaccharides obtained from renewable sources. They have
can be dissolved in water either by stabilizing emulsion systems or by
creating a gel. Among the recently considered substitutes for
petroleum-derived polymers with respect to shelf life extension and
postharvest diseases, gum derivatives have been reported to be effective
products for biocontrol. The coatings using polysaccharide gums form a
semipermeable barrier; thus, the nutritional value can be maintained,
loss of weight can occur, and respiration rate can be reduced on the sur-
face of the produce. Gums have numerous benefits over synthetic poly-
mers; FAO has approved gums as GRAS, and their consumption is
ecofriendly and is considered to be safe [145].
Coatings based on edible gum are an advanced packaging strategy
that improves the shelf life of vegetables and fruits and prevents post-
harvest diseases. An edible coating developed from polysaccharides
not only protects the quality of the vegetables and fruits but also pro-
tects the environment. With the increasing demand for environment-
friendly and functional coating materials, researchers have begun to
focus on gums. Different views on the use of edible coatings to protect
the overall shelf life and quality of vegetables and fruits have been re-
ported in the past [146–150].
4.1.6. Coating based on pullulan and alginates
Alginates are indigestible natural polysaccharides acquired from
seaweed and have been reported to be a stabilizing and thickening
agent in the food market [151–153]. In recent years, they have been rec-
ognized as a coating material that delays the ripening process in fruits.
The colloidal characteristics of alginates make them highly appropriate
for film and coating preparation. They are also believed to be an impor-
tant source of dietary fiber, which ensures a considerable decrease in
the glucose and cholesterol uptake. They also control the severity of gas-
trointestinal and cardiovascular diseases among patients [154].
Pullulan is a polymer considered to be highly biodegradable with an
extensive utilization in biotechnology and medicine. It has now gained
increased attention in the food packaging industry because of its supe-
rior film-forming features [155]. Additionally, pullulan films have nu-
merous benefits, such as greater impermeability to both of oxygen
and oil, heat sealability, transparence, no odor, no taste, and no color
[156,157]. Therefore, the use of active packaging based on pullulan
can be considered a safe environmental procedure for handling the
post- and pre-loss of a fruit harvest [158].
4.2. Protein-based coatings
Proteins generally occur in the form of globular proteins or fibrous
proteins. Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water and generally play
the role of a basic structural element of animal tissues, while water sol-
ubility is present in globular proteins; they are also soluble in aqueous
solutions of salts, bases, or acids and perform different activities in living
systems [159]. Proteins having physiochemical features show complete
reliance on the organization of the substituents of amino acids. Various
types of globular proteins, such as corn zein, whey protein, wheat glu-
ten, and soy protein, have been explored for their coating or film
forming features.
A dispersion or protein solution is taken into consideration to create
coatings and films, and the solvent that is taken into consideration for
playing this role is generally restricted to ethanol water combinations,
or simply water or ethanol [114]. Coatings or films based on protein
are believed to be highly effective blockers of oxygen even at a reduced
relative humidity (RH). Various types of proteins have been utilized to
 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the different routes promoted by the nanoemulsions for the interaction of EOs with the microbial cell membranes [174].
create healthy consumable coatings or films that consist of soy protein,
casein, corn zein, gelatin, wheat gluten, and whey protein [115].
The potential is being showing the coatings of protein because they
are considered as value added applications that get low resistance from
regulators to be used in food. Biopolymers based on protein such as corn
zein and whey proteins have the required barrier characteristics [160].
Whey is one of the important proteins because of its glossy appearance
and gas barrier characteristics [161]. Whey protein is a cheese industry
byproduct, has good functional and nutritional characteristics, and can
be utilized in edible films. Another protein acquired from corn gluten
has an increased ability for various applications of food packaging [162].
4.3. Lipid-based coatings and films
Lipids are good barriers against the migration of moisture [163].
When lipids are combined with polysaccharides and proteins, the coat-
ings are produced with increased barrier and mechanical resistances.
Besides, these composite coatings might have a greater permeability
of moisture than that of real lipids [164]. In general, the coatings or
films are developed from lipids and are extra thicker and brittle because
of their hydrophobicity [165]. The application of lipid-based elements
consists of surfactants, acetylated monoglycerides, and herbal wax.
The compounds of lipids that exist in their simplest form include bees-
wax and paraffin. Lipid-based coatings and films are believed to be ex-
tremely useful to obstruct the moisture delivery because of less
polarity. An increase in the hydrophobicity leads to a decrease in the
permeability of water vapor. However, it has been demonstrated that
lipids having films or coatings may destroy the gloss and appearance
of the coated food products [166].
5. Essential oils and nanoemulsion-based coating
Essential oils (EOs) obtained from spices and plants possess antiox-
idant and antimicrobial characteristics [167]. Therefore, they are consid-
ered to be unique additives in the food industry. Additionally, a majority
of them are categorized as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). However,
their utilization as food preservatives is often restricted because of their
strong flavor. In order to prevent this issue, EOs are incorporated into
7
edible films [168]. Considering the prevention of the utilization of
chemical additives in food products, researchers have paid increased at-
tention to the use of natural food additives with antioxidant and antimi-
crobial characteristics that do not have any negative effects on human
health [169].
Recently, a thorough study was conducted on EOs, and they have
been examined as additives in biodegradable/edible emulsified coatings
and films. Because of their lipidic characteristics, they are meant to pro-
vide assistance to decrease the permeability of water vapor in hydro-
philic films [170]. Furthermore, they have certain effects on other
properties of films (such as structural, optical, and tensile properties)
as well as antimicrobial or antioxidant effects, as shown in (Fig. 3).
Advanced alternative interventions of technology have been in-
creasingly proposed for sustaining the quality of vegetables and fruits.
Recently, the need for natural elements for creating new food preserva-
tives against spoilage and pathogenic microbes has increased at an ex-
ponential rate. Essential oils are one of the important groups of
antimicrobial natural constituents that have been considered an ad-
vanced preservation system in the food industry [171]. Solid nanoparti-
cles of lipids, liposomes, and emulsions are a few of the encapsulation
systems [172]. Among these, emulsions are widely used and are consid-
ered to be highly popular systems because they ensure an equal distri-
bution of fully or partially hydrophobic components in a hydrophilic
matrix [173].
Because of their subcellular size nanoemulsions with radius less than
(100 nm) offer physical stability to active encapsulated substances. Fur-
thermore, they provide other advantages such as greater bioactivity, be-
cause of the increased diffusion, and reduce the effect on the
organoleptic features of food products [174]. In the past, several re-
searchers have reported that EOs can be incorporated into the coating
matrix. However, the immediate inclusion of EOs in the films or coatings
significantly reduces the mechanical characteristics of the films or coat-
ings, reduces the loading ability of Eos, and increases the oiling risk of
the EOs [175].
In contrast, the utilization of nanoemulsions in solutions formed
from a coating offer numerous advantages, such as reduction of the
mass transmission of compounds by means of coating, greater com-
pound stability under stressed situations, decreased communication
8 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215

with other food matrix components, reduced dosage of compounds, im-
proved activity of antimicrobials, and better homogeneity of films
[176–179].
Recently, few researchers have reported the use of EO nanoemulsions
in edible films or coatings and its implications in a minimally processed
food system. Edible films based on sodium alginate were developed by
Acevedo-Fani et al. [180]. They used essential oil nanoemulsions, lemon-
grass (LG), thyme (TH), and sage (SG) to ensure greater transparency,
flexibility, and resistance to water vapor. However, the results of TH
demonstrated the optimum efficacy of antimicrobes against inoculated
E. coli, which exhibited 4.71 reductions in the log after 12 h.
In an another research, lemongrass nanoemulsion was used by
Salvia-Trujillo et al. [47], it present in the edible coating or sodium algi-
nate for improving the shelf life of apple slices under specific refrigera-
tion conditions, and the inactivation of the E. coli population was
observed up to untraceable levels soon after coating, which remained
unidentified during the 14 days of storage in a refrigerator. In particular,
faster and greater E. coli inactivation was displayed by a coating based
on a nanoemulsion than the traditional emulsions. The unexpected
change in the appearance and the texture of apples and a huge decrease
in its respiration rate were also noted by the researchers the same find-
ings were reported by Oh et al., [181], who compared the capability of
traditional emulsions and lemongrass oil nanoemulsions to improve
the shelf life of grape berries.
Nanoemulsion coating with small droplets of lemongrass oil showed
greater effectiveness in the preservation of grape berries and in improv-
ing the safety of microbes against Salmonella than a coating having large
droplets. The efficacy of the lemongrass nanoemulsion was evaluated by
Kim et al. [182]. In the case of 3% concentration of the lemongrass essen-
tial oil, a decrease of >2.8 log CFU/g of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella
typhimurium was reported. Moreover, the perceived glossiness of
plums and the factorability were not negatively affected by the coating.
Sessa, Ferraria, & Donsìb [183] reported that the application of advanced
chitosan with EO nanoemulsion on a rucola leaf extended the shelf life
to one week in comparison to the control sample. The efficacy of the
coatings based on nanoemulsions was considered to be greater than
that of the chitosan or lemon oil coatings alone [58]. Recent applications
of edible coatings of EO nanoemulsions were reported in (Table 2).

Table 2
Recent applications of edible coatings of EO nanoemulsions.

Ingredient and *main ingredient Food Properties of final coating References

products

Pullulan, *Cinnamon Essential
Oil (CEO) Nanoemulsion
Alginate, *Citral Nanoemulsion
Alginate *Nanoemulsified basil
(Ocimum basilicum. L) oil
*Lemongrass essential oil (LEO),
Sodium alginate
Carnauba wax
*Lemongrass oil nanoemulsions
*Thymol nanoemulsion
Quinoa protein
Chitosan
*Cinnamon essential oil
nanoemulsion
Ascorbic acid
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
(HPMC)
*Thai essential oils (EOs)
Chitosan
*Mandarin essential oil
Cinnamon essential oil
Strawberries Reduced loss of fruit mass; reduced firmness; reduced total soluble Chu et al., [157]
solids and titratable acidity; stronger antimicrobial activity against molds
and bacteria (1.958 and 2.544 log CFU/g, respectively) in comparison with
the control group and the group with the pure pullulan coating
Fresh-cut pineapple Better color retention, lower rate of respiration; decreased microbial Prakash, [184]
growth
Okra In comparison to uncoated samples, maintained texture, color, and Gundewadi et al., [185]
overall acceptability; confirmed the effectiveness of a coating of
Sapindus-based basil nanoemulsion alginate in keeping spoilage fungi
under control through in vivo assay
Fresh-cut Fuji apples Higher E. coli with nanoemulsion-based edible coating having 0.1% (v/v) Salvia-Trujillo, [47]
LEO; exhibited slower growth of psychrophilic bacteria on apples that
were freshly cut during storage; this was in comparison to those edible
coatings that had normal emulsions with the same concentration
Grapes The appearance of the berries showed glossiness without any negative Kim & Oh, [186]
effect on the perceived flavor as far as the post-harvest nanoemulsion
coating was concerned.
Improved safety by retarding contamination by Salmonella and E. coli
O157:H7.
Moreover, weight loss decreased, and so did firmness, concentration
of total anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity; the spoiling of phenolic
compounds in the grape berries was also prevented
Strawberries In comparison with the control (which was coated and uncoated with Robledo & López, [187]
either chitosan or quinoa protein), fungal and yeast load was lowered;
thymol nanoemulsion coating increased the shelf life of strawberries by
four days, and the loss of weight reduced in comparison to the control
group, in the 16 days at 5 °C, 90% relative humidity storage.
Did not change the quality parameters (titrable acidity, pH, and
percentage of soluble solids).
Apple juice The cinnamon essential oil nanoemulsion served as a PPO inhibitor when Xu, Zhou, Miao et al., [188]
combined with 0.05% AA, whereas AA acted as a reducing agent, which
totally stopped PPO activity and this maintained the color of the apple
juice in the two-day storage at 4 °C.
Mango Decreased loss of weight, firmness, and color change and increased soluble Klangmuang & Sothornvit, [189]
solid content were seen in the mangoes that were coated.
In comparison to the uncoated mangoes, the ones coated with
HPMC-based nanocomposite coatings in addition to the antifungal EOs
showed a better score of full acceptance.
At 13 °C, the shelf life of coated mangoes increased to 18 days.
Green beans Considerably decreased L. innocua throughout the storage period, as a Donsì, [177]
result of the advancement of a considerable synergism of antimicrobial
effects; strongly affected the firmness of the green beans.
Strawberries Observations from the medium of solid potato dextrose agar (PDA) Yousef, Niloufar, & Elena, [44]
showed a huge difference in the antifungal activity against R. stolonifera
and B. cinerea between nanoemulsion and emulsion of CEO.
Essential oil nanoemulsion had a great impact on the fungal cartilage
reduction of strawberries
 N.A. Al-Tayyar et al. / Sustainable Materials and Technologies 26 (2020) e00215
6. Conclusions
In this study, we concluded that active compounds and different
forms of coatings were highly effective in improving the shelf life of
fresh fruits and vegetables. We found that coatings of carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins played an important role in sustaining the quality
and the shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables. The polysaccharide coat-
ings could be applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to improve the shelf
life of fruits, vegetables, shellfish, and meat products by reducing surface
darkening, oxidative rancidity, and dehydration of food products. More-
over, we found that the use of nanoemulsions in solutions developed
through coatings which provided different benefits such as increased
film homogeneity, better antimicrobial activity, low compound dosage,
reduce interaction with other components of the food matrix, and in-
creased stability of the compound under situations of stress. Further-
more, the fruit's quality was linked with the management of the
production phase of food items and the climatic conditions; therefore,
it was highly important to use different processes to prevent the micro-
biological degeneration and decrease physiological and biochemical
change held responsible for the post-harvest degeneration. These find-
ings suggested that lipid-based films and coatings were highly effective
in preventing the delivery of moisture because of low polarity. Edible
coatings obtained from different types of polysaccharides, proteins,
and lipid, eventually provided the necessary support to improve the
shelf life of food by acting as a barrier to solutes, gases, and vapors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest.
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