Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A comprehensive review of engineered biochar: Production,

characteristics, and environmental applications
Hamed Kazemi Shariat Panahi a, b, c, Mona Dehhaghi a, b, c, Yong Sik Ok d,
Abdul-Sattar Nizami e, Benyamin Khoshnevisan f, Solange I. Mussatto g,
Mortaza Aghbashlo h, ***, Meisam Tabatabaei a, c, i, j, *, Su Shiung Lam a, k, **
a
Henan Province Engineering Research Center for Forest Biomass Value-added Products, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou,
450002, China
b
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW, Australia
c
Biofuel Research Team (BR Team), Karaj, Iran
d
Korea Biochar Research Center, O-Jeong Eco-Resilience Institute (OJERI) & Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University,
Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
e
Sustainable Development Study Center, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
f
Key Laboratory of Non-point Source Pollution Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy
of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
g
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 220, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
h
Department of Mechanical Engineering of Agricultural Machinery, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
i
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
j
Microbial Biotechnology Department, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), AREEO, Karaj, Iran
k
Pyrolysis Technology Research Group, Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP) & Institute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable
Development (Bio-D Tropika), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A sustainable management of environment and agriculture is crucial to protect soil, water, and air during
Received 2 March 2020 intensified agriculture practices as well as huge industrial and transportation activities. A promising tool
Received in revised form to address these challenges could be the application of biochar, a carbonaceous product of biomass
20 May 2020
pyrolysis. The efficiency of biochar could be improved through physical, chemical and microbial pro-
Accepted 22 May 2020
cedures. Engineered biochar could then be applied for various applications ranging from sustainable
Available online 1 June 2020
agriculture to pollution remediation and catalytic reactions. Biochar engineering allows achieving bio-
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Kleme
s char properties which are optimum for specific applications and/or under specific conditions. This would
lead to harnessing the favorable features of biochar and to enhance its efficiency while simultaneously
Keywords: minimizing the existing tradeoffs. This review covers the production and applications of engineered
Charcoal biochar by summarizing great deals of research and knowledge on the field. Unlike previous reviews,
Green and sustainable remediation herein biochar physical and chemical properties and the factors affecting them (i.e., biomass nature and
Functional group pyrolysis conditions) have been discussed in detail. Moreover, the contributions of each physical and
Designer biochar
chemical activation/modification method to improving biochar characteristics with respect to environ-
Physical and chemical characteristics
mental applications have been specifically scrutinized. By providing the state-of-the-art knowledge
Environmental management
about engineered biochar production, properties, and applications, this review aims to help research in
this field for identification of the culprits that must be addressed in future experiments.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author. Henan Province Engineering Research Center for Forest Biomass Value-added Products, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University,
Zhengzhou, 450002, China.
*** Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Henan Province Engineering Research Center for Forest Biomass Value-added Products, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University,
Zhengzhou, 450002, China.
E-mail addresses: maghbashlo@ut.ac.ir (M. Aghbashlo), meisam_tab@yahoo.com, meisam_tabatabaei@uitm.edu.my (M. Tabatabaei), lam@umt.edu.my (S.S. Lam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122462
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Biochar: general characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1. Nano- and macro-porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2. Particle-size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.3. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.4. Mechanical strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2. Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1. Microchemical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2. Organo-chemical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3. Engineering biochar production techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1. Physical techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1. Ball milling modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2. Gas/steam activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.3. Microwave modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.4. Magnetic biochar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2. Chemical techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.1. Oxidizing modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2. Chemical impregnation/coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.3. Clay-coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3. Biological techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4. Biochar for sustainable environmental management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1. Sustainable agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.1. Soil nutritional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.2. Soil biological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1.3. Greenhouse gases emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2. Pollution remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.1. Inorganic contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.2. Organic contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5. Conclusions and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1. Introduction product not only traps CO2 but could also be used in sustainable
agriculture, pollution remediation, catalytic reactions, and energy
One of the main challenges in today’s industrial world is the production. In 2010, it was estimated that biochar could mitigate
huge emission of greenhouse gases (Aghbashlo et al., 2019a), which 1.8 billion metric tons of CO2, corresponding to 12% of anthropo-
has significant adverse effects on the environment including air genic greenhouse gas emissions.
pollution (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019b) and climate change It is worth mentioning that activated carbon and biochar should
(Tabatabaei et al., 2019b). It is obvious that industrialization is not be confused with each other. The major difference between
necessary for human to sustain and thrive, for example, alleviating these two lies in the type of materials used as feedstock. More
the need for intense transportation and agriculture (i.e., food pro- specifically, biochar is only produced from biomass whereas acti-
duction) (Rajaeifar et al., 2019). Therefore, any effort targeting at vated carbon could be produced from biomass as well as other
slowing down the industrialization process remains unfruitful, and carbonaceous substances such as tar pitch or coal. To a lesser
at most, only provides temporary reliefs. In contrast, replacing the extent, they can also be distinguished according to their environ-
polluting compounds/products with less/non-polluting alterna- mental applications. Biochar is typically applied for soil amend-
tives could be successful only if the new products have political and ment to improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties.
economic feasibilities (Soltanian et al., 2020). For example, exerting In contrast, the typical application of activated carbon is for
political and economic pressures by oil companies on demotivating pollution remediation. The production of biochar and activated
the application of biofuels are the two main challenges, impeding carbon is relatively similar, i.e., through pyrolysis. However, acti-
their rapid public acceptance of these ecofriendly green fuels vated carbon can also be produced through chemical activation
(Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019c). (such as acid, base, or salt activation) or steam/air activation of C
Another solution for minimizing the negative consequences of feedstocks. It is worth mentioning that both mentioned processes,
modern lifestyle could be through various strategies concentrating i.e., chemical and physical activations can also be used for engi-
on recycling as much wastes as possible into value-added products neering biochar after its production through pyrolysis.
for strategic applications such as biogas and electricity (Shirzad Biochar engineering allows achieving biochar properties which
et al., 2019) and biofertilizer (Aghbashlo et al., 2019c). An appro- are optimum for specific applications and/or under specific condi-
priate example for this approach is the mitigation of C through tions. This would lead to harnessing the favorable features of bio-
biochar production from pyrolysis of cheap and easily available C- char and to enhance its efficiency while simultaneously minimizing
rich residues (i.e., lignocellulose) left from intense agriculture. This the existing tradeoffs. For instance, in case of soil amendment, not
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
all biochars are suitable for increasing plant productivity. More
specifically, in hard soils, porous biochar is more appreciated for
enhancing the growth of plant root. Addition of inappropriate
biochar into soil could even increase soil greenhouse gases emis-
sion capacity, decrease soil nutrients content, and dysregulate soil
biological properties (See Section 4.1). With respect to pollution
remediation, the type and availability of functional groups on the
surface of biochar is critical to specifically remove target analytes as
well as to its adsorption capacity (See Section 4.2). Finally, engi-
neering of pore size distribution in biochar allows its more efficient
environmental applications. For example, biochar pore size must be
larger than the compound that is intended to be remediated while
an abundant number of large macropores is appreciated for
improving soil water holding capacity as plant roots cannot over-
come the capillary forces holding water in micropores (Weber and
Quicker, 2018). In case of energy application, for example in blast
furnace, fuel biochar must show high mechanical strength enough
to tolerate the weight of the iron ore. An appropriate mechanical
strength is also required for appropriate handling, storage, and
transport of biochar (Weber and Quicker, 2018).
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process (Aghbashlo et al., 2019b)
applying heat (typically, 300e700
C) in the limited amount of O2
under atmospheric pressure (Tabatabaei et al., 2019d). Through this
process, various chemical species (i.e., non-condensable pyrogas,
biocrude oil, and biochar) can be obtained, the amount of which
being dependent on reaction temperature, heating rate, and resi-
dence time (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019d). Furthermore, the
products characteristics could be improved by incorporation of
catalyst, alternative heating methods (e.g., microwave), specific
carrier gas (e.g., H2 for hydropyrolysis), and other process condi-
tions such as vacuum (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019d).
Typically, any successful pyrolysis system uses a heat source for
increasing the biomass temperature, triggering the volatiles release
and char formation (i.e., charcoal and biochar). The primary py-
rolysis initiates autocatalytic secondary reactions by condensing
hot volatiles in the cooler un-pyrolyzed parts of biomass, leading to
tar formation (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019d). Both of these
reactions simultaneously and competitively continue while process
parameters (i.e., temperature, pressure, and/or reaction time) may
trigger further reactions including thermal decomposition, dehy-
dration, radicals recombination, water gas shift reactions, and
reforming (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019d). It is worth
mentioning that the feedstock characteristics could also affect the
ratio of the pyrolysis products. For example, wet biomass with
42e62% moisture content enhances the biochar formation at
elevated pressures. Similarly, the biochar yield is higher from py-
rolysis of spruce wood, pine wood, or other high-lignin biomass
(Liu et al., 2015). Biochar formation could also be impacted by the
presence of some inorganic species (especially, the alkali and
alkaline earth metals) in biomass. More specifically, autocatalytic
process could be induced by catalyzing the volatiles secondary
cracking in the presence of some inorganic species (e.g., Ca, K, and
Mg), leading to the formation of more gaseous compounds,
including H2, CH4, CO, CO2, and C2H4 (Liu et al., 2015). Therefore,
higher amount of biochar is cracked and lower biochar yield is
delivered.
The present review scrutinizes the general (physical and
chemical) characteristics of biochar and compares various tech-
niques that have been used to produce engineered biochar
including physical, chemical, and biological techniques. Addition-
ally, the applications of engineered biochar for (i) sustainable
environmental management as nutrient stabilizer, soil fertilizer,
and soil greenhouse gases emission reducers, and (ii) remediation
of organic and inorganic pollutants have briefly been discussed.
The discussed characteristics, production (i.e., activation and
3
modification techniques), and environmental application of engi-
neered biochar in this review have been summarized in Fig. 1.
In the present work, only a brief discussion on the applications
of engineered biochar for sustainable environmental management
has been provided as there are already a handful of good reviews
published specifically dealing with each of these applications
(Table 1). Biochar applications related to energy management have
been reviewed elsewhere (Lee et al., 2018; Xiu et al., 2017). In
contrast, the main emphasis of the current review is on biochar
physical and chemical characteristics including the factors affecting
them. The physical and chemical modification/activation methods
used for engineering biochar along with the conferred improve-
ments (e.g., surface area, porosity, active site, and functional
groups) have also been scrutinized. The novelty of the present re-
view against the previously published ones has been clarified in
Table 1.
2. Biochar: general characteristics
2.1. Physical properties
The physical properties of biochar directly depend on the
biomass nature and pyrolysis conditions (including biomass pre-
treatment and handling). More specifically, attrition, cracks for-
mation, and microstructural rearrangement occur during different
pyrolysis processes, altering the biomass’s original structures at
various degrees (Downie et al., 2009). As the pyrolysis process
continues, feedstock mass is reduced (i.e., volatile organics are
released), resulting in disproportional amount of volume decrease
or biomass shrinkage. At the end of pyrolysis step, C and mineral
skeletons resembling the basic structure and porosity of the orig-
inal biomass are formed. This physical modification has been
confirmed by the identification of plant cellular structures within
coals and woods-derived biochar, contributing to most of the bio-
char macroporosity (Downie et al., 2009). The macropores could be,
in turn, converted into meso and micropores (Fukuyama et al.,
2001; Zabaniotou et al., 2008).
Overall, biomass pretreatment, reaction temperature, heating
rate, reactor type and dimension, the carrier/purge gas flow rate,
residence time, pressure, and biochar post-modification methods
are the main operating parameters shaping the physical structure
of biochar produced via pyrolysis. For example, fast pyrolysis of
biomass delivers biochar with low surface area. An ideal biochar
physical structure could be developed by increasing reaction tem-
peratures up to a point that any further temperature elevation
triggers deformation. According to Downie et al. (2009), biochar
formed at 400
C had high aromatic hydrocarbon contents and
were highly disorganized in amorphous mass. As the reaction
temperature decreases, conjugated aromatic C sheets that are ar-
ranged turbostratically grow. Finally, the biochar resembles a
graphitic structure with order in the third dimension at tempera-
tures 2500
C. More specifically, the decrease in reaction temper-
ature decreases the formation of structured regular spacing
between the planes, increases the interplanar distances, and re-
duces the molecular organization (Downie et al., 2009).
Like pyrolysis process conditions, the physical characteristics of
the biomass also directly depend on the biomass chemical com-
positions. The thermal decomposition of organic materials starts at
>120
C. More specifically, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin
decompose at 200e260
C, 240e350
C, and 280e500
C, respec-
tively (Downie et al., 2009). Therefore, the reactivity and physical
structure modification degrees are impacted by the ratios of these
components during pyrolysis process. On the other hand, the bio-
char physical structure could also be impacted by the ash ratio (i.e.,
inorganic components) through ash sintering of fusion under
4 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

Fig. 1. Characteristics, production (i.e., activation and modification techniques), and environmental applications of engineered biochar.

Table 1
Comparison of the present review article and some top review papers published previously on engineered biochars.

Review Biochar production Factors affecting biochar Biochar characteristics Engineered biochar Engineered biochar
method/s characteristics production techniques applications

General Physical Chemical Physical Chemical Biological Agriculture Remediation Other

This Study 7 ✓** ✓* ✓** ✓** ✓** ✓** ✓* ✓** ✓* 7

(Liu et al., 2015)a ✓** ✓* ✓* ✓* ✓* ✓** ✓** 7 7 7 ✓**
Dai et al. (2019) 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ✓** ✓*
Rajapaksha et al. 7 7 7 7 7 ✓** ✓** 7 7 7 7
(2016)
Jiang et al. (2020) 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ✓** 7 7
Xu et al. (2012) 7 7 ✓* 7 7 7 7 7 ✓* ✓* 7
Mohan et al. (2014) ✓* 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ✓**a 7
Wang et al. (2017a) 7 7 7 7 7 ✓** ✓** ✓* ✓* ✓* ✓*
Palansooriya et al. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ✓**b 7 7
(2019b)

✓**Comprehensively discussed.
✓*Briefly discussed.
7 Not discussed.
a
Referred to reference.
b
Specific on one topic (e.g., water remediation or microbial responses).

pyrolysis process (Downie et al., 2009).
2.1.1. Nano- and macro-porosity
One of the most important physical properties of any produced
biochar is pore-size distribution, well determining its industrial
application potentials. Macropores, mesopores, and micropores
(i.e., pores with internal diameter of >50 nm, 2e50 nm, and <2 nm,
respectively) constitute the total pore volume of the biochar
(Rouquerol et al., 2013). Among them, micropores are the main
contributor to the biochar surface area and efficiently adsorb
minute molecules (e.g., solvents and gases). On the other hand,
mesopores are significant in many liquid-solid adsorption pro-
cesses (Downie et al., 2009).
Micropore volume could be improved through extending
biomass pyrolyzing at higher reaction temperatures, providing the
required activation energies and time for reaction completion, i.e.,
greater structural organization in biochar molecule (Downie et al.,
2009). Moreover, volatile content of feedstock is released at higher
pyrolysis temperatures and creates more pores (Shaaban et al.,
2014). Slow pyrolysis increases the porosity of woody biochar
through slow decomposition of the lignin content (Weber and
Quicker, 2018). Typically, specific surface area of the biochar
rapidly enlarges when pyrolysis temperature exceeds a certain
value (for example 400
C), resulting in the thermal condensation
of organic matters and formation of micropores (Li et al., 2019c).
When pyrolyzed at higher temperatures, feedstocks that contain
aromatic lignin core, as well as aliphatic alkyls and ester groups
generate biochars with higher surface areas (Tomczyk et al., 2020).
Eventually, the growth in specific surface area becomes insignifi-
cant at temperatures higher than 800e1000
C (especially, for slow
heating rates), and at temperatures >850
C, the shrinkage of solid
matrix leads to decreased porosity. It should be noted that the wall
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
between two adjacent micropores could also be destroyed at high
temperatures under some conditions (Zhang et al., 2004). The pores
enlargement reduces the micropore volume, but increases the total
biochar pore volume. Another factor deciding the micropore vol-
ume is heating rate. At high heating rate the biomass undergoes
melting which forms macropores, while low heating rate enriches
micropores volume in the produced biochar (Cetin et al., 2004).
Macropores act as feeder pores that transport adsorbed sub-
stances into meso and micro-pores (Downie et al., 2009). Macro-
pores volume is very important for assessing biochar potentials for
sustainable agriculture (e.g., hydrology, aeration, roots movement,
and as niche for soil microorganisms) (Fig. 2, Fig. 7) (Palansooriya
et al., 2019b) (See Section 4.1). Compared to micropores, macro-
pores have lower surface area but higher pore volumes.
2.1.2. Particle-size distribution
The rigidity of the biomass against shrinkage and attrition
during pyrolysis process determined the biochar particle size.
Generally, the particle sizes of the produced biochar are smaller
than those of the un-pyrolyzed biomass. However, agglomeration
may occur during pyrolysis process, leading to the formation of
biochar with larger particle sizes than the starting biomass (Cetin
et al., 2004). Post-mechanical stresses (e.g., during handling) may
also occur, crumbling biochar that is more susceptible than the
original biomass. Biochar particles with smaller size distributions
could be obtained through slow pyrolysis with a heating rate of
5e30
C/min. Particle size has inverse correlation with reaction
temperature. For example, it has been observed that the tendency
for formation of smaller size particles in biochar is increased by
increasing reaction temperature from 450
C to 700
C (Downie
et al., 2009). This could be attributed to the increased vulnera-
bility to attrition due to reduced tensile strength in biomass/
biochar.
Overall, to enhance the mass- and heat-transfer during pyrolysis
reactions, smaller biomass particles are required when higher
heating rates (e.g., 500-105
C/s) are applied. Therefore, the
resulting biochar will be very fine. In contrast, slow pyrolysis (lower
heating rates and longer residence time) provides larger biochar
particles. Apart from reaction temperature and residence time,
higher pyrolysis pressure could render the formation of biochar
with larger particle sizes. Under pressurized pyrolysis, melting and
subsequent particles fusion are more pronounced, triggering
swelling and the formation of particle clusters (Cetin et al., 2004).
2.1.3. Density
Apparent or bulk density and solid density could be considered
with respect to determination of biochar physical properties.
Typically, an increase in bulk density accompanies with a decrease
in solid density. In general, solid density (i.e., the degree of C
Fig. 2. Biochar macroporosity under scanning electron microscope: A) slow pyrolyzed wood-derived biochar; and B) slow pyrolyzed poultry-manure-derived biochar. Source:
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009a; Downie et al., 2009). "Copyright© Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, 2009”. Courtesy of Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph.
5
structure packing) of biochar is higher than that of the original
biomass as the result of the volatile and condensable compounds
release and formation of graphitic crystallites (Downie et al., 2009).
Solid density of biochar increases with increasing the pyrolysis
temperature (independent of the heating rate), hence causing
higher shrinkage of solid matrix and the degree of carbonization
(Brown et al., 2006). In contrast, biochar has lower bulk density
(typically, ranging 0.3e0.43 g/cm3) due to biomass drying and
carbonization, compared to the wood precursor. However, bulk
density of biochar (activated carbon) could be as high as 0.50 g/cm3
and 0.75 g/cm3 for gas adsorption and decolorization applications,
respectively (Downie et al., 2009).
The residual porosity and turbostratic structure within most
biochars reduce their solid densities to ~1.47e1.7 g/cm (Brown
et al., 2006; Downie et al., 2009). The formation of high-density
turbostratic carbon fiber (from transformation of low-density un-
organized ones) is strengthen by increasing reaction temperature
(regardless of heating rate) and time (Kercher and Nagle, 2002). The
availability of micropores within biochar increases its density,
compared to macro- and mesopores (Downie et al., 2009). It should
be noted that there is no strong correlation between pyrolysis
temperature and biochar bulk density. Typically, the higher the
bulk density of the feedstock used, the higher the bulk density of
the produced biochar would be (Byrne and Nagle, 1997).
2.1.4. Mechanical strength
Biochar solid density and its level of aromaticity and crystal-
linity determine its mechanical strength. In another word, the
mechanical stability directly correlates with density, and hence,
inversely with the porosity. The assessment of mechanical strength
of pyrolyzed biochar was a topic of only few studies (Das et al.,
2015; Zickler et al., 2006). Compared to the virgin wood, mono-
lithic carbonized wood biochar has lower stiffness (37%) and higher
strength (28%) (Byrne and Nagle, 1997). According to these studies,
both reduced moduli and hardness of woody biochar continuously
increase with increases in temperature, finally reaching a plateau at
temperatures between 700 and 2000
C. Any further increases in
pyrolysis temperature would negatively affect these properties in
the generated biochar. Kumar et al. (1999) reported that both
compressive and impact strengths of biochar derived from euca-
lyptus and acacia showed an early decrease in response to tem-
perature elevation (up to 600
C) followed by an improvement
thereafter. However, eucalyptus-derived biochar had a better me-
chanical strength than acacia-derived biochar. They also mentioned
that slow pyrolysis process (heating rate, 4
C/min) would increase
compressive strength, compared to rapid process (30
C/min). This
can be attributed to the fact that rapid heating rate leaves cracks in
the solid structure of biochar by rapid release of volatile matter and
water evaporation. This explanation also justifies why pyrolysis of
6 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
biomass containing lower moisture contents develops biochars
with higher mechanical strengths, compared to their high-
moisture counterparts (Weber and Quicker, 2018). In addition to
moisture content, the orientation and nanocomposite properties of
biomass (high density and high lignin content) can also determine
the mechanical strength of biochar as these properties are almost
not affected during the pyrolysis process (Weber and Quicker,
2018). Therefore, lignocellulose-derived honey-comb structure
and microfibril angle of the cellulose in parent feedstock would be
retained to some extent in the resultant biochar. Compared to the
parent biomass, a higher mechanical strength, but lower anisotropy
and compressive strength are expected in biochar due to higher
molecular order (Downie et al., 2009).
Mechanical strength is important in biochar quality determi-
nation for withstanding tear and wear stresses during environ-
mental applications. On this basis, the harder biomass containing
low ash and high lignin contents, such as fruit stones/pits (e.g., date,
olive, apricot) and nut shells (e.g., walnut, macadamia, hazelnut,
and almond), are more appreciated for biochar production with
excellent mechanical properties (Aygün et al., 2003). In a more
recent study (Das et al., 2015), structure-mechanics properties of
seven waste-derived biochars under different pyrolysis conditions
were investigated. Accordingly, the value of hardness and modulus
increased at high pyrolysis temperature (500
C) and longer resi-
dence time (60 min). Intriguingly, pyrolysis temperature was found
as a more dominant determinant in the biochar mechanical prop-
erties than residence time.
2.2. Chemical properties
Any pyrolysis process could chemically manifest the biomass to
form biochar with diverse properties. The properties of biochar are
mainly determined by feedstock type and pyrolysis temperature. In
fact, biochar properties and functions can be predicted with the
help of data synthesis technique (Li et al., 2019c). Typically, with the
increase in the pyrolysis temperature, biochar yield exponentially
decreases whereas alkalinity (pH) of biochar shows a linear in-
crease (rate, 0.5e1.4/100
C) (Li et al., 2019c). The elevation of pH is
attributed to the thermal decomposition of hydroxyl bonds and
other weak bonds within the biochar structure under high tem-
peratures. In contrast, cation exchange capacity of biochar shows an
inverse relationship with pyrolysis temperature due to the removal
of acidic functional groups (Li et al., 2019c). Generally, biosolids-
derived biochars have the highest cation exchange capacity
because biosolids are rich in minerals (e.g., P, Mg, Ca, Na, and K)
which promote the formation of O-containing functional groups on
the surface of biochar during pyrolysis (Agrafioti et al., 2013). Unlike
ash content, the volatile matter content of biochar is linearly
reduced with increasing pyrolysis temperature. The formation of
ash is due to the left-over inorganic minerals following the
decomposition of H, O, and C in the biomass (Li et al., 2019c). Re-
ductions in these elements are attributed to the destruction of
hydroxyl, azanide, and other weakly-bonded groups in response to
increases in temperature. However, C content (except some volatile
C) decreases very slowly, leading to higher C proportions in the
produced biochar under higher pyrolysis temperatures (Li et al.,
2019c).
In this section, the chemical complexity of biochar is further
discussed by considering microscopic and molecular, and organo-
chemical properties.
2.2.1. Microchemical characteristics
Microchemical characteristics of biochar could affect its super-
ficial sorption properties. These characteristics significantly depend
on the nature and composition of solid phases, the entrapped oils,
their organization, and exhibited electrochemical properties and
functional groups on the biochar surface, all of which are formed
through thermal decomposition of biomass under sub-
stoichiometric O2 condition (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). More
specifically, the pyrolysis of dried biomass (e.g., lignocelluloses)
triggered by the hemolytic cleavage of covalent bonds (in the
biomass being thermally decomposed), releases plenty of free
radicals from inorganics impurities and structural O within biomass
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). During the initial pyrolysis stages,
free radicals may be produced from low atmospheric O2 levels
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). The process continues by the for-
mation of carboxyl and carbonyl groups and their subsequent
cleavage into CO2 and CO (Shafizadeh, 1982).
At the end of the pyrolysis process, biochar residue is formed
from recombination of free radical fragments with each other and
with the substrate in different ways (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b).
As the reaction temperature is elevated (500e600
C), the pro-
portion of the entrained free radicals (measured by electron para-
magnetic resonance spectroscopy) in biochar reaches its maximum
for a given residence time, leading to pyrophoric biochar formation
(Feng et al., 2004). It is worth mentioning that the yield of biochar
produced at 300e600
C mainly depends on the degradation (i.e.,
dehydration and fission reactions) and volatilization rates
(increased by mass- and heat-transfer) of anhydrosugars (such as
levoglucosan) present in the tar (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b).
Beyond this temperature, the dominating product will be gas which
minimizes the biocrude oil, tar, and biochar productions (Kazemi
Shariat Panahi et al., 2019d). Biomass carbonization during pyrol-
ysis step delivers biochar with high C content (>90%) through
removing most of S, N, H, and O contents from the parent biomass.
2.2.1.1. Solid phases and their distribution. Carbon-based phases.
The thermal decomposition of lignocellulosic biomass under py-
rolysis triggers four regions of changes including dehydration, py-
rolysis, graphene nucleation and carbonization with transition
temperatures of 250
C, 350
C, and 600
C (2
C/min heating rate)
under near-atmospheric pressure (Paris et al., 2005). More specif-
ically, dehydration (with slight depolymerization) of cellulosic
content of biomass occurs at <250
C with little mass loss in
biomass (about 3 wt% at 150
C). At this stage, a progressive gain in
C concentration is started when biomass is heated above 150
C.
Compared to original biomass, the 13C-NMR spectral intensity of
biochar produced at 200
C showed weaker signal intensity asso-
ciated to hemicellulose and cellulose structures (O-alkyl C and di-
O-alkyl C), but stronger signals related to lignin (aryl C and O-aryl
C) were recorded (Knicker et al., 2005). From signal intensities, it
was found that a transformation of O-alkyl to aryl C structures is
induced in biochar produced at 250
C.
The onset of the second region (250e350
C) coincides with
decrease in hydrogen-to-carbon (H-to-C) ratio due to progressive
higher loss in O and H than C (Baldock and Smernik, 2002). The
reduction in H-to-C ratios could indicate the formation of struc-
tures with unsaturated C (e.g., aromatic rings). In this region of
changes (i.e., second region), cellulose is completely depolymerized
(pyrolyzed), volatilizing biomass (with significant mass loss) and
forming amorphous C matrix. Up to 81 wt% reduction in starting
biomass could be observed during a pyrolysis at 300
C (Baldock
and Smernik, 2002).
Amorphous C starts transforming into aromatic C and poly-
aromatic graphene sheets at ~330
C and >350
C (third region),
respectively. Higher temperatures (i.e., >600
C, fourth region)
remove most of the remaining non-C atoms via carbonization
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). Moreover, the graphene sheets
continue growing laterally, while their thickness and number of
graphene packets remain constant, at the expense of amorphous C
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
phase and ultimately coalescing, i.e., intersect with adjacent
packets to develop electrical continuity throughout biochar
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). As the result of this transformation,
microporosity improves due to the formation of voids in biochar
structure (i.e., aligned graphene packets are denser than amor-
phous C). An intimate solid mixture of graphene packets and
amorphous C primarily forms the backbone of carbonized biochars
synthesized at higher pyrolysis reaction temperatures (Cohen-Ofri
et al., 2007).
The mass loss in biomass during volatilization (due to dehy-
dration and pyrolysis) mainly link to compositional loss in O, H,
and, to lesser extent, C. These elements could be lost in the form of
H2O (at initial stages by dehydration reactions), hydrocarbons,
gases (i.e., CO2, CO, and H2), and tarry vapors (Antal and Grønli,
2003). Typically, the C content improves from 40 to 50 wt% in
starting biomass to 70e80 wt% in the produced biochar, following
the pyrolysis at 250e600
C. As already mentioned, the C content of
biochar could reach to >90 wt% through carbonization (excluding
chars containing high mineral ash) (Antal and Grønli, 2003).
Entrained minerals. The fate for biomass inorganic content
could be volatilization, entrainment in biochar (Fig. 3), or retention
as discrete mineral phases (Wornat et al., 1995). The distribution
and amount of minerals entrained in biochar is controlled by
biomass and pyrolysis process conditions. Typically, woody
biomass (i.e., forest residues, scrap wood, and sawmill residues)
contain <1 wt% ash contents (Fig. 3A). In contrast, high ash contents
(up to 24 wt%) could be delivered by grain, straw, and grass husks,
which are rich in silica contents (Raveendran et al., 1995). As
already mentioned, the loss of H, O, and C in biomass during py-
rolysis concentrates the mineral content in the biochar, for example
chicken litter- and bone-derived biochars may contain up to 45 wt%
(Koutcheiko et al., 2007) and 84 wt% mineral contents (Purevsuren
et al., 2004), respectively. It has been suggested that biochar yield is
independent of biomass mineral-ash content unless a solid catalyst
is added, i.e., a higher biochar yield could be expected from biomass
containing higher mineral-ash content in the presence of solid
catalyst (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b).
Mineral ash in biochar could also be controlled by pyrolysis
process conditions, particularly reaction temperature, and partial
pressure of CO2, steam and O2 (Bridgwater and Boocock, 2006). At
relatively low temperatures, highly mobile ions such as Cl and K
Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscope micrographs and associated energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy spectra for minerals embedded on engineered biochars’ surfaces. A)
Minerals on surface of poplar-wood-derived biochar, including 1) amorphous SiO2, 2) trace dehydroxylated silicates, 3) CaHPO4 and Ca10(PO4), and 4) CaCO3 and CaO; and B)
minerals on surface of maize-cob-derived biochar, 5) Na2S, 6) Na2CO3 and Na2O, 7) ZnS, and 8) KCl. Source: (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). "Copyright© Johannes Lehmann and
Stephen Joseph, 2009”. Courtesy of Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph.
7
start vaporizing during thermal decomposition of the biomass (Yu
et al., 2005). Similarly, N associated with different organic mole-
cules is vaporized at low temperatures (Schnitzer et al., 2007b). In
contrast, S and P are bonded with complex organic compounds in
the biomass cells, showing good stability at low temperatures.
Compared to Cl and K ions, some biomass cell wall entrapped ions,
such as Ca (also bound to organic acids) and Si (as opal phytolithys
and silica), are released during thermal decomposition at much
higher temperature (Fig. 3) (Bourke, 2007). Magnesium is associ-
ated with organic molecules (through covalent and ionic bonds),
allowing its vaporization only at high reaction temperatures
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). Some organic and inorganic ele-
ments (e.g., Mn and Fe) in the biomass are not eliminated during
pyrolysis, passing therefore, to the biochar residue. Potassium could
be distributed on some biochar matrix, intercalating between
graphene sheets or forming phenoxides. Like K, Ca could also form
phenoxides throughout the biochar matrix (Wornat et al., 1995).
Other mineral elements could be present in the biochar forming
different minerals in minor phases. They may include amorphous
silica, anhydrite (CaSO4), calcium phosphates [Ca3(PO4)2], calcite
(CaCO3), garnet [Ca3Al2(SiO4)(OH)8], gonnardite [(Na, Ca)2(Si,
Al)5O10*3H2O], hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], quartz (SiO2),
sylvite (KCl), and various hydroxides, oxides and nitrates of Zn, Mg,
Mn, Ca, Fe, Al, and Ti (Fig. 3). The existence of some of these min-
erals may complicate the biochar production (e.g., amorphous silica
forms phytoliths, protecting plant C content against degradation)
(Parr and Sullivan, 2005; Smith and White, 2004) or their appli-
cations (e.g., crystalline silica in some biochar is a lung carcinogen)
(Ndirangu et al., 2019).
Overall, inherent minerals of biomass can significantly affect
biochar properties through interaction with its organic contents
during the pyrolysis process (Nan et al., 2018). Accordingly, removal
of these minerals prior to the pyrolysis process could increase the
optimum pyrolysis temperature (370 vs. 330
C) for the biomass
conversion into biochar, compared to pristine biomass with
inherent minerals. Surprisingly, up to 30.1% more C content of
biomass could be sequestrated into biochar in the absence of
biomass inherent minerals while at the same time, lower amounts
of low-molecular-weight organic compounds would be emitted
during pyrolysis (Nan et al., 2018). The removal of biomass minerals
prior to pyrolysis strengthened biochar C skeleton by promoting
8 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
aromatization level, i.e., the formation of C¼C and/or C-C bond/s in
the expense of O-containing functional groups. It is worth
mentioning that the existence of some mineral acids (e.g., H3PO4)
could be beneficial to synthesizing biochars with specific environ-
mental applications. For example, H3PO4 improves C retention and
micropores formation via the insertion of P-O-P into the C lattice.
Such a swollen and amorphous biochar has been shown to possess
a higher adsorption capacity for Pb, compared to its pristine
counterpart (Zhao et al., 2017). Therefore, the type and amount of
minerals in biomass must be optimized according to the intended
environmental application of biochar.
Associated biocrude oils. At reaction temperatures less than
500
C, some of the tarry and oily vapors that have not been
recovered as biocrude oil from the gas stream in a condensation
tower, may condense in biochar pores, forming a multi-phase
substance (Schnitzer et al., 2007a,
2007b,bib_Schnitzer_et_al_2007a,bib_Schnitzer_et_al_2007b). Ac-
cording to Schnitzer et al. (2007a, 2007b), six compound classes,
including (i) N-hetrocyclics, (ii) substituted furans, (iii) phenol and
substituted phenols, (iv) benzene and substituted benzenes, (v)
carbocylics, and (vi) aliphatics may be present as the organic
molecules from the residual biocrude oils on biochars’ surface. Al-
kanes (n-C7-19), alkenes (n-C7:1-19:1), and ethyl- and methyl-
substituted pteridine, pyrozines, pyrimidine, pyridines and pyr-
roles are some prominent N-heterocyclics that exist in biocrude oil
and may left adhering on the biochar surface/pores (Amonette and
Joseph, 2009b). The concentration of alkali and alkaline earth
metallic species in biochar increases in the pyrolysis systems with
poor biocrude oil separation efficiencies. Biochar can absorb up to
27% and 43% of Mg and Ca contents of biocrude oil (Zhang et al.,
2017). Overall, the adsorption of biocrude oil or its components
by biochar could modify the physico-chemical properties of the
produced biochar. Such a biochar may or may not be appropriate
for some applications. For instance, biochar overloaded by alkali
and alkaline earth metals could serve as catalyst in some industries
or could be used to amend soil deficient in these elements. The
presence of biocrude oil-derived compounds such as butenolide
and sesquiterpenes could improve the biochar environmental
application. These two biocrude oil-derived compounds are
respectively vital for some plants germination and microorganisms
growth whereas other biocrude oil-derived compounds such as so-
called smoke vinegar may have biocidal activities (Amonette and
Joseph, 2009b).
The incorporation of biocrude oil-derived compounds may
decrease the efficiency of the biochar. In fact, the adsorption of
heavy organic compounds, particularly aromatics with two or more
fused rings from biocrude oil could significantly decrease the ca-
pacity of biochar for environmental (water and soil) pollution
remediation. Aromatics with fused rings in biocrude oil may also
decrease biochar porosity through porosity-selective effect. When
lower amounts of biocrude oil are present, these negative effects
may also be triggered by single aromatic structures. Nevertheless,
the extent of aromatic adsorption by biochar depends on functional
groups and hydrophobicity of biochar (Zhang et al., 2017).
2.2.1.2. Surface chemistry. The biochar heterogeneous composition
provides rich and varied surface chemistry, exhibiting various basic,
acidic, hydrophobic, and hydrophilic properties based on the py-
rolysis and feedstock conditions. Heteroatoms such as S, P, N, O and
H are associated with aromatic rings, forming various functional
groups on the graphene sheets’ surfaces (Brennan et al., 2001). The
electronegative differences between the C atoms and heteroatoms
cause surface chemical heterogeneity. The functional groups on
biochar surface could be classified into (i) electron acceptors such
as NO2, (C¼O)H, or (C¼O)OH groups that contain empty orbitals,
and (ii) electron donors such as O(C¼O)R, OR, NH2, or OH that
contain a or p electrons (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). On this
basis, carbonyls and phenols are weak acidic groups whereas
carboxyl groups are strong Brønsted acids. On the other hand,
pyrones and chromenes are basic functional groups (Amonette and
Joseph, 2009b). Both basic and acidic sites may be present on the
biochar pores and outer surfaces within micrometers of each other.
This phenomenon could be attributed to the large diversity in
mineral composition and content on biochar surfaces (Fig. 3)
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). Oxides minerals could form
amphoteric sites on biochar surfaces, showing charge changes with
pH modifications, i.e., positively and negatively charged surfaces at
acidic and alkaline conditions, respectively. Similar behavior to
oxides is expected from carbonate minerals due to the presence of
the O in the carbonate anion (Amonette and Joseph, 2009b). In
contrast, a diverse behavior is observed from sulfide minerals upon
their exposure to aqueous solutions. More accurately, seven elec-
trons are eventually released from superficial located S atom on
biochar when oxidized by water or other dissolved oxidants
(Rimstidt and Vaughan, 2003). This phenomenon leads to signifi-
cant variations in surface charge ranging from positive to negative
that is controlled by the S oxidation state (Essington, 2015). It is
worth mentioning that high mineral-ash content may allow heavy
metals incorporation in functional groups (Fig. 8).
A range of different S- and N-based functional groups may also
be detected in biochar, especially those derived from sewage sludge
and manures (Leng et al., 2019). More specifically, the occurrence of
N-functional groups (predominantly, pyridinic nitrogen oxides, and
quaternary, pyrrolic and pyridinic nitrogen) on biochar surface is
primarily linked to biomass protein content that has been modified
through thermal decomposition (i.e., dehydration, dehydrogena-
tion, and deamination) (Leng et al., 2019). Through 13C- and 15N-
NMR of charring peat, it was found that both heterocyclic and ar-
omatic N-containing structures could directly be formed by heat
(i.e., temperature-dependent) (Almendros et al., 2003). Therefore,
biochar N-functional groups could be engineered through modifi-
cation and optimization of biomass composition, pyrolysis process
(particularly, reaction temperature), and N-doping technique. Like
N, S content of the biomass is also significantly determined by
temperature. On this basis, sulfates and sulfonates are more
abundant in biochars produced at lower temperature whereas
sulfidic and thiophenic functional groups are dominant at higher
reaction temperatures (Koutcheiko et al., 2007). It is also possible
that S transforms into an insoluble form (e.g., K2S and CaS) in the
biochar matrix. Sulfur may substitute O in surface oxides or bond to
unsaturated sites in the biochar (Knudsen et al., 2004). The exis-
tence of O-containing groups on biochar surface could be ascribed
to biochar reaction with atmospheric O2 and/or its oxidization with
other gases (e.g., CO2, NO, and O3) or solutions (Amonette and
Joseph, 2009b). Similarly, pyrone groups on the biochar surface
could be due to the adsorption of molecular oxygen (O2_-) or its
dissociate adsorption (O2or O) (Swiatkowski et al., 2004).
Overall, reaction temperature, heating rate, gas composition in
the vicinity of the charring particle, biomass composition, and any
post-modification method (See Section 3.2) may control the rela-
tive concentrations of each of the biochar functional groups
(Amonette and Joseph, 2009b).
2.2.2. Organo-chemical characteristics
Some organo-chemical characteristics of biochars have been
already discussed in previous section (i.e., Section 2.2.1). In general,
the H-to-C ratio drops from ~1.5 in lignocellulosic biomass to 0.5,
following pyrolysis at temperatures higher than 400
C (Graetz and
Skjemstad, 2003). This H-to-C ratio reduction could be attributed to
elemental (N, O, H, and C) concentration changes during biomass
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
thermal decomposition. Typically, O-to-C and H-to-C ratios
(indicative of the degree of aromaticity and maturation) in biochar
reduce at high reaction temperatures and/or extended residence
time (Almendros et al., 2003; Baldock and Smernik, 2002). H-to-C
ratio in biochar could reveal some information about bonding ar-
rangements in analyzed biochar. On this basis, burnt peat showed a
H-to-C ratio equal to 1.3 when most of its C content was either
connected through a hydroxyl group or directly bonded to a proton
(Knicker et al., 2005). If H-to-C ratio drops to 0.4e0.6, it indicates
that on average every second to third C is connected to a proton
(Knicker et al., 2005). The more graphitic-like structure of the
compounds, the lower H-to-C ratio will be (e.g., <0.1 in lignite and
soot).
Besides the pyrolysis and biomass conditions, the chemical
composition (such as H-to-C and O-to-C ratios) of biochar could be
engineered through chemical treatment. For example, nitric acid-
treated biochars have lower H-to-C but higher O-to-C ratios
(Trompowsky et al., 2005). Artificial aging of the biochar through
heat-incubation treatment showed a reduction in organic contents
that correlated well with temperature rise (Cheng et al., 2008). In
contrast, organic contents were enriched as the temperature was
increased (up to certain points) when biochar was aged at O-
reduced environment. Typically, biochar contains [500 mg/g
organic contents; however, the organic content in grass- and
manure-based biochars may be less than 500 mg/g (Knicker et al.,
2005).
Overall, the biomass pyrolysis at >350
C produces low H-to-C
ratios biochars containing alkyl C, and O-alkyl C with dominated
aromatic (aryl) C. Higher temperature (>500
C) and prolonged
residence time further enriches aryl C structures at the expense of
removing plant-characteristics functional group C structures (e.g.,
O-alkyl C), leading to greater mass loss and very low H-to-C ratios.
3. Engineering biochar production techniques
Any specific environmental application uses biochar with spe-
cific adsorption properties. In other word, biochar could be engi-
neered to suit better for intended environmental application by
modification of its physico-chemical properties such as specific
surface area, surface functional groups, and pore structures. This
engineering could be conducted through various techniques
ranging from physical or chemical to biological methods.
Fig. 4 depicts three activation methods that are used for
upgrading biochar properties and compares the improvements
achieved to the original properties of pristine biochar. In Fig. 5,
some biochar modification methods are presented.
3.1. Physical techniques
Pore structure improvement and oxygenic functional groups
induction could be economically achieved by physically modified
biochar with no impurities added. Ball milling, gas or steam acti-
vation, microwave, and magnetic modifications are some of the
most applied physical methods for biochar properties improve-
ment. The physically modified biochar displayed higher adsorption
capacity for organic pollutants, nutrient elements, and heavy metal
elements due to improved specific surface area with more abun-
dant mesopores and micropores (Wang et al., 2017a). The appli-
cation of clean and easily controlled agents makes physical
methods safer and results in cheaper biochars which are free of
impurities, compared to chemical ones.
Table 2 summarizes some physical activation and modification
techniques commonly used for engineering biochar with enhanced
properties.
9
3.1.1. Ball milling modification
The properties of biochar (i.e., particle size and specific surface
area) for adsorbing inorganic and organic ions could be engineered
through its grinding via physical ball milling (Cai et al., 2016; Lyu
et al., 2018a). For example, the surface area of a corn-stover-based
biochar could be improved more than 3.2 times, reaching 194 m2/
g, through optimized planetary ball mill process (Peterson et al.,
2012). In addition to micropores and surface area, the functional
groups within biochar could be modified in the presence of
appropriate chemical during ball milling, a process known as
chemical ball milling (Wang et al., 2017a). Compared to pristine
biochar, ball milled biochar displayed higher affinity for Ni and
methylene blue removals (Lyu et al., 2018a). Through ball milling,
nano-sized biochar could be produced with comparable perfor-
mance to those of carbon nanotubes and activated carbon with
respect to organic and inorganic contaminants removal (Shan et al.,
2016). However, it should also be noted that the biochar dis-
persibility in water has direct relationship with the intensity of ball
mill process, restricting ball milled biochar application in soil and
water remediation. More specifically, the lower size biochar parti-
cles will either move downward in the saturated sandy soil or are
prone to erosion by wind or water (i.e., surface run-off). If ball
milled biochar is used for contaminants (such as pesticides)
remediation, there will be a risk for subsequent contamination of
groundwater upon possible erosion (Wang et al., 2017a). This
constraint can be overcome in future studies by developing
methods for stabilizing grinded biochar.
3.1.2. Gas/steam activation
The positive properties of the biochar could be almost double
through its activation by gas/steam, i.e., air, CO2, water vapor, etc.
With respect to agriculture, this method delivers biochar with
higher nutrient retention, which could be taken up by plants
(Borchard et al., 2012). This improvement could be attributed to the
development of activated carbon during which process
(700e1100
C) the porosity formation in biochar is induced, its
surface area improved, and its surface reactivity degree increased
substantially (Fig. 4C) (Wang et al., 2017a). This activation method
also removes products of incomplete combustion and other im-
purities from biochar. On the other hand, steam activation de-
creases the availability of functional groups on the surface of the
biochar (Fig. 4C). For example, carboxylic acid, that is labile to this
process, will be degraded, resulting in production of less oxidized
biochar. As the carboxyl group acts as a binding site for heavy
metals (Pourret and Houben, 2018; Uchimiya et al., 2012), it is ex-
pected that the metal remediation is negatively impacted by gas/
steam activation. Like carboxyl group, phenolic group is also sus-
ceptible to this process, resulting in the formation of less polar
biochar.
Overall, gas/steam activation could be used as a preliminary
treatment for extending the biochar surface area prior to a second
technique aiming at positively modifying biochar functional
groups.
3.1.3. Microwave modification
Microwave is an electromagnetic base irradiation (frequencies
of 0.03e300 GHz, wavelengths of 0.01e1 m) that could be effi-
ciently (with respect to time and energy) applied with ease of
control (Tabatabaei et al., 2019a). The microwave-pyrolysis could be
conducted at low reaction temperature of around 200e300
C with
biochar yield of more than 60 wt%. When polar molecules are
subjected to microwave irradiation, polarization (i.e., dipole
orientation) occurs, displacing electrons surrounding atoms or
nuclei trillion times per second. Rotating molecules rub against
each other producing heat (Yek et al., 2020). In addition to friction,
10 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

Fig. 4. A comparison between different activation methods for engineering biochar with respect to sorption characteristics. A) Pristine biochar; B) acid-treated biochar; C) gas/
steam-activated biochar; and D) alkali-treated biochar. Adopted from (Sizmur et al., 2017). With permission from Elsevier. Copyright©2017.

Maxwell-Wagner and conduction are the other two mechanisms
for thermal energy generation during microwave irradiation
(Tabatabaei et al., 2019a). The application of microwaves in pyrol-
ysis is relatively a novel methodology for speeding up the process.
Moreover, pyrolysis through microwave irradiation does not
require the biomass shredding step nor drying (Bhaskar and
Pandey, 2015). Through this strategy, a uniform thermal energy
could be internally transferred within the biomass directed to-
wards the reactants’ functional groups. The resultant biochar would
have larger surface area (a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, BET, up to
450e800 m2/g) as well as more functional groups, compared to
unmodified biochar (Wang et al., 2017a). If this engineered biochar
is used as an agent in sustainable environmental management, it
could improve soil water holding capacity as well as cation ex-
change capacity (Fig. 7).
3.1.4. Magnetic biochar
The main constraint on the way of application of grinded bio-
char in water purification is its minute particle size and small
density, making its separation from water complicated after the
wastewater treatment. Delayed separation of biochar that has
adsorbed various contaminants from water will induce secondary
pollution, preventing the regeneration and recycling of the biochar
(Nguyen et al., 2013). An efficient solution would be the combina-
tion of biochar with a suitable magnetic medium such as zero-
valent iron (Fe0), CoFe2O4, gamma-Fe2O3, and Fe3O4 (Fig. 5B).
Through this strategy, the engineered biochar could be collected
from aqueous solution by imposing a magnetic force. The incor-
poration of Fe oxides in biochar improves its cation exchange and
its metal binding capacities (i.e., higher surface area and functional
groups availability) (Fig. 8). However, magnetic impregnation di-
minishes phenol sorption probably by enhancing C oxidation.
The successful encapsulation may require an appropriate
coupling reagent to prevent falling out of magnetic nanoparticles
from the biochar matrix. Accordingly, the surface encapsulation of
Fe3O4 particles on biochar is promised by incorporation of the
amino-terminated 3-Triethoxysilylpropylamine as a coupling re-
agent, efficiently linking the magnetic nanoparticles with biochar
(Zhou et al., 2018). It should be noted that functional modification
(See Section 3.2.2) is commonly applied in conjunction with
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462 11

Fig. 5. A comparison between different modification methods for engineering biochar with respect to sorption characteristics. A) Pristine biochar; chemical impregnation/coating
by B) metal oxides, C) clay minerals, D) organic compounds such as amino groups, polyethylenimine, chitosan or graphene oxide and E) carbon nanotubes; and F) microbial
modification.

Table 2
Effects of some physical modification techniques on biochar properties.

Technique Enhanced properties Negative effect/disadvantage Ref.

Ball milling - Particle size -Increased dispersibility in water (Lyu et al., 2018a; Peterson et al.,
modification - Specific surface area -Vulnerability to surface runoff 2012)
-Contaminating ground water upon biochar erosion
Gas/steam - Porosity -Reduced availability of surface functional groups (e.g., carboxylic (Borchard et al., 2012; Chang et al.,
activation - Surface area acid, phenolic) 2000)
- Nutrient retention - Formation of less polar biochar
-Biochar purity - Lowered metal remediation efficiency
Microwave - Biochar production yield (i.e., >60 wt -Low process reproducibility due to difficulty of controlling power and (Wan et al., 2009; Zhao et al.,
modification %) temperature 2010)
- Biochar production speed
- Surface area
- Functional groups availability
- Cation exchange capacity
Magnetic biochar - Separation characteristics - Diminished sorption of phenol (due to enhanced C oxidation) (Trakal et al., 2016; Zhou et al.,
- Cation exchange and metal binding - Often requires coupling reagent 2018)
capacities - Loss in biochar surface area and partial blockage of pores by
magnetic medium

magnetic modification of biochar to compensate for any loss in
biochar surface area due to the blockage of biochar pores by mag-
netic medium. Through this strategy, the functional groups are
enriched in biochar which in turn improve its adsorption selectivity
and capacity to desired chemical species (i.e., heavy metals). Amino
and amide, carboxyl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, and sulfonyl are some
functional groups containing some coordinate atoms (e.g., N, O, or
S) that can chelate with metal ions (Fig. 5) (Zhou et al., 2018).
Among them, carboxyl group render a strong affinity to coordinate
with metal ions due to ion exchange, electrostatic interaction
(between the positively charged metal cation and negatively
charged carboxyl anion), and complexation (Fig. 8) (Yu et al., 2017b;
Zhou et al., 2018).
3.2. Chemical techniques
Chemical-based techniques involve the activation of biomass/
biochar in the presence of chemicals and inert gas. More specif-
ically, acids or bases could be used for oxidation of biochar,
improving micropores, surface area, cation exchange capacity, and
12 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

Fig. 6. The motivation for biochar application in sustainable environmental management.

Fig. 7. Biochar impact on soil nutrient leaching: 1) porous biochar particles improve water retention by adsorbing it and reducing its mobility; 2) weathered biochar improves soil
aggregation by binding to other soil particles; 3) and 4) to a lesser extent, fresh biochar sorbs hydrophobic organic nutrients; 5) the weathered biochar also increases soil cation
exchange capacity due to increase in biochar surface charge; and 6) consequently soil biota is enriched. Source: (Major et al., 2009). "Copyright© Johannes Lehmann and Stephen
Joseph, 2009”. Courtesy of Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph.

functional groups availability of biochar (Fig. 4B, D). Alternatively,
biochar could be impregnated with clays, carbonaceous and
organic compounds (e.g., amino groups, polyethylenimine, chito-
san, carbon nanotubes, and graphene oxide), metal oxides, and
(functional) nanoparticles to synthesize composite (Fig. 5BeD, F).
Typically, this modification type uses high-surface-area biochar as
scaffold for supporting the materials deposition. The outcome of
such strategy is the production of completely new biochar surface
functional groups.
3.2.1. Oxidizing modification
This technique could either be used for chemical modification of
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
Fig. 8. Heavy metal removal mechanisms by engineered biochar activated/modified different methods (Wang et al., 2019). With permission from Elsevier. Copyright©2019. License
Number: 4741561425430.
biomass prior to pyrolysis (also known as in-situ modification) or
biochar modification after pyrolysis (also known as post-
modification). Chemical modification in the presence of appro-
priate oxidant efficiently enhances the sorption capacity and heavy
metals uptake of biochar (Table 3). These improvements could be
attributed to the induced affinity of carbonyl (negatively charged
groups) in biochar for binding with positively charged metals,
particularly following acid-treatment (Fig. 4B, D) (Wang et al.,
2017a). Acids (e.g., H2SO4, H3PO4, HCl, HNO3, and H2O2), alkali
(e.g., KOH and NaOH) and other oxidizing agents (e.g., metal salts
such as KMnO4, and iron chloride hexahydrate) are some of the
chemicals that have been already applied in chemical-based tech-
niques for engineering biochar to obtain desirable properties
(Table 3). It is worth mentioning that the careful selection of
appropriate oxidizing agent could be translated into the production
of more recalcitrant carboxyl-rich biochar that are appreciable for
long-term remediation of heavy metals from soil and water
(Uchimiya et al., 2012). Generally, a larger surface area could be
expected in alkali-treated biochar, compared to pristine or acid-
treated ones. The surge in surface area could be attributed to the
biochar demineralization during acid or alkali treatment (Fig. 4B,
Table 3
Effects of some oxidants on engineered biochar properties.
Chemical Enhanced properties
reagent
Various - Availability of surface carboxyl groups
acids - Mineral composition tailoring
- Oxygen-containing functional groups
Various - Surface graphite C and/or aromatic functional groups
alkalines - Increasing surface electrostatic attraction, p-p interaction, surface
precipitation, and/or surface complexation
Oxygen - Pore size distribution and surface area (generation of biochar supercapacitor
plasma production)
13
D). More specifically, acid-treatment results in more carboxyl
groups on biochar (Fig. 4B), which is appropriate for better
adsorption of Cu, Pb, Zn (Uchimiya et al., 2012), sulfamethazine
(Vithanage et al., 2015), Cd and oxytetracycline (Aghababaei et al.,
2017). In contrast, alkaline-treatment results in more surface
graphite C and/or aromatic functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl groups)
(Fig. 4D) while increasing surface electrostatic attraction, p-p
interaction, surface precipitation, and/or surface complexation that
are better for As, Cd, tannic acid, and chloramphenicol (Fig. 8).
For application as supercapacitors, biochar powder must be first
activated in the presence of a strong base such as KOH and inert
atmosphere at high temperatures (~960
C) for several hours. The
mixture is then subjected to chemical washing and lengthy drying
steps to develop porous nanostructures with optimal pore-size
distribution over a large surface area (Gupta et al., 2015; Jiang
et al., 2013). However, the economic feasibility of such process is
relatively low; significantly impeding biochar supercapacitors
production. Biochar treatment by oxygen plasma is a more recent
technique for its rapid and cost-efficient activation at temperatures
lower than 150
C. Within the plasma chamber, a controlled flow
rate of the reactive gas (O2) is introduced which is ionized to O* and
Other improvement Ref.
- Induced Sorption capacity and heavy (Mahmoud et al., 2012;
metals uptake Vithanage et al., 2015)
- Environmental persistency (half-life)
Surface area (Ding et al., 2016; Jin et al., 2014)
-
14 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
Oþ, and in turn, plasma under a strong electromagnetic field
generated by excitation radio frequency antenna. The process is
conducted at desired temperature under vacuum for efficient ion
implantation of samples (hold on a plate below the antenna),
modifying the sample surface properties (e.g., pore size distribution
and surface area). Gupta et al. (2015) enhanced the supercapacitor
characteristics (171.4 F/g) of yellow pine biochar by 5-min oxygen
plasma activation. Compared to pristine and conventional base-
activated biochars, 185% and 72.3% improvements in capacitance
were observed. The effects of some oxidizing agents on engineered
biochar properties are summarized in Table 3.
3.2.2. Chemical impregnation/coating
Biochar surface area could be expanded by incorporation of
different nanoparticles or metal oxides onto the biochar through
various chemical impregnation/coating techniques at different
pyrolysis steps (i.e., in-situ or post-modifications) (Fig. 5B). The
advantages of biochar application and nanotechnology could be
combined through the production of biochar-based nano-
composites. Briefly, this win-win solution for both water remedi-
ation and C sequestration could benefit from abundant and cheap
biomass, cost-efficient production process, efficient chemical/
physical surface characteristics, and high functionalities (Lehmann
and Joseph, 2015; Tan et al., 2016). Biochar-based nanoparticles
could be fabricated in three forms (i) nano-metal oxide/hydroxide-
biochar composites, (ii) functional nanoparticles-coated biochar,
and (iii) magnetic biochar composites. The resulting composites
will substantially improve in terms of pore properties (i.e., volume,
size, and distribution), surface area, catalytic degradation ability
(e.g., simultaneous adsorption and degradation of contaminant),
surface active sites availability, functional groups, and even their
separation from aqueous solutions. Overall, foreign particles
impregnation onto pristine biochars is a promising approach for
expanding and enhancing the environmental applications of bio-
char if biological and environmental concerns of nanoparticles have
carefully been identified and appropriately addressed.
3.2.2.1. Nano-metal oxide/hydroxide-biochar composites.
Nano-metal oxide/hydroxide-biochar composites could be pro-
duced via three different techniques, including (i) biomass pre-
treatment by metal salt, (ii) target element enrichment by
bioaccumulation, and (iii) post-pyrolysis metal oxide nanoparticles
insertion.
Biomass pretreatment by metal salt. Metal salts or other suit-
able chemical reagents are used for pretreating biomass prior to
pyrolysis. The immersion of biomass into metal salts solution leads
to the metal ions attachment into the interior or onto the surface of
the biomass. The pyrolysis of this metal ions impregnated biomass
induces the transformation of the attached metal ions into metal
hydroxide or nano-metal oxide, developing biochar-based nano-
composites (Tan et al., 2016). Some of the common metal salts for
this purpose are AlCl3 (transformation into Al2O3/AlOOH) (Zhang
and Gao, 2013), CaCl2 (transformation into CaO) (Fang et al., 2015;
Liu et al., 2016), CoCl2 and Co(NO3)2 (transformation into CoO and
CO3O) (Cho et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2012), FeCl3 (He et al., 2018),
KMnO4 (transformation into MnOx), MgCl2 (transformation into
MgO) (Fang et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2012a), MnCl2 (transformation
into MnO), and Zn(NO3)2 and ZnCl2 (transformation into ZnO) (Gan
et al., 2015). The presence of these metal hydroxides or nano-metal
oxides on the surface of biochar increases the biochar surface area
as well as its reactive area and sites for efficient adsorption of
inorganic and organic contaminants, and heavy metals (Tan et al.,
2016). In an innovative research (Cho et al., 2017), CoCl2-impreg-
nated lignin was pyrolyzed in CO2 environment to form Co/lignin
biochar for catalytic degradation of bromate (BrO 3 ). The CO2-aided
pyrolysis could enhance the thermal cracking of volatile organic
compounds and their subsequent conversion into syngas (i.e., H2
and CO) due to the direct reaction with CO2 (Cho et al., 2017). It is
worth mentioning that syngas evolved during biochar production
could be used for the production of various value-added green fuels
such as butanol, methanol, and CH4 (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al.,
2019c); therefore, significantly improving the economic feasibility
of the process. Moreover, the presence of Co and CO2 showed a
synergistic effect on extending biochar surface area to 599 m2/g
(~100 times greater than that formed in N2 environment) as well as
syngas production (compared to absence of Co impregnation) (Cho
et al., 2017).
He et al. (2018) immersed corn straw into FeCl3*6H2O solution,
and the oven dried biomass was subjected to slow pyrolysis
(600
C, 60 min). Accordingly, a greater thermal stability, more
functional groups, and larger surface area were observed in the
engineered biochar. The improvement allowed up to 400-time
higher As(V) adsorption efficiency through electrostatic attraction
and precipitation mechanisms (Fig. 8), compared to pristine bio-
char (6.80 mg/g vs. 17 mg/g). Recently, MgCl2-pretreated corncob
was pyrolyzed to develop MgO-coated biochar with a calculated
MgO content of 29.9% w/w (Shen et al., 2019). The surface area of
the engineered biochar was extended by about 380 times, reaching
26.56 m2/g, compared to pristine biochar. The Pb removal efficiency
from aqueous solution was also enhanced by 3.2 times. This
improvement was mainly attributed to the adsorption of Pb on
biochar surface (through cation-p interaction) and its precipitation
by MgO coating (Fig. 8) (Shen et al., 2019). Unlike pristine biochar,
the MgO-coated corncob biochar could remediate Pb from soil,
reducing its content by about 51% (from 10.63 to 5.24 mg/L) (Shen
et al., 2019).
Target element enrichment by bioaccumulation. Biomass could
be enriched with specific (target) chemical elements during its
cultivation. Then, the accumulated metal element could be trans-
formed into hydroxide/nano-metal oxide following pyrolysis.
Through this strategy, engineered biochars presenting MgO and
Mg(OH)2 nanoparticles in the surface were developed for efficient
remediation of aqueous phosphate. The starting biomass was
delivered from irrigated tomato plants with 25 mM Mg enrichment
solution (Hoagland solution) twice a week (Yao et al., 2013b).
Currently, many industries consume considerable amounts of
nanoparticles in their products/process, posing environment into
risk. Therefore, an innovative solution may be the remediation of
nanoparticles-contaminated soil and wastewater by suitable
hyperaccumulator plant (Dehhaghi et al., 2019b). The plant could
be subsequently converted into value-added engineered biochar
through the above-mentioned strategy. However, the full potential
of this strategy relies on comprehensive research on the impact of
accumulation of different chemical species (e.g., Al, Ca, Fe, and Mn)
on the biochar physiochemical properties.
Post-pyrolysis metal oxide nanoparticles insertion. Heat
treatment, evaporative method, direct hydrolysis, and conventional
wet impregnation are the most widely applied techniques for post-
pyrolysis metal oxide nanoparticles insertion. These techniques
have successfully been employed by different researchers for en-
gineering biochar in the presence of metal oxides. For example,
micro/nano-MnOx porous biochar composite was synthesized,
following the heat treatment of KMnO4-biochar mixture (Song
et al., 2014). The resulting composite could efficiently adsorb
Cu2þ (160 mg/g, ~8.2-time higher than pristine biochar) on O-
containing functional groups and MnOx mainly through forming
inner-sphere complexes. Wang et al. (2015a) engineered a biochar
for remediating Pb(II) with removal yield of 98.9% (~15.5-time
higher than pristine biochar) by loading amorphous hydrous
MnO on biochar through conventional wet impregnation
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
technique. Improvements in the removal efficiency of fabricated
MnO-biochar could be attributed to the decrease in pH at the point
of zero charge (pHPZC) and increase in surface hydroxyls and elec-
trostatic interactions (Fig. 8). In another study, an evaporative
method was used for amendment of biochar with iron oxides in the
presence of Fe(NO3)3.9H2O, delivering up to 2.5 order of magnitude
higher surface area than iron-oxide-amended sand (Cope et al.,
2014). Qian et al. (2013) used AlCl3 solution as immersion solu-
tion for production of 0.6 M Al(III)-modified crop (peanut, soybean,
and rice) straw-derived biochars. As the result of this direct
impregnation modification, biochars’ surface negative charges
changed into positive in acidic environment and the biochars’ zeta
potential-pH curves shifted into a positive-value direction. The
engineered biochars were granted an enhanced sorption of arse-
nate [445e667 mmol As(V)/kg biochar at pH 5], owing to the
electrostatic attraction between the heavy metal and the
positively-charged surfaces on the biochars (Fig. 8) (Qian et al.,
2013).
3.2.2.2. Functional nanoparticles-coating. Synthesis of functional
nanoparticles-coated biochar could be either through in-situ or
post-modifications. Through this strategy, various kinds of func-
tional nanoparticles such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, chitosan,
graphitic C3N4, graphene oxide, Fe0 nanoparticles, layered double
hydroxides (LDHs), and ZnS nanocrystals could be economically
coated onto the biochar surface (Fig. 5D, F). The resulting functional
nanoparticles-coated biochar displays superb capabilities for
various contaminants removal, owing to the combined advantages
of functional nanoparticles and biochar matrix. More specifically,
thermal stability, porosity, surface area, and surface functional
groups are significantly improved in biochar (Tan et al., 2016). A
characteristic simultaneous adsorption and degradation of organic
contaminants could be obtained through dispersion of appropriate
oxidative/reductive and catalytic nanoparticles (e.g., graphitic C3N4
and Fe0) on biochar surface.
Precoating biomass with functional nanoparticles. First, the
desired functional nanoparticles are suspended in deionized water
and homogenized by sonication. Then, biomass is immersed into
this solution and subsequently dried in oven prior to pyrolysis.
Through this strategy, Zhang et al. (2012b) pyrolyzed graphene-/
pyrene-derivative-treated biomass into a biochar with graphene
skin . The engineered graphene-coated biochar showed a signifi-
cant methylene blue adsorption. In another study, graphene was
linked onto the biochar surface by p-p interactions via slow py-
rolysis, forming a graphene/biochar composite (Fig. 5F) with high
Hg and phenanthrene removal efficiencies. Compared to pristine
biochar, the engineered one had more functional groups, larger
surface area, and greater thermal stability (Tang et al., 2015).
Biochar could also be modified by carbon nanotube via pre-
coating biomass with functional nanoparticles (i.e., dip-coating).
For instance, bagasse or hickory biomass was dip-coated in car-
bon nanotube suspensions in the presence of an appropriate
dispersion aiding compound (i.e., sodium dodecylbenzenesulfo-
nate) (Inyang et al., 2015). The process continued by slow pyro-
lyzing the pretreated biomass at 600
C in a N2 environment. Up to
86% and 71% sulfapyridine and Pb could be simultaneously
(without competition) removed by the engineered biochars,
respectively (Inyang et al., 2015). Hybride multi-walled carbon
nanotube-coated biochars were also synthesized by dip-coating
same types of biomass into carboxyl-functionalized carbon nano-
tube suspension, allowing better methylene blue sorption via
electrostatic attraction (Inyang et al., 2014). The improvement in
the dye removal could be attributed to the larger pore volumes
(0.14e0.22 cc/g) and surface areas (351e390 m2/g), and greater
thermal stabilities.
15
Post-pyrolysis functional nanoparticles impregnation. Chito-
san (Zhang et al., 2015), hydrogel (Karakoyun et al., 2011), Mg/Al
(Tan et al., 2016), ZnS nanocrystals (Yan et al., 2014), LDHs, and Fe0
(Devi and Saroha, 2015; Yan et al., 2015) are some of the most
common functional nanoparticles that have successfully been
deposited on the C surface within the biochar matrix through post-
pyrolysis functional nanoparticles impregnation technique.
Through this technique, appropriate active sites for selective
sorption of desired contaminants from aqueous solutions could be
introduced on the biochar matrix. Despite partial biochar pore
blockage by functional nanoparticles coating, the resulting biochar
has a superior over that of the pristine one due to the favorable
properties of functional nanoparticles (Tan et al., 2016). For
example, post-pyrolysis impregnation of chitosan nanoparticles
reduces the biochar surface area, but enhances the metal ions (e.g.,
Cd2þ, Cu2þ, and Pb2þ) adsorption performance by forming amine
functional groups on the biochar surface (Wei et al., 2018b). This
engineered biochar was prepared in three steps; (i) paper mill
sludge pyrolysis at 700
C, (ii) addition of the produced biochar into
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide solution (0.1e0.8%, CTMB), fol-
lowed by impregnation of Fe0 on biochar-CTMB complex
(1000 rpm, 30 min) to form Fe0 magnetic biochar composite (ZVI-
MBC), and (iii) NiCl2.6H2O doping on filtered, distilled-water
washed, and oven dried (at 95
C) solid ZVI-MBC residues to form
Ni-ZVI-MBC (dip-coating technique) (Devi and Saroha, 2015). This
engineered biochar showed a characteristic pentachlorophenol
removal mechanism (simultaneous adsorption and dechlorina-
tion), delivering higher remediating performance (i.e., adsorption
efficiency and rate). The improvement could be attributed to the
catalytic action of Ni, that prevented the accumulation of the
pentachlorophenol on the surface of the engineered biochar
through its degradation (i.e., dechlorination), following its adsorp-
tion. Polymerization technique could be used for the conversion of
the exhausted engineered biochar into bricks with negligible
pentachlorophenol and heavy metal leaching and good compres-
sive strength (Devi and Saroha, 2015).
Yan et al. (2014) boosted the Pb2þ adsorption capacity (up to 10-
time, reaching ~367.7 mg/g) in magnetic biochar by its decoration
with ZnS nanocrystals in a polyol solution. The engineered mag-
netic biochar/ZnS composites; therefore, possessed high Pb2þ
removal capacity and excellent superparamagnetic properties (i.e.,
easy separation). In another study, a peanut shell-derived biochar
was modified through post-pyrolysis MnO nanoparticles impreg-
nation for efficient sequestration of Cd2þ and Pb2þ at different pH
(ranging 3e7) with minimized Mn leaching at acidic pH (Wan et al.,
2018). The engineered biochar was recyclable and captured the
mentioned target heavy metals through specific inner-sphere
complexation. Prior to preferable sorption through the Donnan
membrane effect, Cd2þ and Pb2þ permeated into the biochar pore
channels and were pre-enriched due to the inducing effect of fixed
negatively charged O-containing groups on the engineered biochar
(Wan et al., 2018). Recently, Mortazavian et al. (2019) impregnated
Fe0 nanoparticles on the heat-treated (300
C, ambient air) pine
tree-derived commercial biochar, forming biochar/Fe0 nano-
particles composite. The hydrophilicity and the O-containing
functional groups availability in heat treated biochar increased by
increasing the heating time. The composite could remove organic
contaminant, particularly trichloroethylene (88% removal effi-
ciency in 20 min) and p-nitrosodimethylaniline (Mortazavian et al.,
2019).
Overall, post-pyrolysis functional nanoparticles impregnation
technique could significantly improve the removal performances of
engineered biochar, masking its shortcoming of partial blockage of
biochar pores. However, for maximum exploitation, research spe-
cifically targeting at minimizing the negative impact of post-
16 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
pyrolysis functional nanoparticles impregnation technique on sur-
face area must be conducted.
3.2.3. Clay-coating
The application of clay minerals in industry is gaining attention
due to some significant physico-chemical characteristics
(Rahimzadeh et al., 2018), including high surface area, particle size
and shape, and surface chemistry (Yao et al., 2014). More specif-
ically, organic and inorganic pollutants (e.g., dyes and heavy metals)
could be efficiently adsorbed by clay minerals. Bentonite and other
montmorillonite are low-cost adsorbents that have been already
applied for eutrophication and pollution management
(Rahimzadeh et al., 2018). Another most studied clay mineral is
kaolinite (with surface exchange sites), a layered silicate mineral
containing one tetrahedral sheet linked through O atoms to
alumina octahedral sheet (Yao et al., 2014). Montmorillonite is also
a mineral with negatively charged expandable layered silicates,
consisting of one octahedral and two tetrahedral units establishing
a 10-A
-thick platelet (Yao et al., 2014).
Unlike physical modifications, chemical-based techniques also
allow the engineering of biochar mineral compositions. Clay-
biochar composite could be produced through either in-situ or
post-modifications techniques. Apparently, the first attempt on
synthesis of such composites dates to 2014 in which three types of
biomass were pretreated by kaolinite and montmorillonite sus-
pensions prior to pyrolysis (600
C, N2 environment, and 60 min)
(Yao et al., 2014). Accordingly, the dye (i.e., methylene blue)
adsorption capability of the engineered biochars increased about
five times, compared to pristine ones, due to electrostatic attraction
and ion exchange with biochar and clay, respectively. The engi-
neered biochars showed a stable dye adsorption capacity of
~7.9 mg/g, following recycling and reusing (Yao et al., 2014).
The versatility of clay-coating technique was also exploited by
Takaya et al. (2016) for phosphate recovery from wastewaters by
Mg-impregnated biochar (Fig. 5C). Accordingly, the phosphate
adsorption capacity of biochar derived from oak wood increased up
to ~31.6-33-5 times, reaching 70.3%. The modification involved
biochar treatment with iron chloride hexahydrate in the presence
of MgCl2.6H2O and subjecting it to another pyrolysis (600
C, 10
C/
min heating rate, 5 mL/min N2, and 60 min).
3.3. Biological techniques
Microorganisms possess different metabolic pathways
(Mohammadipanah and Dehhaghi, 2017; Wink et al., 2017),
allowing them to assimilate broad range of organic compounds
(including contaminants and wastes) into usually safer metabolites
(Dehhaghi et al., 2019a, 2019b) and even value-added products
(Dehhaghi et al., 2018; Sajedi et al., 2018), particularly therapeutic
lead compounds (Dehhaghi et al., 2020 ; Dehhaghi et al., 2019c,
2019d). Thanks to their microscopic size, they can penetrate minute
pores and develop a biofilm, which is a rigid structure able to
prevent them from washing out. Microorganisms could biochemi-
cally modify inert biochar through colonization and biofilms gen-
eration on its high surface area (Fig. 5E). This post-modification
technique allows engineering biochar with desirable properties.
More specifically, a simultaneous adsorption of organic contami-
nants and their degradation by biochar scaffold and inoculated
microorganisms could be observed, respectively. It should be noted
that some microorganisms are superb bio-adsorbent of a number of
heavy metals (Hamedi et al., 2015b; Mohammadipanah et al.,
2015). On this basis, the colonization of a microbial consortium
sourced from process water oil sands mining operations on biochar
allowed the removal and degradation of naphthenic acids (an
organic contaminant) while adsorbing heavy metals (inorganic
contaminant) at the same time (Frankel et al., 2016). Dalahmeh
et al. (2018) investigated biochar eligibility as suitable scaffold for
microbial biofilm and compared it to conventional sand-active
biofilm. The adsorption and biodegradation performances of
these two biofilm scaffolds were investigated at an onsite sewage
treatment facility degrading pharmaceutically active compounds
(i.e., caffeine, carbamazepine, ranitidine, and metoprolol). It was
found that filter made up of biochar-active-biofilm could efficiently
adsorb and degrade >98% carbamazepine, compared to only 7%
removal obtained by sand-active-biofilm after 154 d incubation.
The performances relating to other three pharmaceutically active
compounds were relatively same in both scaffolds (Dalahmeh et al.,
2018).
The residues from anaerobic digestion (AD) of biomass could be
efficiently used for the production of engineered biochar due to
more suitable pH values and redox potential. In fact, the biochar
produced from AD-treated biomass has higher quality in terms of
surface area, anion exchange capacity, surface charge (i.e., more
negatively charged), pH (i.e., more alkaline), and cation exchange
capacity, compared to pristine biochar (Yao et al., 2018). Generally,
this biologically activated biochar could be efficiently applied as ion
exchangers in environmental remediation purposes for seques-
tering both negatively and positively charged ions including heavy
metals and phosphate. The incorporation of such process could
remarkably increase the environmental and economic feasibilities
of biochar production through production of biogas (Dehhaghi
et al., 2019b; Tabatabaei et al., 2019c) and biofertilizer (Shirzad
et al., 2019).
4. Biochar for sustainable environmental management
With respect to sustainable environmental management, bio-
char could be efficiently utilized in two complementary and usually
synergistic objectives, viz., sustainable agriculture and pollution
remediation (Fig. 6). In addition, the production of biochar could
greatly contribute to climate change mitigation (Fig. 6). There are
some good papers that have specifically addressed each application
of engineered biochar, e.g., in remediation (Dai et al., 2019; Mohan
et al., 2014) or in sustainable agriculture (Jiang et al., 2020;
Palansooriya et al., 2019b). Therefore, the current review article
only discusses the mentioned applications briefly.
4.1. Sustainable agriculture
Biochar is gaining attention as a promising soil amendment for
sustainable agriculture, enhancing soil fertility through valorizing
soil enzyme dynamics and nutrient. The biochar impact on soil
could be direct (i.e., nutrient-rich biochar amendment) or indirect
(i.e., modification of soil physiochemical properties such as soil
organic matter, soil aeration, water infiltration, soil hydration, and
water-holding capacity) (Fig. 7). The implementation of biochar
could affect microorganisms (i.e., source of soil enzyme) or
nutrient-leaching effect (i.e., improvement of macro and micro-
nutrient retention). This section discusses various ways by which
biochar could contribute in improving soil quality or minimizing
the environmental burden of intense agriculture to procure the
desired environmental and economic advantages, a so-called sus-
tainable agriculture.
4.1.1. Soil nutritional properties
Analyzing 153 published articles through a meta-analysis study
based on 1254 paired combinations showed that the combined
effects of soil conditions and biochar properties on plant growth
can vary from () 31.8%e974% (Dai et al., 2020). With respect to
biochar, contents of organic C, ash and N, cation exchange capacity,
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
pH, and bulk density are the key determinants. Biochar produced
from biomass pyrolysis can potentially enhance soil fertility, in-
crease soil C storage, and contribute in aggregate formation (El-
Naggar et al., 2018; Marou
sek et al., 2019). Soil organic C (SOC) is
considered as the main component of soil organic matter and used
as an important soil health indicator. On this basis, high SOC con-
tents are associated with improved nutrients and water availability,
resulting in higher soil fertility and crops productivity. In addition,
SOC can increase soil structural stability through improving the
aggregate formations that provide sufficient aeration required for
plant growth (Stott et al., 2018). Compared to total C content, total
organic C content and its composition in biochar are more impor-
tant in terms of plant productivity improvement. Therefore, biochar
intended for long-term soil C storage should possess specific
characteristics such as high content of aromatic compounds and C
matter with low O-to-C ratios (Nguyen et al., 2009; Spokas, 2010).
In better word, pyrolysis process should be performed at high
temperature (500-700
C) to support the conversion of biomass
into a high-content aromatic biochar with an O-to-C ratio similar to
charcoal (i.e., 0.2e0.4) (Baldock and Smernik, 2002; Hammes et al.,
2006). Generally, raising pyrolysis temperature promotes the
degradation of easily decomposable materials, increasing the bio-
char total nutrient content as well as pH and specific surface area
(See Section 2). However, to obtain biochar with specific nutrients,
pyrolysis conditions (especially, reaction temperature) should
carefully be controlled (See Section 2.2.1). Through this strategy, for
example, a N-rich biochar could be delivered by a pyrolysis process
adjusted at 300-400
C. This could be attributed to the stability of
heterocyclic N-containing structures in this temperature range,
allowing their existence following pyrolysis (Cantrell et al., 2012).
Biochar stability in soil also depends on its volatile matter/fixed C
ratio with an optimum of 0.5e1.0 (Amonette et al., 2009). When
added to nutrient-deficient tropical soils, biochar derived from the
nutrients-rich feedstock (i.e., biosolids and manures) are more
effective inducers of plant productivity than those synthesized
from structure-based feedstock (i.e., straw and wood) (Dai et al.,
2020). Cares must be taken not to consume feedstocks containing
environmentally persistent free radicals to produce biochar. The
presence of these compounds significantly inhibits seed germina-
tion, and root and shoot growth through damaging plasma mem-
branes (Liao et al., 2014; Odinga et al., 2020).
In general, biochar can restore the fertility of degraded and low
nutrient soils, and subsequently improves the crop productivity
with few exceptions. Soil fertility is related to various factors such
as nutrient cycling, pH, soil N content, microbial population, cation
exchange capacity, water retention, and C sequestration (Fig. 7). As
already mentioned, the nutrients content as well as their absorp-
tion capacity of biochar could significantly affect soil nutrients
level. In addition to soil nutrient supplementation, the improve in
crop productivity due to biochar amendment of soil could be
attributed to better plants nutrient usage through enhancing nu-
trients retention and decreasing their leaching. As one may expect,
the reports of biochar application for crop productivity improve-
ment in low nutrient soils are more common than those of fertile
and healthy ones (Hussain et al., 2017; Laghari et al., 2015). As an
example, it has been indicated that eucalyptus-derived biochar
could significantly increase sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)
productivity up to 18e22%, compared to the control (Laghari et al.,
2015). In another study it was found that addition of biochar to a
poor-nutrient soil in the North China Plain enhanced the maize
grain yield by 10.7%, compared to the soil treated with commercial
fertilizer (Zheng et al., 2017).
One of the most important modifications of soil physico-
chemical properties by biochar amendment is soil pH optimiza-
tion, allowing higher crop productivity. More specifically, addition
17
of basic biochar to acidic soils can significantly increase the pH,
improving the nutrient bioavailability. In other words, basic biochar
can neutralize soil acidity and increase the soil quality and crop
productivity through enhancing the alkaline nutrients availability
for plants (Cornelissen et al., 2018; Raboin et al., 2016). A recent
large meta-analysis study showed that an average of 9% increase in
soil pH was obtained in the biochar-amended soils (Dai et al., 2020).
A positive correlation was found between plant productivity and
the extent of biochar-amendment of soil, especially in acidic soils
(Jeffery et al., 2011). The increased plant productivity in alkaline soil
which was amended with biochar could be attributed to the
improvement of cation exchange capacity, electron conductivity,
and soil nutrients contents (Liu et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2018).
These improvements were observed even with highly alkaline
biochars that were used for amendment purposes (Dai et al., 2020).
A meta-analysis conducted by Jeffery et al. (2011) showed that the
most favorable effects of biochar amendment on crop productivity
was obtained in soils with medium or coarse texture (13 and 10%
improvement, respectively) and acidic or neutral pH (14 and 13%
improvements, respectively). These improvements are mainly
attributed to higher nutrients availability and water holding ca-
pacity of the treated soil. In contrast, treatment of alkaline soils
with acidic/neutral biochar can reduce the soil pH, enhancing the
solubility and availability of some nutrients such as K and trace
elements. On this basis, oxidizing pristine biochar with HCl or py-
rolyzing switchgrass at low temperatures (i.e., 350
C) are recom-
mended for rehabilitation of calcareous saline-sodic soil (Sadegh-
Zadeh et al., 2018). Typically, the effect of biochar on soil pH
reduction is weak, and hence, a significant improvement in alkaline
soil with respect to nutrient bioavailability might not be achieved
(Lentz and Ippolito, 2012).
In addition to the pH, biochar with high surface area can in-
crease the soil cation exchange capacity, particularly in sandy soils.
Up to 19.4% increase in cation exchange capacity of soil can be
expected by biochar amendment, calculated from meta-analysis of
14 studies with 85 pairs of data (Dai et al., 2020). The effect of such
modification is a reduction in the soil nutrients (e.g., Na, K, Mg, and
Ca) leaching, and therefore, an increase in the soil nutrients avail-
ability for plants (Fig. 7) (Laird et al., 2010). However, the exact
extent of the improvement in the plant productivity depends on
the initial properties of soil (e.g., cation exchange capacity, humic
materials content, and pH) which also explains the inconsistency
observed in the level of the improvements observed in the plant
productivity by different studies. Aged biochars are better soil
cation exchange capacity enhancer than fresh biochars. On this
basis, it has been demonstrated that 15 month-aged biochar
increased cation exchange capacity from 26.2 mmolc/kg (obtained
from treating soil with fresh biochar) to 173 mmolckg1 (Mukherjee
et al., 2014). This higher improvement may be associated with
biochar surface oxidation and formation of more O-containing
functional groups (See Sections 2.2.1.2 and 3.2.1). It is worth
mentioning that the impacts of natural aging of biochar in soil on
biochar’s properties cannot be artificially stimulated accurately. A
meta-analysis of 42 studies quantitatively compared the effects of
freeze-thaw biochar aging, chemical (i.e., oxidation) biochar aging,
and natural field biochar aging on biochar properties (Li et al.,
2019a). Accordingly, freeze-thaw aging methodology is only
appropriate to understand the impacts of changes in biochar
porosity but provides little in terms of element compositions.
Compared to natural process, chemically aged biochars are superior
in terms of surface oxidation in the expense of exogenous elements
importation from oxidants into biochar. In contrast, natural field
aging delivers biochars with significantly higher levels of interior
oxidation (Li et al., 2019a). Biochar type is another important factor
that can affect biochar performance with respect to soil cation
18 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
exchange capacity. El-Naggar et al. (2019) reported that the treat-
ment of sandy soils with three types of biochars, i.e., amursilver-
grass residue, paddy straw, and umbrella tree wood respectively
increased cation exchange capacity by 57%, 67%, and 90%. However,
only paddy straw biochar could enhance cation exchange capacity
in the sandy loam soil.
Another field of interest is biochar application for increasing N
dynamics and retention. It has been well-documented that biochar
can increase soil N content, decrease its leaching, and recover N
fertilizer (Mia et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2013). Biomass compositions
and pyrolysis condition are the two critical factors affecting the
biochar impacts on soil N content. In general, biochar can adsorb
some inorganic N-containing compounds such as ammonia and
nitrate and decreasing N loss by gradually releasing them to plant
roots (Haider et al., 2017; Solaiman and Anawar, 2015). This ca-
pacity depends on biochar surface properties, including cation
exchange capacity, acidic functional groups, and surface area. To
improve the biochar efficiency on decreasing N loss from soil,
various modifications could be considered. For example, ultrasonic
treatment can improve biochar physicochemical characteristics
and adsorption capacity (Feng et al., 2019). It has been documented
that combination of chemical and ultrasonic treatments can in-
crease biochar capacity for NHþ 4 -N absorption by 20%, compared to
the pristine biochar (Chen et al., 2017). The increased adsorption
capacity of modified biochar is potentially associated with alter-
ation in its surface physico-chemical features, particularly
increasing O-containing functional groups availability. The
amounts of NO þ
3 -N and NH4 -N in soils, and C-to-N ratios of soil and
biochar are the indicators to predict the degree of N retention or its
recycling (Nguyen et al., 2017). Generally, biochar shows a higher
affinity for NHþ 
4 -N (372e2102 mg/g) than NO3 -N (171e533 mg/g)
because biochar surface is negatively charged (Zheng et al., 2013a).
The C-to-N ratios of less than 20 indicates the possible minerali-
zation of N in biochar-amended soil by microbes whereas those of
higher than 20 probably result in N immobilization (Nguyen et al.,
2017). The mineralization process reduces the availability of N for
plants and may hence lead to lower plant productivity. The meta-
analysis of 56 studies (1080 pairs of data) published in
2010e2015 revealed that decreases in soil inorganic N (95% of
cases) were obtained within a year after biochar amendment
(Nguyen et al., 2017). On average, biochar reduced about ()10%
and ()11% of soil NO 
3 -N and NO3 -N, respectively (Nguyen et al.,
2017). In addition to residence time of biochar in soil, soil pH, fer-
tilizer type, biochar application rate, pyrolysis temperature, and
biochar surface properties are the other significant determinants of
soil N change dynamics. Therefore, to minimize the negative effects
on plants due to decreased N, biochar must be applied at least a
month before plants cultivation. Alternatively, organic fertilizers
must be applied to decrease the absorption of soil inorganic N by
biochar. The soil N flux is also affected by biochar-induced N fixa-
tion (See Section 4.1.2), nitrification, and/or denitrification pro-
cesses (See Section 4.1.3.3).
Like N, biochar amendment can improve the C concentration
(average, 47.6%) in low nutrient soils while at the same time could
be used as a C sequestration tool to decrease the CO2 content in the
atmosphere. Ultimately, these features improves the soil fertility as
well as the crops productivity (El-Naggar et al., 2015). Compared to
other organic soil additives such as compost and manure, biochar
possesses more stable C component owing to its long C half-lives
ranging from 102-107 years (depends on biomass pyrolysis tem-
perature) (Sa nchez-García et al., 2019). This higher C stability could
be ascribed to biochar’s high condensed aromatic structures (Awad
et al., 2013; Purakayastha et al., 2015). In the first few days-months
of biochar amendment, a positive priming effect increasing the rate
of soil organic content mineralization (decomposition) rate could
be observed. However, on the downside, the amended biochar in
long-term could trigger a biochar negative priming effect and
subsequently inhibit native soil organic content mineralization
(Ventura et al., 2019; Zimmerman and Ouyang, 2019). The
amendment of biochar can increase average soil available P and K
by up to 32.4% and 48.3%, respectively. For soil enrichment with P
and K, sewage sludge or animal manure may be used as biochar
feedstock (Zheng et al., 2013b). Potassium-deficient soils may be
improved by using giant reed biochar pyrolyzed at high-
temperatures (i.e., 600
C) (Zheng et al., 2013b). Recently, Glaser
and Lehr (2019) calculated the effects of biochar amendment on
soil P availability. Unlike the previous studies, they found a signif-
icant improvement in P availability (as high as 4.6 times) following
biochar amendment, regardless of the feedstock that was converted
into biochar. However, they also emphasized that improvement in
soil P availability could only be achieved if biochar were pyrolyzed
at temperatures <600
C and applied at high rates of >10 t/ha.
Moreover, soil pH was found as the main determinant of biochar-
induced soil P availability. No significant improvement was
observed when biochar was added to alkaline soils (pH, >7.5) while
it increased soil P availability in neutral (pH, 6.5e7.5) and acid (pH,
<6.5) soils by up to 2.4 and 5.1 times, respectively (Glaser and Lehr,
2019). Overall, it could be concluded that the application of engi-
neered biochar as a slow-release P fertilizer could prevent P run-off
and eutrophication while providing this limiting nutrient for seed
germination and plant growth.
Regardless of soil type, the presence of biochar may improve soil
water holding capacity by about 10% on average (Dai et al., 2020). A
meta-analysis study (37 articles) revealed that by using biochar, the
permanent wilting point, field capacity, and available water content
of soils were improved on average by 16.7%, 20.4, and 28.5%,
respectively (Edeh et al., 2020). Accordingly, the main determinants
on these biochar-induced improvements (independent of soil type)
were specific surface area, particle size, and porosity of the biochar.
Therefore, biochar could be introduced into sand or low-silt soils to
improve water holding capacity and reduce Ksat of soils; two pa-
rameters required for sustainable management of water. For this
purpose, biochar application rates of 30e70 t/ha is optimum for
coarse texture soils (Edeh et al., 2020). With respect to clay soils,
the amendment by biochar reduces run-off by improving Ksat.
However, water management is more significantly enhanced when
biochar is added to coarse-texture soils, compared to their clay type
counterparts.
4.1.2. Soil biological properties
Soil microorganisms play significant roles in biogeochemical
cycles, decomposing organic matter, suppression of pathogens,
plants growth promoting, and soil health. Several studies have
implicated that biochar can affect soil microbial structure and di-
versity (Table 4). Biochar can change the physico-chemical prop-
erties of soil which could affect the microbial community in soil. In
addition, highly porous structure of biochar provides a microenvi-
ronment for microbial colonization and growth in soil (Awad et al.,
2018; Quilliam et al., 2013). On the other hand, biochar may have
neutral or negative effects on soil microbial community. For
example, Elzobair et al. (2016) reported that soil amendment by
biochar had no significant effect on microbial colonization, struc-
ture, diversity, and enzymatic activities. In another study, biochar
amendment (0.5e5.0 wt%) decreased the total phospholipid fatty
acid content and bacterial population in the soil. However, its
amendment at low ratio (0.5% w/w) could induce the activity of
microbial extracellular enzymes such as b-glucosidase, b-D-cello-
biosidase, and N-acetyl-b-glucosaminidase (Wang et al., 2015b).
This neutral to negative effects could be explained by the fact that
biochar impact on soil microbial population highly depends on soil
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462 19

Table 4
Effects of biochar amendments on soil microbial community.

Biomass/Pyrolysis Amendment Soil type Microbial responses Ref.

temperature rate

Wheat straw/350-550
C 0e3% Slightly acidic - Increase in bacterial gene abundance and decrease in fungal gene abundance. Chen et al.
- Increase in dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activities (2013)
Corn straws/500
C 0.5% Sandy loam - Increase in microbial biomass, particularly Gram-positive bacteria Lu et al.
(2014)


Maize straw/450 C 0e5% Fluvo-aquic - Bacteria abundance was decreased with increasing biochar application rate. Wang et al.
- Increasing soil microbial enzyme activities at 0.5% biochar. (2015b)
Sugar maple or White 5 t/ha Shallow sandy or - No significant effect on microbial community in first year. Noyce et al.
spruce sawdust/400
C sandy loam - A decreased fungi/bacteria ratio in the presence of maple biochar after 2 yr. (2015)
Hardwood/600
C 22.4 mg/ha Aridisol - No effect on microbial biomass, community structure, and enzyme activities. Elzobair
et al. (2016)


Cotton straw/450 C Up to 4.5 t/ Drip-irrigated desert - Increase in soil microbial biomass C (32%), soil microbial biomass N (58%), and basal Liao et al.
ha soil respiration (13%). (2016)
- Increase in b-glucosidase and cellobiohydrolase activities.
- Promoted growth of Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Oak pellet/550
C Up to 20% Weld silt loam - Increase in soil microbial biomass. Jiang et al.
- Increase in abundance of signature PLFAsa of Gram-negative bacteria and actinobacteria. (2016)
Maize straw/400
C 0-50 t/ha Silt loam - No significant effect on the absolute and proportional abundances of Gram positive/Gram Luo et al.
negative bacteria and protozoa. (2017a)
- Increase in absolute and proportional abundances of fungi and the fungi-to-bacteria ratio.
Rice straw/300-700
C 3% Anaerobic paddy - Decrease in denitrifying bacteria abundance and increase in iron-reducing bacteria. Wang et al.
(2017b)
Rice straw/550
C 2250, Yellow-brown, - Decrease in the proportions of Actinobacteria and Ascomycota. Gao et al.
4500 kg/ha tobacco-planting soil - Increase in proportions of the Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Basidiomycota. (2017)
Raw rice husk/500
C 2% River sediment - Decrease in bacterial abundance and diversity. Liu et al.
(2018b)
Wheat straw/350e550
C 20 and 40 t/ Sandy loam - Increase in microbial biomass C. Li et al.
ha - Decrease in soil basal respiration rates. (2018b)
- No significant changes in b-glucosidase activity.
Moso bamboo chips/ 20 and 40 t/ Ferrosols - Increase in microbial biomass C (22.3%) at 20 t/ha of biochar. Li et al.
600
C ha - Decrease in microbial biomass C (17.5%) at 40 t/ha of biochar. (2018a)
- Increase in the relative abundance of Gemmatimonadetes and Thaumarchaeota.
- Decrease in the relative abundance of Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi.
Whole-tree residue/550
C 100 kg/ha Ferrosols - Increase in bacterial diversity. Nguyen
- Increase in the abundance of nitrifiers and pyrogenic C-decomposing bacteria. et al. (2018)
China fir branches/550
C 1 or 3% Mountain acidic red - Increase in the abundance of Gram-positive bacteria and actinomycetes. Li et al.
loam (2019e)
Maize straw/500
C 1% Agricultural field - Increase in activity of dehydrogenase. Li et al.
- Inhibition of urease activity. (2019d)
- Increase in the abundance of Gram-positive bacteria.
Rice hull/400
C Up to 45 t/ha Tobacco lands - Increase in the relative abundances of potential beneficial bacteria such as Aeromicrobium, Chen et al.
Bacillus, Burkholderia, Bradyrhizobium, and Chlorochromatium. (2020)
- Decrease in the relative abundances of denitrifying bacteria.
Leaf or woodchip/300 or 1 or 3% Forest - Increase in the abundance of Burkholderia-Paraburkholderia, Planctomyces, Sphingomonas Zhou et al.
600
C and Singulisphaera. (2020)
a
Phospholipid fatty acid.

and biochar types, and biochar application rates. On this basis, for
example, noticeable changes in soil microbial community can only
be observed when the biochar application rates are sufficiently
high to modify the soil properties such as pH, nutrients content,
and water holding capacity (Li et al., 2019f). The mentioned
physico-chemical parameters are considered as the most important
factors influencing the diversity and population of soil microor-
ganisms (Palansooriya et al., 2019a).
In general, modifications in soil physico-chemical characteristics
control the soil microorganisms’ growth. The high surface area and
porous structure of biochar is important for soil microbial hosting.
Temperature of pyrolysis and type of feedstock are the two
important factors affecting the biochar porosity (See Section 2.1.1).
The enhanced macropores formation at higher pyrolysis reaction
temperature provides suitable habitat for bacteria and fungi, pro-
tecting them against undesirable environmental conditions (See
Section 2.1.1). The deposition of the water molecules and soluble
nutrients such as sugars, ketones, aldehydes, and acids into biochar
macropores provides vital substances for microbial growth (See
Section 2.1.1).
Surface area of biochar is another important factor that
influences the microbial growth and diversity in the soil. Biomass
compositions, pyrolysis conditions, and in-situ and post-
modifications methods significantly control biochar surface area
(See Sections 2 and 3). For example, soybean stover-derived biochar
(300
C and 700
C) displayed 5.61 m2/g and 420.33 m2/g of surface
areas, respectively. Changing biomass type to pine needles deliv-
ered biochars with slightly lowered respective surface areas of
4.09 m2/g and 390.52 m2/g under similar pyrolyzing conditions
(Ahmad et al., 2016). Like porosity, water holding capacity of bio-
char increases with its surface area which could also be translated
into higher growth of soil microorganisms (Mohamed et al., 2016;
Wong et al., 2017).
Biochar application has been implicated to significantly affect
microbial biomass content (Luo et al., 2017b). For instance, it has
been reported that biochar amendment at 10e20 t/ha into P-
limited forest soil increased bacterial/fungal ratio while decreasing
Gram-negative/Gram-positive bacteria ratio (Mitchell et al., 2015).
The addition of oak and grass biochar can significantly increase the
abundance of actinobacteria (i.e. Gram-positive bacteria) compared
to other soil microbial group (Khodadad et al., 2011). Growth
stimulation of actinobacteria in the presence of biochar might be
20 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
closely related to their high ability in pyrogenic C metabolism and
high growth rate in C-rich soils. Diverse bacterial and fungal re-
sponses to biochar amendments might be associated with their
ecological features and physiological characteristics. More specif-
ically, bacteria and fungi are significantly different in terms of
nutrient demands, growth rate, and resistance to environmental
stresses. Compared to fungi, bacteria are more sensitive to the lack
of C source; therefore, high C content in biochar can strongly pro-
mote their growth (Ameloot et al., 2013). In general, fungal hyphae
are larger than bacteria, inhibiting them from colonization in bio-
char pores. Moreover, soil pH generally increases after biochar
addition, making the environment more favorable for bacterial
growth rather than fungi. Soil inorganic N could be modified by
biochar application through impacting N2-fixing bacteria. This
phenomenon biologically increases soil N flux through the con-
version of atmospheric N2 into NH3 by both symbiotic (e.g.,
rhizobia) and free-living (e.g., Azospirillum and Azotobacter spp.)
bacteria. The enrichment of free-living bacteria is due to the bio-
char’s anoxia pores whereas the increase in nodulation of rhizobia
is stimulated through the adsorption of soil N by biochar, the
release of Ca, P, K, Mo, and B, and higher retention of signaling
molecules (e.g., nod factors) (Biederman and Harpole, 2013;
Nguyen et al., 2017). Therefore, the origin of biochar must be
considered before soil applications. For example, soft wood-derived
biochar significantly boosts N fixation in Alder plant by consider-
ably decreasing soil N (Robertson et al., 2012).
Soil microorganisms are a rich source of numerous hydrolytic
extracellular and intracellular enzymes (Mohammadipanah et al.,
2015), which have significant roles in biochemical processes
(Hamedi et al., 2015b). These enzymes are also considered as bio-
indicator of soil quality as they directly reflect the microbial ac-
tivity (Ahmad et al., 2012; Das and Varma, 2010). Biochar amend-
ments can restore degraded soils by improving soil enzyme activity.
For instance, biochar amendment could increase the activity of
some microbial enzymes such as b-glucosidase, b-D-cellobiosidase,
and a-glucosidase (Wang et al., 2015b), which are involved in
nutrient cycling (Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al., 2019a, b). However,
this effect seems to be dependent on biochar amendment rate. For
example, the addition of maize biochar at 0.5 wt% increased the
enzymes activity, while at higher rates (1.0e5.0 wt%) the activity
decreased (Wang et al., 2015b). As revealed by Teutscherova et al.
(2018), biochar alleviated Al toxicity in low-nutrient soil, which
followed by increase in activity of dehydrogenases. On the other
hand, the activity of some hydrolytic enzymes such as b-glucosi-
dase, b-glucosaminidase, and phosphatase significantly decreased
for biochar-amended Acrisol (Teutscherova et al., 2018). The
decreased enzyme activity might be related to the inactivation of
hydrolytic enzymes through their adsorption on the biochar sur-
face. Due to sophisticated nature of enzyme-solid phase in-
teractions, drawing a conclusion about biochar impact on enzyme
activities is difficult. Overall, the impacts of biochar on soil enzymes
can be classified as direct (i.e., microbial enzyme synthesis) and
indirect (i.e., adsorption on biochar surface) effects. Hydrolytic
enzymes are also produced by soil-borne pathogenic microorgan-
isms, disrupting plant growth (i.e., degrading plant cell wall). These
harmful enzymes could be adsorbed by biochar, protecting the
plants from cell wall degradation (Jaiswal et al., 2018).
4.1.3. Greenhouse gases emission
Carbon dioxide can migrate from soil to the atmosphere through
a process, known as “soil respiration” or “soil CO2 emission”. Like
CO2, CH4 and nitrous oxide (NO2) are considered as the main
greenhouse gasses but with greater global warming potentials per
unit mass. The emission of greenhouse gasses from soil could be
impacted by biochar amendments due to modifications in soil
physico-chemical properties (Li et al., 2018b).
4.1.3.1. CO2 emission. Alteration in physico-chemical characteristics
of the soil after biochar application has significant effects on soil
CO2 emissions. The degree of this effect in forest soils varies among
the different investigations. For example, sugar maple biochar
could enhance CO2 emission from forest soils (Mitchell et al., 2015),
whereas up to 31.5% decrease in CO2 flux from pine forest soils was
observed in the presence of unspecified biochar (Sun and Lu, 2014).
Biochar application rate could also be important in CO2 emission
from soil. For example, biochar amendment at high application
rates (10%) increased CO2 emission more significantly, compared to
low biochar application (1%) (Johnson et al., 2017). There are also
studies providing evidence that biochar application had no signif-
icant effects on CO2 emission from forest soils (Sackett et al., 2015;
Zhou et al., 2017). These variations in biochar effects might be
associated with biochar and soil types, biochar application rates,
incubation time, and vegetation.
Overall, the effects of biochar application on CO2 flux can be
explained by four processes; (i) biochar application can influence
the mineralization of soil organic C pool through “priming effects”,
causing an increase in CO2 emission; (ii) biochar can alter the soil
CO2 emission through adsorbing CO2 molecules on its surface; (iii)
biochar can affect the physico-chemical characteristics of soil,
which indirectly change CO2 emission; and (iv) biochar application
can significantly affect soil microbial activities and diversity that
are involved in CO2 metabolism. The stability and the rate of
turnover of biochar in soil determine CO2 emission from soil. 14C- or
13
C-labelling technique is a promising approach for tracing biochar
turnover and its subsequent transformation into different products.
This approach can also determine the contribution of biochar to the
total CO2 emission from soil by differentiating it from the back-
ground of other CO2 sources from soil (Kuzyakov et al., 2014; Wang
et al., 2016). A meta-analysis of the biochar stability in soil inves-
tigated 128 observations from 24 studies that applied 14C- or 13C-
labelling technique (Wang et al., 2016). Accordingly, the biochar
decomposition rate reduces with retention time in soil (i.e., the
duration of the experiments) while its decomposition rate in-
creases logarithmically. Surprisingly, the mean residence times
required for the decomposition of the recalcitrant (97% of total C)
and labile (3% of total C) C contents of biochar were estimated at
556 yr and 108 d, respectively (Wang et al., 2016). However, the
exact retention time for C decomposition mainly depends on soil
clay content, biochar feedstock, and pyrolysis temperature.
4.1.3.2. Soil methane emission. A change in CH4 emission from soils
could be expected following biochar amendment. The effect could
be either suppressive such as CH4 flux from waterlogged rice
paddies (Liu et al., 2011b) or inductive such as CH4 emission from
aerobic and forest soils (Karhu et al., 2011). The increasing CH4
mechanisms following biochar amendment could be through five
processes (Brassard et al., 2016), including (i) increasing the soil C
content, which could be assimilated into CH4 by methanogens (i.e.,
archaea and bacteria); (ii) suppressing CH4 oxidation by meth-
anotrophic activity; (iii) increasing CH4 emission due to off-gassing
from surface and/or pores desorption; (iv) increasing soil pH that
affects methanogens and methanotrophs activities; and (v)
enhancing CH4 production and emission by providing anaerobic
microsites in soil. It is worth mentioning that methanotrophs could
be suppressed by fresh biochar due to existence of inhibitory
compounds such as some metals and organics. Alternatively, fresh
biochar may substitute CH4 substrate as energy source in meth-
anotrophs by some other sorbed organic compounds. Both pro-
cesses result in higher CH4 emission for fresh-biochar-amended
soil.
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
Compared to emission enhancing effect, the CH4 suppression
from soil by biochar amendment is far less common. One possible
suppressive mechanism is through enriching methanotrophs as a
result of improved soil aeration. At the same time, biochar could
also induce the growth of methanogens through increasing dis-
solved organic C content in soil. However, at certain conditions (i.e.,
higher soil aeration), methanotrops population overwhelm that of
the methanogens. Overall, suppressive CH4 emission mechanisms
could be achieved through (i) enhancing CH4 uptake by adsorbing it
on biochar surface and/or increasing CH4 diffusion through the soil,
and (ii) providing a suitable condition for CH4-oxidizing soil bac-
teria by reducing soil density and increasing porosity. In fact, bio-
char application increases aeration and porosity, providing an oxic
condition that in association with higher added C substrate and
enhanced CH4 uptake will result in more CH4 oxidation, production,
and emission (Brassard et al., 2016).
Overall, through a meta-analysis study, it was observed that
biochar amendment in acidic soils that experience periods of
flooding could potentially decrease CH4 emissions (Jeffery et al.,
2016). In contrast, biochar may weaken the CH4 sink strength of
soils, particularly alkaline or neutral ones that do not have flooding
periods. Therefore, water management and soil pH considerations
must be done prior to biochar application if CH4 mitigation is
intended. Soil CH4 flux is also under control of soil N availability. On
a rate dependent basis, the addition of large amounts of NHþ 4 -rich
fertilizers into soil results in a higher emissions of CH4 from soil.
This higher emission is attributed to the fact that NHþ 4 competi-
tively binds to CH4-binding site on biochar, releasing more CH4
(Bedard and Knowles, 1989). On the other hand, low amounts of N
fertilizer could boost CH4 oxidation by enriching methanotrophes
(Bodelier et al., 2000; Nazaries et al., 2013). On this basis, a typical
application of N fertilizer up to 100e140 kg N/ha stimulates CH4
oxidation whereas further increase in N fertilizer inhibits CH4
mitigation in soil (Jeffery et al., 2016).
4.1.3.3. Soil N2O emission. Biochar has been shown to reduce N2O
emission from many farmland soils and forest environments (He
et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2016). Sun and Lu (2014) reported that the
application of biochar at 30 t/ha to forest soil reduced N2O emission
by 25.5%. Furthermore, Xiao et al. (2016) found that biochar
application (5 t/ha) to a Chinese chestnut forest could significantly
decrease cumulative total N2O flux by 20.5%. A recent meta-analysis
using the data compiled across 208 peer-reviewed studies showed
that biochar reduces the emissions of N2O by 32% on average, and
reaching the maximum value at biochar addition rate of >40 t/ha
(Liu et al., 2018a). There are two fundamental mechanisms under-
lying the decreased soil N2O emission. First, biochar amendment
increases soil aeration and O content, prohibiting soil denitrifica-
tion process by denitrifying bacteria, which occurs in O2-limited
condition. Second, biochar has high adsorption capacity that can
adsorb NHþ 
4 and NO3 . This process increases plants growth, im-
mobilizes N compounds, and may decrease NH3 volatilization,
reducing inorganic N pool for N2O-producing microorganisms via
denitrification process (Clough et al., 2013; Van Zwieten et al.,
2010). It should be noted that increase in soil pH and NHþ 4 avail-
ability induces soil NH3 ventilation by shifting the equilibrium from
NHþ 4 towards NH3 (Pan et al., 2016). The addition of biochar to soil
can have a double-edged sword effects on NH3 ventilation. Upon
biochar amendment, NH4 availability is decreased by its adsorption
by the O-containing groups on the surface of biochar (Kastner et al.,
2009). Alternatively, biochar may mediate NH3 formation by
increasing soil pH due to the release of alkaline minerals (e.g., hy-
droxides, oxides, and carbonates of Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn and Zn) (Liu
et al., 2018a). Through a meta-analysis study, it was understood
that the volatilization of NH3 may be increased by up to 19% on
21
average in biochar-amended soils (Liu et al., 2018a). Such increases
were commonly observed in studies where biochar was applied at
high application rates (>40 t/ha), highly alkaline biochar was used
(manure- or straw-derived biochar), or treated soils has low buff-
ering capacities (clay texture, organic C of 10 g/kg, and pH of 5).
There are also some reports highlighting positive or non-
significant effects of biochar application on N2O emission. For
instance, Hawthorne et al. (2017) found that biochar application at
rate of 10% to forest soil greatly increased N2O emission, while no
significant effect was reported after application of lower rate (1%) of
biochar. Overall, the impact of biochar amendment on N2O emis-
sion is complex and significantly depends on biochar chemical
composition and pH, and soil physico-chemical properties. Soil
amended with biochar containing high N and low C (5 g/kg)
contents (e.g., pine chip or walnut shell biochar, manure-derived
biochar, or those pyrolyzed at the temperatures less than 350
C),
as well as high ash content significantly increases N2O emissions.
This increase could also be affected by the original soil N content (N
fertilizers) (Van Zwieten et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2012). Typically,
soil N2O emission either decreased or remained unaffected by
biochar containing C-to-N ratios of greater than 30 (Cayuela et al.,
2014; Verhoeven and Six, 2014). Like C-to-N ratio, the higher the
pH of the biochar, the lower the N2O emission from soil will be. This
is especially true in biochars with high pH (i.e., >9). More specif-
ically, there is a lower proportion of biochar with pH less than 9
(particularly, 7e9) that is associated with either increased or no
effect on N2O emissions (Brassard et al., 2016). Soil moisture con-
dition, determined by the percentage of water filled pore space
(WFPS), controls N2O emission (WFPS <80%) or mitigation (WFPS
>80%) (Bateman and Baggs, 2005). Biochar can improve WFPS and
N2O mitigation by (i) enriching N2O-reducing bacteria, (ii) creating
and maintaining anaerobic microsites owing to biochar hydrophilic
property and its combination with soil micro-aggregates, and (iii)
facilitating the electron transfer to denitrifying microorganisms
due to biochar matrix (acting as electronic conductor) and the ex-
istence of quinone-hydroquinone functional groups (induction of
electron shuttle) on the surface of biochar (Liu et al., 2018a; Sun
et al., 2017).
4.2. Pollution remediation
Biochar is a promising sorbent for various organic and inorganic
pollutants in soil and water due to its high adsorption capacity and
porous structure. These characteristics could specifically be engi-
neered for removal of a specific environmental pollutant.
4.2.1. Inorganic contaminants
Biochar has exhibited a great potential to remove contaminants,
particularly heavy metals from wastewaters due to its high surface
area and microporous structure (Fig. 8). However, high contami-
nant concentrations in aqueous solution could not sufficiently be
treated by pristine biochar. Moreover, the application of grinded
biochar (i.e., engineered through ball milling process) causes diffi-
culties in the biochar separation step due to its small particle size
and density (See Sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.4). To overcome these limi-
tations, several investigations have been focused on the production
of engineered biochar with improved surface properties. In recent
years, engineered biochar have been designed to remove various
types of contaminants with larger surface area, improved func-
tional groups, increased surface-active sites, and ease of separation
(Table 5).
Different types of physico-chemically engineered biochars have
been developed for enhancing heavy metals removal (Table 5). A
detailed explanation of such modification methods with respect to
heavy metals removal has been provided in Section 3. For example,
22 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462

biochar covered with MnOx ultrafine particles showed higher
sorption capacity to adsorb Pb(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II) (Gan et al.,
2015). The MnOx-loaded biochar possessed more O-containing
groups (i.e. hydroxyl groups, phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl
functional groups) on its surface, providing more adsorption sites
for heavy metals. Ding et al. (2016) found that NaOH-modified
biochar had greater capacity to adsorb (2.6e5.8 times) heavy
metals than pristine biochar. Alkali-modification increased biochar
surface area which could, in turn, enhance porosity by increasing
NaOH-C matrix interactions. In addition, alkali-modification
enhanced cation exchange capacity, which might be associated
with increase in O-containing functional groups.
Various heavy metal removal mechanisms by activated/modi-
fied engineered biochars are illustrated in Fig. 8. Biochar can
remove nitrate, phosphate, and ammonia from natural ecosystem,
hence preventing eutrophication, i.e., the excessive growth of
photosynthetic organisms in response to high inorganic nutrients
content in aqueous environment. The eutrophication risks of waste
streams containing P can be minimized by the application of
engineered biochar decorated with LDHs. To achieve this, biomass
is pyrolyzed in the presence of some metal hydroxides such as Ni/
Fe, Mg/Al, and Zn/Al. However, biochar itself may also release some
amounts of nitrate or phosphate to the environment. Generally, the
adsorption of inorganic contaminants by biochar depends on bio-
char surface properties, contaminant type, and pH. Yang et al.
(2019b) found that corn-stalk-Zn/Al-LDH has fast Elovich kinetics
(5,925 mg/g/h) and superior P adsorption capacity (152.1 mg/g), but
the adsorption is pH dependent. Typically, high aqueous pH values
decrease the phosphate adsorption in biochar with negatively
charged surface. Recently, Han et al. (2020) studied the effect of P
on the remediation of Cd by biochar. For this purpose, biochar-
supported nanoscale Fe0 composite was engineered and applied
for Cd removal from the sediments in the Ulansuhai River where
serious eutrophication problems were faced. Interestingly, effective
immobilization of Cd by this engineered biochar through adsorp-
tion and precipitation mechanisms was induced by P in overlying
water. In fact, this biochar could remediate labile fractions of Cd and
aqueous phase P.
In some cases, biochar modification can provide more capacity
for inorganic contaminants removal, compared to the pristine ones.
For example, only 10% of phosphate could be removed by pristine
biochar, compared to 66.7% by MgO-loaded biochar. The enhanced
adsorption could be attributed to high affinity of MgO for phos-
phate in aqueous environment (Yao, 2013). More discussion on the
biochar engineering method for phosphate removals could be
found in Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2. Mg-loaded biochars also display
high adsorption capacities for P (>100 mg/g) through its precipi-
tation and surface deposition of P on Mg (Yao et al., 2013a). The
adsorbed P remains bioavailable, allowing the formulation of slow-
release P fertilizers. When Mg-impregnated biochars are intro-
duced into agricultural soils, the leaching of P could be reduced by
89.25% while at the same time P availability of the surface layer soil
was increased by 3.5 folds (compared to the soil without biochar)
(Chen et al., 2018a).

Table 5
Engineered biochars applications for inorganic contaminants removal.

Biochar/Pyrolysis Type of Effect on contaminant removal Mechanism Ref.

temperature contaminant

Fe/Ca-rich biochar/270- As(V) and Adsorption capacities of 22.8 and 41.6 mg/g - Yoon et al.
720
C Cd(II) for As(V) and Cd(II), respectively. (2017)
Fe-Hichory chips As(V) Maximum As(V) adsorption capacity of Chemisorption mechanism Hu et al.


biochar/600 C 2.16 mg/g, compared to insignificant (2015)
adsorption by pristine biochar
a-FeOOH-nanorods- Cu(II) Increased adsorption of coppera Increased biochar surface area and pore volume Yang et al.
impregnated Biochar/ (adsorption capacity, 144.7 mg/g) (2018)
800
C
Fe3O4ealginate Cu(II) Three times higher than that of the Coordination and ion exchange were the major mechanisms for Cu(II) Yu et al.
modified biochar magnetic biochar, Maximum Cu(II) removal by this engineered biochar. (2017a)
microspheres/800
C adsorption capacity of 40.42 mg/g
CeO2-MoS2 hybrid Pb(II) Enhanced Pb(II) adsorptiona (˃99% removal Improved lectrostatic attraction, CpePb(II) bond interaction, and Li et al.
biochar/600
C efficiency, 6 h) complexation combined processes (2019b)
Magnetic Pb(II) Outstanding Pb(II) adsorption capacity of Multiple interaction mechanisms involved the O-containing groups Yang et al.
electrochemical 113 mg/g and fast kinetics of 0.054 g/mg/h.(complexation with CeO and OeH) and Fe3þ species (FeeOePb bond) (2019a)
Fe3O4/biochar/600
C on the engineered biochar surface.
Biochar-Zn/Al-LDH P Elovich kinetics and P adsorption capacity Interlayer anion exchange and surface complexation Yang et al.
composite/ of 5,925 mg/g/h and 152.1 mg/g, (2019b)
respectively.
Mg-Al and Mg-Fe PO3-
4 Enhanced PO3 4 removal by >95%
a
Interlayer anion exchange and surface adsorption Wan et al.
layered double (2017)
hydroxides biochar/
600
C
Cow dung-derived PO3-
4 Increased PO3
4 adsorption capacity to Precipitation reaction between P salts and Mg compounds Chen et al.
biochar/700
C 345 mg/ga (2018b)
Phosphogypsum- PO3-
4 102.4 mg/g PO3
4 adsorption capacity Electrostatic adsorption, surface precipitation, and ligand exchange Wang et al.
treated biochar/300- (2020)
600
C
Fe3O4-Douglas fir PO3-
4 ~90 mg/g of PO3
4 from water Magnetic removal Karunanayake
biochar/~900
C et al. (2019)
La-biochar/400-600
C PO3-
4 High PO3
4 adsorption capacity of Adsorption on the La-biochar through ligand exchange, complexation, Xu et al. (2019)
36.06 mg P/g and electrostatic interaction.
Cu-biochar composite/ Re(VII) Maximum Re(VII) adsorption capacity of Hybrid mechanism of adsorption Hu et al.
350e500
C 20.91 mg/g, 3e12 times higher than (2018)
pristine biochar
Biochar-supported nano NO
3 High capacity for NO3 removal (75e97%) Magnetite enhanced the reactivity of Fe(0) for nitrate removal Wei et al.
zero-valent iron (2018a)
a
Compared to pristine biochar.
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
Biochar engineered by using ball milling has also attracted some
levels of attention for water purification. Through this method,
micro-nano-engineered nitrogenous cow bone biochar (pyrolyzed
at 600
C) was developed which was capable of removing 165.7,
287.6, and 558.9 mg/g of Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb from water, respec-
tively (Xiao et al., 2020). In another study, the removal of ammo-
nium from water was improved by more than three folds through
ball milling bamboo biochar, compared to pristine biochar (7.0 vs.
22.9 mg/g) (Qin et al., 2019).
Like water medium, heavy metals can be remediated from soil
medium using engineered biochar. Calcium-based magnetic bio-
char, for example, decreases the bioavailability of Cd and As in soil
by transforming these metals into stable fractions (Wu et al., 2020).
Following the addition of this porous biochar, both pH and cation
exchange capacity of the soil increased, leading to Cd remediation.
Moreover, bi-dentate chelate and ternary surface complexes were
formed on iron oxide surface (Wu et al., 2020). Thiol-modified
biochar has also been used for remediation of Pb2þ and Cd2þ
polluted soil with the corresponding maximum adsorption capac-
ities of 61.4 mg/g and 45.1 mg/g (Fan et al., 2020). The engineered
biochar was produced through esterification with ß-mercaptoe-
thanol and reduced the available Cd and Pb in soil by 39.2% and
11.1% after a 28-d incubation (Fan et al., 2020). Biochar amendment
into soil may indirectly remediate heavy metals by enriching mi-
croorganisms that have the capability to remediate heavy metals
(Hamedi et al., 2015a, 2015b).
4.2.2. Organic contaminants
In addition to inorganic pollutants, biochar has potential for
removing hazardous organic compounds such as dyes, antibiotics,
pesticides, oils, phenolics, polynuclear aromatics and persistent
organic pollutants. Generally, the adsorption of organic compounds
on biochar depends on the contaminant type and biochar surface
properties. Accordingly, the adsorption mechanisms for organic
contaminants removal can be classified as pore-filling, p-p inter-
action, electrostatic attraction, cation exchange, hydrophobic in-
teractions, complexes adsorption, and partition uncarbonized
fraction (Dai et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017b). Engineered biochar
has been extensively used to remove organic contaminants. One
example is the enhancement of levofloxacin adsorption by cerium
trichloride-treated biochar (Yi et al., 2018). Cerium treatment could
be associated with increasing the O-containing functional groups
on the surface of biochar. Moreover, CeO2 had mesoporous struc-
ture, thereby could improve the adsorption capacity of biochar (Yi
et al., 2018). Furthermore, Alghazwi et al. (2019) found that ball-
milled biochars had higher sorption capacity (three-fold increase)
for galaxolide, compared to the pristine biochar. In addition to the
improvement of biochar surface area and pore size, the surface
polarity was also increased due to higher availability of O-con-
taining functional groups. The presence of these groups facilitates
organic contaminants sorption through H2 binding and complex-
ation between organic compound and biochar (Liu et al., 2011a).
Engineered biochars are also efficient for the removal of bio-
logical contaminants from water. For example, engineering wood
biochar through H2SO4 oxidation and the consequent increase in
biochar surface area (234.7 m2/g, almost double the area of the
pristine biochar) improved the retention of Escherichia coli from
stormwater (Lau et al., 2017). Recently, the properties of pristine
biochar produced from pyrolyzed banana pseudostem biomass at
600
C was significantly improved by Fe3O4 coating (Gurav et al.,
2020). This engineered biochar showed superparamagnetic prop-
erties and very high surface area and was efficiently used for
removal of the antibiotic furazolidone from wastewater. More
specifically, up to 37.86 mg furazolidone/g of biochar was adsorbed
through chemisorption mechanisms. It should be noted that the
23
removal of antibiotics from wastewaters/agricultural drainage is
very important to avoid emergence of drug-resistant pathogens
(Mohammadipanah et al., 2016) and to prevent new threats to
human and animal health (Dehhaghi and Mohammadipanah, 2017;
Panahi et al., 2016). In addition, it should also be highlighted that
the degradation of these compounds does not necessarily render
them harmless. For instance, biological degradation of furazolidone
may result in the formation of carcinogenic metabolites such as
ß-hydroxyethylhydrazine and 3-amino-2-oxazolidone (Lewkowski
et al., 2019). This further signifies the importance of biochar
application in eliminating them through the adsorption
mechanism.
Biochar engineering increases its efficiency in the removal of
pesticides. In a successful field trial, steam activated (800
C for
45 min) almond shell biochar that was slowly pyrolyzed at 650
C
for 1 h under N2 was used for the removal of dibromo-
chloropropane from well waters (Klasson et al., 2013). The engi-
neered biochar showed a favorable adsorption capacity (up to
102 mg/g) for this soil fumigant pesticide due to the improved
biochar surface area (up to 344 m2/g). With respect to color/dye
removal from water, for example, slow pyrolyzed (at 1000
C) acid-
treated Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) biochar efficiently trapped
methylene blue (22.7 mg/g at 50
C and pH 6e7) in its honeycomb
pore network (mesoporous with average pore diameter of 3 nm)
(Mahmoud et al., 2012). This engineered biochar showed a higher
surface area, higher O content, and almost double fixed C content,
compared to the pristine control. Biochar can also be used for the
removal of solvents from water. Trichloroethylene, for example, has
been removed from water using biochars derived from soybean
stover (Mohan et al., 2014). The adsorption capacities of these
biochar were dependent on pyrolysis temperature. In fact, biochar
produced at the highest temperature (700
C) showed the highest
adsorption capacity for trichloroethylene (32.02 mg/g) (Mohan
et al., 2014).
Biochar can be used in the development of hybrid techniques for
water purification, such as biochar-augmented biofilters, perme-
able reactive barriers, and biochar-based membrane filtration
(Palansooriya et al., 2020). In 2018, a novel chem-bio hybrid system
was constructed using wheat straw biochar-supported nano Fe-S
composite and Corynebacterium variabile HRJ4. This biologically
engineered biochar could efficiently remove and degrade trichlo-
roethylene from water while showing a higher stability and smaller
hydrodynamic diameter, compared to the pristine biochar (Lyu
et al., 2018b). An inorganic-organic hybrid system could be con-
structed through decoration of soft wood biochar composite (py-
rolyzed at 700
C) with TiO2. Compared to the pristine biochar and
TiO2 alone, the photocatalytic degradation efficiency of phenol by
the engineered biochar was significantly improved, i.e., reaching
64.1% under UV light and 33.6% under visible light (Lisowski et al.,
2017). Overall, engineering biochars through hybridization tech-
niques could greatly improve their removal capacity of contami-
nants from water.
5. Conclusions and future prospects
A promising way for addressing current environmental issues is
the application of powerful remediating compounds such as bio-
char. This carbonaceous compound could efficiently mitigate CO2
(i.e., by consuming biomass during pyrolysis) while at the same
time allows sustainable environmental management. More spe-
cifically, biochar could have significant impact on soil biological and
nutritional properties, and greenhouse gases emission; or be used
in pollution remediation. To most effectively exploit biochar's
favorable properties while minimizing the environmental burdens
associated with its application, the physico-chemical properties of
24 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
biochar must be studied carefully. On this basis, adequate knowl-
edge about biochar physical (i.e., nano- and macro-porosity, parti-
cle-size distribution, biochar density, and mechanical strength) and
chemical (i.e., organo-chemical characteristics, solid-phases and
their distribution, and surface chemistry) properties will open the
doors to the development and/or selection of more efficient biochar
production, activation and modification techniques. In general, the
mentioned properties are strictly controlled by biomass composi-
tions and pyrolysis conditions. Depending on the properties, pris-
tine biochar could be upgraded using various physical (i.e., gas/
steam activation, magnetization, and ball milling and microwave
modifications) and/or chemical (i.e., oxidization, chemical impreg-
nation/coating, and functional nanoparticles-coating) techniques
into engineered biochar. Through these strategies, biochar useful
traits such as pore volumes, surface area, superficial functional
groups diversity and availability, active sites, and separation are
highly improved for specific environmental application while its
undesired traits are either kept constant or minimized.
Additionally, technoeconomic analysis of engineered biochar
must be conducted to better understand its sustainability. In this
context, the potential environmental and ecological risks of engi-
neered biochar must be carefully estimated prior to its large-scale
application. It should also be noted that although biochar engi-
neering could resolve some of the negative impacts of pristine
biochar, it could also intensify them if implemented inappropri-
ately. Therefore, future research must also include studying biochar
for each environmental application specifically based on feedstock
type, pyrolysis conditions, and engineering technique. Another
piece of missing information is the lifetime of engineered biochar
as well as the techniques for its collection and recycling. More
specifically, the fate of engineered biochar, especially those con-
taining nanoparticles must be determined to avoid unintended
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of nanoparticles.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank the support provided by the Henan
Agricultural University, Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam), Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM), University of Tehran, Iranian Biofuel So-
ciety (IBS), and Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of
Iran (ABRII). SIM acknowledges the support made by a grant from
the Novo Nordisk Foundation (NNF), Denmark (grant number
NNF10CC1016517). We would also like to thank Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu under Golden Goose Research Grant Scheme (GGRG)
(Vot 55191) for supporting Dr. Lam to perform this joint initiative
with with Henan Agricultural University, University of Tehran, and
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM).
References
€a
Aghababaei, A., Ncibi, M.C., Sillanpa €, M., 2017. Optimized removal of oxytetracy-
cline and cadmium from contaminated waters using chemically-activated and
pyrolyzed biochars from forest and wood-processing residues. Bioresour.
Technol. 239, 28e36.
Aghbashlo, M., Hosseinpour, S., Tabatabaei, M., Soufiyan, M.M., 2019a. Multi-
objective exergetic and technical optimization of a piezoelectric ultrasonic
reactor applied to synthesize biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) using soft
computing techniques. Fuel 235, 100e112.
Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Nadian, M.H., Davoodnia, V., Soltanian, S., 2019b.
Prognostication of lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis behavior using ANFIS
model tuned by PSO algorithm. Fuel 253, 189e198.
Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Soltanian, S., Ghanavati, H., 2019c. Biopower and
biofertilizer production from organic municipal solid waste: an exergoenvir-
onmental analysis. Renew. Energy 143, 64e76.
Agrafioti, E., Bouras, G., Kalderis, D., Diamadopoulos, E., 2013. Biochar production by
sewage sludge pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 101, 72e78.
Ahmad, M., Hashimoto, Y., Moon, D.H., Lee, S.S., Ok, Y.S., 2012. Immobilization of
lead in a Korean military shooting range soil using eggshell waste: an integrated
mechanistic approach. J. Hazard Mater. 209, 392e401.
Ahmad, M., Ok, Y.S., Kim, B.-Y., Ahn, J.-H., Lee, Y.H., Zhang, M., Moon, D.H., Al-
Wabel, M.I., Lee, S.S., 2016. Impact of soybean stover-and pine needle-derived
biochars on Pb and as mobility, microbial community, and carbon stability in
a contaminated agricultural soil. J. Environ. Manag. 166, 131e139.
Alghazwi, M., Smid, S., Musgrave, I., Zhang, W., 2019. In vitro studies of the neu-
roprotective activities of astaxanthin and fucoxanthin against amyloid beta
(Ab1-42) toxicity and aggregation. Neurochem. Int. 124, 215e224.
Almendros, G., Knicker, H., Gonza lez-Vila, F.J., 2003. Rearrangement of carbon and
nitrogen forms in peat after progressive thermal oxidation as determined by
solid-state 13C-and 15N-NMR spectroscopy. Org. Geochem. 34, 1559e1568.
Ameloot, N., De Neve, S., Jegajeevagan, K., Yildiz, G., Buchan, D., Funkuin, Y.N.,
Prins, W., Bouckaert, L., Sleutel, S., 2013. Short-term CO2 and N2O emissions and
microbial properties of biochar amended sandy loam soils. Soil Biol. Biochem.
57, 401e410.
Amonette, J., Hu, Y., Schlekewey, N., Dai, S., Shaff, Z., Russell, C., Burton, S., Arey, B.,
2009. Biochars Are Not Created Equal: a Survey of Their Physical, Structural, and
Chemical Properties and Implications for Soil Application. North American
Biochar Conference, Boulder, CO-75, pp. 871e879.
Amonette, J.E., Joseph, S., 2009a. Characteristics of biochar: biological properties. In:
Lehmann, J., Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science
and Technology, 1th ed. Earthscan Publication Ltd., London, UK; Sterling, VA,
USA, pp. 33e52.
Amonette, J.E., Joseph, S., 2009b. Characteristics of biochar: microchemical prop-
erties. In: Lehmann, J., Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for Environmental Manage-
ment: Science and Technology, 1th ed. Earthscan Publication Ltd., London, UK;
Sterling, VA, USA, pp. 33e52.
Antal, M.J., Grønli, M., 2003. The art, science, and technology of charcoal production.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42, 1619e1640.
Awad, Y., Blagodatskaya, E., Ok, Y.S., Kuzyakov, Y., 2013. Effects of polyacrylamide,
biopolymer and biochar on the decomposition of 14C-labelled maize residues
and on their stabilization in soil aggregates. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 64, 488e499.
Awad, Y.M., Ok, Y.S., Abrigata, J., Beiyuan, J., Beckers, F., Tsang, D.C., Rinklebe, J., 2018.
Pine sawdust biomass and biochars at different pyrolysis temperatures change
soil redox processes. Sci. Total Environ. 625, 147e154.
Aygün, A., Yenisoy-Karakaş, S., Duman, I., 2003. Production of granular activated
carbon from fruit stones and nutshells and evaluation of their physical,
chemical and adsorption properties. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 66,
189e195.
Baldock, J.A., Smernik, R.J., 2002. Chemical composition and bioavailability of
thermally altered Pinus resinosa (Red pine) wood. Org. Geochem. 33,
1093e1109.
Bateman, E., Baggs, E., 2005. Contributions of nitrification and denitrification to N2O
emissions from soils at different water-filled pore space. Biol. Fertil. Soils 41,
379e388.
dard, C., Knowles, R., 1989. Physiology, biochemistry, and specific inhibitors of
Be
CH4, NHþ 4 , and CO oxidation by methanotrophs and nitrifiers. Microbiol. Mol.
Biol. Rev. 53, 68e84.
Bhaskar, T., Pandey, A., 2015. Advances in thermochemical conversion of bio-
massdintroduction. In: Pandey, A., Bhaskar, T., Sto €cker, M., Sukumaran, R.K.
(Eds.), Recent Advances in Thermo-Chemical Conversion of Biomass. Elsevier,
pp. 3e30.
Biederman, L.A., Harpole, W.S., 2013. Biochar and its effects on plant productivity
and nutrient cycling: a meta-analysis. GCB Bioenergy 5, 202e214.
Bodelier, P.L., Roslev, P., Henckel, T., Frenzel, P., 2000. Stimulation by ammonium-
based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots. Nature 403,
421e424.
Borchard, N., Wolf, A., Laabs, V., Aeckersberg, R., Scherer, H., Moeller, A.,
Amelung, W., 2012. Physical activation of biochar and its meaning for soil
fertility and nutrient leachingea greenhouse experiment. Soil Use Manag. 28,
177e184.
Bourke, J., 2007. Preparation and Properties of Natural, Demineralized, Pure, and
Doped Carbons from Biomass; Model of the Chemical Structure of Carbonized
Charcoal. The University of Waikato, New Zealand.
Brassard, P., Godbout, S., Raghavan, V., 2016. Soil biochar amendment as a climate
change mitigation tool: key parameters and mechanisms involved. J. Environ.
Manag. 181, 484e497.
Brennan, J.K., Bandosz, T.J., Thomson, K.T., Gubbins, K.E., 2001. Water in porous
carbons. Colloids Surf., A 187, 539e568.
Bridgwater, A., Boocock, D., 2006. Science in Thermal and Chemical Biomass Con-
version. CPL press, Newbury, UK.
Brown, R.A., Kercher, A.K., Nguyen, T.H., Nagle, D.C., Ball, W.P., 2006. Production and
characterization of synthetic wood chars for use as surrogates for natural sor-
bents. Org. Geochem. 37, 321e333.
Byrne, C.E., Nagle, D.C., 1997. Carbonization of wood for advanced materials appli-
cations. Carbon 35, 259e266.
Cai, H., Xu, L., Chen, G., Peng, C., Ke, F., Liu, Z., Li, D., Zhang, Z., Wan, X., 2016. Removal
of fluoride from drinking water using modified ultrafine tea powder processed
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
using a ball-mill. Appl. Surf. Sci. 375, 74e84.
Cantrell, K.B., Hunt, P.G., Uchimiya, M., Novak, J.M., Ro, K.S., 2012. Impact of pyrolysis
temperature and manure source on physicochemical characteristics of biochar.
Bioresour. Technol. 107, 419e428.
Cayuela, M., Van Zwieten, L., Singh, B., Jeffery, S., Roig, A., Sa nchez-Monedero, M.,
2014. Biochar’s role in mitigating soil nitrous oxide emissions: a review and
meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 191, 5e16.
Cetin, E., Moghtaderi, B., Gupta, R., Wall, T., 2004. Influence of pyrolysis conditions
on the structure and gasification reactivity of biomass chars. Fuel 83,
2139e2150.
Chang, C.-F., Chang, C.-Y., Tsai, W.-T., 2000. Effects of burn-off and activation tem-
perature on preparation of activated carbon from corn cob agrowaste by CO2
and steam. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 232, 45e49.
Chen, J., Liu, X., Zheng, J., Zhang, B., Lu, H., Chi, Z., Pan, G., Li, L., Zheng, J., Zhang, X.,
2013. Biochar soil amendment increased bacterial but decreased fungal gene
abundance with shifts in community structure in a slightly acid rice paddy from
Southwest China. Appl. Soil Ecol. 71, 33e44.
Chen, J., Zhang, J., YX L, C.L., Zhou, Y., He, Y., 2017. Study on the adsorption feature of
ammonium nitrogen in the salt-laden sewage by the corn cob biochar. J. Saf.
Environ. 3, 1088e1093.
Chen, Q., Qin, J., Cheng, Z., Huang, L., Sun, P., Chen, L., Shen, G., 2018a. Synthesis of a
stable magnesium-impregnated biochar and its reduction of phosphorus
leaching from soil. Chemosphere 199, 402e408.
Chen, Q., Qin, J., Sun, P., Cheng, Z., Shen, G., 2018b. Cow dung-derived engineered
biochar for reclaiming phosphate from aqueous solution and its validation as
slow-release fertilizer in soil-crop system. J. Clean. Prod. 172, 2009e2018.
Chen, S., Qi, G., Ma, G., Zhao, X., 2020. Biochar amendment controlled bacterial wilt
through changing soil chemical properties and microbial community. Micro-
biol. Res. 231, 126373.
Cheng, C.-H., Lehmann, J., Engelhard, M.H., 2008. Natural oxidation of black carbon
in soils: changes in molecular form and surface charge along a climosequence.
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 1598e1610.
Cho, D.-W., Kwon, G., Ok, Y.S., Kwon, E.E., Song, H., 2017. Reduction of bromate by
cobalt-impregnated biochar fabricated via pyrolysis of lignin using CO2 as a
reaction medium. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 13142e13150.
Clough, T.J., Condron, L.M., Kammann, C., Müller, C., 2013. A review of biochar and
soil nitrogen dynamics. Agronomy 3, 275e293.
Cohen-Ofri, I., Popovitz-Biro, R., Weiner, S., 2007. Structural characterization of
modern and fossilized charcoal produced in natural fires as determined by
using electron energy loss spectroscopy. Chem. Eur. 13, 2306e2310.
Cope, C.O., Webster, D.S., Sabatini, D.A., 2014. Arsenate adsorption onto iron oxide
amended rice husk char. Sci. Total Environ. 488, 554e561.
Cornelissen, G., Nurida, N.L., Hale, S.E., Martinsen, V., Silvani, L., Mulder, J., 2018.
Fading positive effect of biochar on crop yield and soil acidity during five
growth seasons in an Indonesian Ultisol. Sci. Total Environ. 634, 561e568.
Dai, Y., Zhang, N., Xing, C., Cui, Q., Sun, Q., 2019. The adsorption, regeneration and
engineering applications of biochar for removal organic pollutants: a review.
Chemosphere 223, 12e27.
Dai, Y., Zheng, H., Jiang, Z., Xing, B., 2020. Combined effects of biochar properties
and soil conditions on plant growth: a meta-analysis. Sci. Total Environ. 713,
136635.
Dalahmeh, S., Ahrens, L., Gros, M., Wiberg, K., Pell, M., 2018. Potential of biochar
filters for onsite sewage treatment: adsorption and biological degradation of
pharmaceuticals in laboratory filters with active, inactive and no biofilm. Sci.
Total Environ. 612, 192e201.
Das, O., Sarmah, A.K., Bhattacharyya, D., 2015. Structureemechanics property
relationship of waste derived biochars. Sci. Total Environ. 538, 611e620.
Das, S.K., Varma, A., 2010. Role of enzymes in maintaining soil health. In: Shukla, G.,
Varma, A. (Eds.), Soil Enzymology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 25e42.
Dehhaghi, M., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Braidy, N., Guillemin, G.J., 2020. Herpeto-
siphon secondary metabolites inhibit amyloid-b toxicity in human primary as-
trocytes. J. Alzheimer’s Dis. 1e11. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200116. In press.
Dehhaghi, M., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Guillemin, G.J., 2019a. Microorganisms,
tryptophan metabolism, and kynurenine pathway: a complex interconnected
loop influencing human health status. Int. J. Tryptophan Res. 12,
1178646919852996.
Dehhaghi, M., Mohammadipanah, F., 2017. Evaluation of growth inhibition activity
of myxobacterial extracts against multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
Prog. Biol. Sci. 6, 181e187.
Dehhaghi, M., Mohammadipanah, F., Guillemin, G.J., 2018. Myxobacterial natural
products: an under-valued source of products for drug discovery for neuro-
logical disorders. Neurotoxicology 66, 195e203.
Dehhaghi, M., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Nizami, A.-
S., 2019b. A state-of-the-art review on the application of nanomaterials for
enhancing biogas production. J. Environ. Manag. 251, 109597.
Dehhaghi, M., Tan, V., Heng, B., Braidy, N., Mohammadipanah, F., Guillemin, G.J.,
2019c. Neuroprotective effect of myxobacterial extracts on quinolinic acid-
induced toxicity in primary human neurons. Neurotox. Res. 35, 281e290.
Dehhaghi, M., Tan, V., Heng, B., Mohammadipanah, F., Guillemin, G.J., 2019d. Pro-
tective effects of myxobacterial extracts on hydrogen peroxide-induced toxicity
on human primary astrocytes. Neuroscience 399, 1e11.
Devi, P., Saroha, A.K., 2015. Simultaneous adsorption and dechlorination of penta-
chlorophenol from effluent by NieZVI magnetic biochar composites synthe-
sized from paper mill sludge. Chem. Eng. J. 271, 195e203.
Ding, Z., Hu, X., Wan, Y., Wang, S., Gao, B., 2016. Removal of lead, copper, cadmium,
25
zinc, and nickel from aqueous solutions by alkali-modified biochar: batch and
column tests. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 33, 239e245.
Downie, A., Crosky, A., Munroe, P., 2009. Physical properties of biochar. In:
Lehmann, J., Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science
and Technology, 1th ed. Earthscan Publication Ltd., London, UK; Sterling, VA,
USA, pp. 13e32.
Edeh, I.G., Ma
sek, O., Buss, W., 2020. A meta-analysis on biochar’s effects on soil
water propertieseNew insights and future research challenges. Sci. Total En-
viron. 136857.
El-Naggar, A., Lee, S.S., Rinklebe, J., Farooq, M., Song, H., Sarmah, A.K.,
Zimmerman, A.R., Ahmad, M., Shaheen, S.M., Ok, Y.S., 2019. Biochar application
to low fertility soils: a review of current status, and future prospects. Geoderma
337, 536e554.
El-Naggar, A.H., Usman, A.R., Al-Omran, A., Ok, Y.S., Ahmad, M., Al-Wabel, M.I., 2015.
Carbon mineralization and nutrient availability in calcareous sandy soils
amended with woody waste biochar. Chemosphere 138, 67e73.
El-Naggar, A., Awad, Y.M., Tang, X.Y., Liu, C., Niazi, N.K., Jien, S.H., Tsang, D.C.,
Song, H., Ok, Y.S., Lee, S.S., 2018. Biochar influences soil carbon pools and fa-
cilitates interactions with soil: a field investigation. Land Degrad. Dev. 29,
2162e2171.
Elzobair, K.A., Stromberger, M.E., Ippolito, J.A., Lentz, R.D., 2016. Contrasting effects
of biochar versus manure on soil microbial communities and enzyme activities
in an Aridisol. Chemosphere 142, 145e152.
Essington, M.E., 2015. Soil and Water Chemistry: an Integrative Approach. CRC
press, Raton, FL.
Fan, J., Cai, C., Chi, H., Reid, B.J., Coulon, F., Zhang, Y., Hou, Y., 2020. Remediation of
cadmium and lead polluted soil using thiol-modified biochar. J. Hazard Mater.
122037.
Fang, C., Zhang, T., Li, P., Jiang, R., Wu, S., Nie, H., Wang, Y., 2015. Phosphorus re-
covery from biogas fermentation liquid by CaeMg loaded biochar. J. Environ.
Sci. 29, 106e114.
Feng, J.-W., Zheng, S., Maciel, G.E., 2004. EPR investigations of the effects of inor-
ganic additives on the charring and char/air interactions of cellulose. Energy
Fuels 18, 1049e1065.
Feng, Y., Yang, X., Singh, B.P., Mandal, S., Guo, J., Che, L., Wang, H., 2019. Effects of
contrasting biochars on the leaching of inorganic nitrogen from soil. J. Soils
Sediments 1e10.
Frankel, M.L., Bhuiyan, T.I., Veksha, A., Demeter, M.A., Layzell, D.B., Helleur, R.J.,
Hill, J.M., Turner, R.J., 2016. Removal and biodegradation of naphthenic acids by
biochar and attached environmental biofilms in the presence of co-
contaminating metals. Bioresour. Technol. 216, 352e361.
Fukuyama, K., Kasahara, Y., Kasahara, N., Oya, A., Nishikawa, K., 2001. Small-angle X-
ray scattering study of the pore structure of carbon fibers prepared from a
polymer blend of phenolic resin and polystyrene. Carbon 39, 287e290.
Gan, C., Liu, Y., Tan, X., Wang, S., Zeng, G., Zheng, B., Li, T., Jiang, Z., Liu, W., 2015.
Effect of porous zincebiochar nanocomposites on Cr(VI) adsorption from
aqueous solution. RSC Adv. 5, 35107e35115.
Gao, L., Wang, R., Shen, G., Zhang, J., Meng, G., Zhang, J., 2017. Effects of biochar on
nutrients and the microbial community structure of tobacco-planting soils.
J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 17, 884e896.
Glaser, B., Lehr, V.-I., 2019. Biochar effects on phosphorus availability in agricultural
soils: a meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 9.
Graetz, R.D., Skjemstad, J., 2003. The Charcoal Sink of Biomass Burning on the
Australian Continent. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Victoria,
Australia.
Gupta, R.K., Dubey, M., Kharel, P., Gu, Z., Fan, Q.H., 2015. Biochar activated by oxygen
plasma for supercapacitors. J. Power Sources 274, 1300e1305.
Gurav, R., Bhatia, S.K., Choi, T.-R., Park, Y.-L., Park, J.Y., Han, Y.-H., Vyavahare, G.,
Jadhav, J., Song, H.-S., Yang, P., 2020. Treatment of furazolidone contaminated
water using banana pseudostem biochar engineered with facile synthesized
magnetic nanocomposites. Bioresour. Technol. 297, 122472.
Haider, G., Steffens, D., Moser, G., Müller, C., Kammann, C.I., 2017. Biochar reduced
nitrate leaching and improved soil moisture content without yield improve-
ments in a four-year field study. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 237, 80e94.
Hamedi, J., Dehhaghi, M., Mohammdipanah, F., 2015a. Isolation of extremely heavy
metal resistant strains of rare actinomycetes from high metal content soils in
Iran. Int. J. Environ. Res. 9.
Hamedi, J., Mohammadipanah, F., Panahi, H.K.S., 2015b. Biotechnological exploita-
tion of Actinobacterial members. In: Maheshwari, D., Saraf, M. (Eds.), Halo-
philes. Springer, Cham, pp. 57e143.
Hammes, K., Smernik, R.J., Skjemstad, J.O., Herzog, A., Vogt, U.F., Schmidt, M.W.,
2006. Synthesis and characterisation of laboratory-charred grass straw (Oryza
sativa) and chestnut wood (Castanea sativa) as reference materials for black
carbon quantification. Org. Geochem. 37, 1629e1633.
Han, B., Song, L., Li, H., Song, H., 2020. Immobilization of Cd and phosphorus uti-
lization in eutrophic river sediments by biochar-supported nanoscale zero-
valent iron. Environ. Technol. 1e18.
Hawthorne, I., Johnson, M.S., Jassal, R.S., Black, T.A., Grant, N.J., Smukler, S.M., 2017.
Application of biochar and nitrogen influences fluxes of CO2, CH4 and N2O in a
forest soil. J. Environ. Manag. 192, 203e214.
He, L., Fan, S., Müller, K., Hu, G., Huang, H., Zhang, X., Lin, X., Che, L., Wang, H., 2016.
Biochar reduces the bioavailability of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in soil. Che-
mosphere 142, 24e27.
He, R., Peng, Z., Lyu, H., Huang, H., Nan, Q., Tang, J., 2018. Synthesis and charac-
terization of an iron-impregnated biochar for aqueous arsenic removal. Sci.
26 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
Total Environ. 612, 1177e1186.
Hu, H., Sun, L., Jiang, B., Wu, H., Huang, Q., Chen, X., 2018. Low concentration Re(VII)
recovery from acidic solution by Cu-biochar composite prepared from bamboo
(Acidosasa longiligula) shoot shell. Miner. Eng. 124, 123e136.
Hu, X., Ding, Z., Zimmerman, A.R., Wang, S., Gao, B., 2015. Batch and column
sorption of arsenic onto iron-impregnated biochar synthesized through hy-
drolysis. Water Res. 68, 206e216.
Hussain, M., Farooq, M., Nawaz, A., Al-Sadi, A.M., Solaiman, Z.M., Alghamdi, S.S.,
Ammara, U., Ok, Y.S., Siddique, K.H., 2017. Biochar for crop production: potential
benefits and risks. J. Soils Sediments 17, 685e716.
Inyang, M., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A., Zhang, M., Chen, H., 2014. Synthesis, charac-
terization, and dye sorption ability of carbon nanotubeebiochar nano-
composites. Chem. Eng. J. 236, 39e46.
Inyang, M., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A., Zhou, Y., Cao, X., 2015. Sorption and cosorption
of lead and sulfapyridine on carbon nanotube-modified biochars. Environ. Sci.
Pollut. Res. 22, 1868e1876.
Jaiswal, A.K., Frenkel, O., Tsechansky, L., Elad, Y., Graber, E.R., 2018. Immobilization
and deactivation of pathogenic enzymes and toxic metabolites by biochar: a
possible mechanism involved in soilborne disease suppression. Soil Biol. Bio-
chem. 121, 59e66.
Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F.G., Kammann, C., Abalos, D., 2016. Biochar effects on methane
emissions from soils: a meta-analysis. Soil Biol. Biochem. 101, 251e258.
Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F.G., van der Velde, M., Bastos, A.C., 2011. A quantitative review
of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-
analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 144, 175e187.
Jiang, J., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Holm, N., Rajagopalan, K., Chen, F., Ma, S., 2013. Highly
ordered macroporous woody biochar with ultra-high carbon content as
supercapacitor electrodes. Electrochim. Acta 113, 481e489.
Jiang, X., Denef, K., Stewart, C.E., Cotrufo, M.F., 2016. Controls and dynamics of
biochar decomposition and soil microbial abundance, composition, and carbon
use efficiency during long-term biochar-amended soil incubations. Biol. Fertil.
Soils 52, 1e14.
Jiang, Z., Lian, F., Wang, Z., Xing, B., 2020. The role of biochars in sustainable crop
production and soil resiliency. J. Exp. Bot. 71, 520e542.
Jin, H., Capareda, S., Chang, Z., Gao, J., Xu, Y., Zhang, J., 2014. Biochar pyrolytically
produced from municipal solid wastes for aqueous as (V) removal: adsorption
property and its improvement with KOH activation. Bioresour. Technol. 169,
622e629.
Johnson, M.S., Webster, C., Jassal, R.S., Hawthorne, I., Black, T.A., 2017. Biochar in-
fluences on soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes in response to wetting and drying cycles for
a forest soil. Sci. Rep. 7, 6780.
Karakoyun, N., Kubilay, S., Aktas, N., Turhan, O., Kasimoglu, M., Yilmaz, S.,
Sahiner, N., 2011. HydrogeleBiochar composites for effective organic contami-
nant removal from aqueous media. Desalination 280, 319e325.
Karhu, K., Mattila, T., Bergstro € m, I., Regina, K., 2011. Biochar addition to agricultural
soil increased CH4 uptake and water holding capacityeResults from a short-
term pilot field study. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 140, 309e313.
Karunanayake, A.G., Navarathna, C.M., Gunatilake, S.R., Crowley, M., Anderson, R.,
Mohan, D., Perez, F., Pittman Jr., C.U., Mlsna, T., 2019. Fe3O4 nanoparticles
dispersed on Douglas fir biochar for phosphate sorption. ACS Appl. Nano Mater.
2, 3467e3479.
Kastner, J.R., Miller, J., Das, K., 2009. Pyrolysis conditions and ozone oxidation effects
on ammonia adsorption in biomass generated chars. J. Hazard Mater. 164,
1420e1427.
Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Dehhaghi, M., Aghbashlo, M., Karimi, K., Tabatabaei, M.,
2019a. Conversion of residues from agro-food industry into bioethanol in Iran:
an under-valued biofuel additive to phase out MTBE in gasoline. Renew. Energy
145, 699e710.
Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Dehhaghi, M., Aghbashlo, M., Karimi, K., Tabatabaei, M.,
2019b. Shifting fuel feedstock from oil wells to sea: Iran outlook and potential
for biofuel production from brown macroalgae (ochrophyta; phaeophyceae).
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 112, 626e642.
Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Dehhaghi, M., Kinder, J.E., Ezeji, T.C., 2019. A review on
green liquid fuels for the transportation sector: a prospect of microbial solu-
tions to climate change. Biofuel Res. J. 23, 995e1024. https://doi.org/10.18331/
BRJ2019.6.3.2.
Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Dehhaghi, M., Rehan, M.,
Nizami, A.-S., 2019c. Recent updates on the production and upgrading of bio-
crude oil from microalgae. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 7, 100216.
Kercher, A.K., Nagle, D.C., 2002. Evaluation of carbonized medium-density fiber-
board for electrical applications. Carbon 40, 1321e1330.
Khodadad, C.L., Zimmerman, A.R., Green, S.J., Uthandi, S., Foster, J.S., 2011. Taxa-
specific changes in soil microbial community composition induced by pyro-
genic carbon amendments. Soil Biol. Biochem. 43, 385e392.
Klasson, K.T., Ledbetter, C.A., Uchimiya, M., Lima, I.M., 2013. Activated biochar
removes 100% dibromochloropropane from field well water. Environ. Chem.
Lett. 11, 271e275.
Knicker, H., Totsche, K.U., Almendros, G., Gonza lez-Vila, F.J., 2005. Condensation
degree of burnt peat and plant residues and the reliability of solid-state VACP
MAS 13C NMR spectra obtained from pyrogenic humic material. Org. Geochem.
36, 1359e1377.
Knudsen, J.N., Jensen, P.A., Lin, W., Frandsen, F.J., Dam-Johansen, K., 2004. Sulfur
transformations during thermal conversion of herbaceous biomass. Energy
Fuels 18, 810e819.
Koutcheiko, S., Monreal, C., Kodama, H., McCracken, T., Kotlyar, L., 2007. Preparation
and characterization of activated carbon derived from the thermo-chemical
conversion of chicken manure. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 2459e2464.
Kumar, M., Verma, B., Gupta, R., 1999. Mechanical properties of acacia and euca-
lyptus wood chars. Energy Sources 21, 675e685.
Kuzyakov, Y., Bogomolova, I., Glaser, B., 2014. Biochar stability in soil: decomposi-
tion during eight years and transformation as assessed by compound-specific
14C analysis. Soil Biol. Biochem. 70, 229e236.
Laghari, M., Mirjat, M.S., Hu, Z., Fazal, S., Xiao, B., Hu, M., Chen, Z., Guo, D., 2015.
Effects of biochar application rate on sandy desert soil properties and sorghum
growth. Catena 135, 313e320.
Laird, D., Fleming, P., Wang, B., Horton, R., Karlen, D., 2010. Biochar impact on
nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil. Geoderma 158, 436e442.
Lau, A.Y., Tsang, D.C., Graham, N.J., Ok, Y.S., Yang, X., Li, X.-d., 2017. Surface-modified
biochar in a bioretention system for Escherichia coli removal from stormwater.
Chemosphere 169, 89e98.
Lee, H.W., Kim, Y.-M., Kim, S., Ryu, C., Park, S.H., Park, Y.-K., 2018. Review of the use
of activated biochar for energy and environmental applications. Carbon Lett. 26,
1e10.
Lehmann, J., Joseph, S., 2015. Biochar for Environmental Management: Science,
Technology and Implementation. Routledge.
Leng, L., Xu, S., Liu, R., Yu, T., Zhuo, X., Leng, S., Xiong, Q., Huang, H., 2019. Nitrogen
containing functional groups of biochar: an overview. Bioresour. Technol.
122286.
Lentz, R., Ippolito, J., 2012. Biochar and manure affect calcareous soil and corn silage
nutrient concentrations and uptake. J. Environ. Qual. 41, 1033e1043.
Lewkowski, J., Rogacz, D., Rychter, P., 2019. Hazardous ecotoxicological impact of
two commonly used nitrofuran-derived antibacterial drugs: furazolidone and
nitrofurantoin. Chemosphere 222, 381e390.
Li, H., Lu, X., Xu, Y., Liu, H., 2019a. How close is artificial biochar aging to natural
biochar aging in fields? A meta-analysis. Geoderma 352, 96e103.
Li, Q., Lei, Z., Song, X., Zhang, Z., Ying, Y., Peng, C., 2018a. Biochar amendment de-
creases soil microbial biomass and increases bacterial diversity in Moso
bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) plantations under simulated nitrogen deposition.
Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 044029.
Li, R., Deng, H., Zhang, X., Wang, J.J., Awasthi, M.K., Wang, Q., Xiao, R., Zhou, B., Du, J.,
Zhang, Z., 2019b. High-efficiency removal of Pb (II) and humate by a
CeO2eMoS2 hybrid magnetic biochar. Bioresour. Technol. 273, 335e340.
Li, S., Harris, S., Anandhi, A., Chen, G., 2019c. Predicting biochar properties and
functions based on feedstock and pyrolysis temperature: a review and data
syntheses. J. Clean. Prod. 215, 890e902.
Li, X., Song, Y., Wang, F., Bian, Y., Jiang, X., 2019d. Combined effects of maize straw
biochar and oxalic acid on the dissipation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
and microbial community structures in soil: a mechanistic study. J. Hazard
Mater. 364, 325e331.
Li, Y., Hu, S., Chen, J., Müller, K., Li, Y., Fu, W., Lin, Z., Wang, H., 2018b. Effects of
biochar application in forest ecosystems on soil properties and greenhouse gas
emissions: a review. J. Soils Sediments 18, 546e563.
Li, Y., Zhou, C., Qiu, Y., Tigabu, M., Ma, X., 2019e. Effects of biochar and litter on
carbon and nitrogen mineralization and soil microbial community structure in
a China fir plantation. J. For. Res. 30, 1913e1923.
Li, Z., Song, Z., Singh, B.P., Wang, H., 2019f. The impact of crop residue biochars on
silicon and nutrient cycles in croplands. Sci. Total Environ. 659, 673e680.
Liao, N., Li, Q., Zhang, W., Zhou, G., Ma, L., Min, W., Ye, J., Hou, Z., 2016. Effects of
biochar on soil microbial community composition and activity in drip-irrigated
desert soil. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 72, 27e34.
Liao, S., Pan, B., Li, H., Zhang, D., Xing, B., 2014. Detecting free radicals in biochars
and determining their ability to inhibit the germination and growth of corn,
wheat and rice seedlings. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 8581e8587.
Lisowski, P., Colmenares, J.C., Masek, O.e., Lisowski, W., Lisovytskiy, D., Kaminska, A.,
Łomot, D., 2017. Dual functionality of TiO2/biochar hybrid materials: photo-
catalytic phenol degradation in the liquid phase and selective oxidation of
methanol in the gas phase. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5, 6274e6287.
Liu, B., Cai, Z., Zhang, Y., Liu, G., Luo, X., Zheng, H., 2019. Comparison of efficacies of
peanut shell biochar and biochar-based compost on two leafy vegetable pro-
ductivity in an infertile land. Chemosphere 224, 151e161.
Liu, Q., Zhang, Y., Liu, B., Amonette, J.E., Lin, Z., Liu, G., Ambus, P., Xie, Z., 2018a. How
does biochar influence soil N cycle? A meta-analysis. Plant Soil 426, 211e225.
Liu, S.-b., Tan, X.-f., Liu, Y.-g., Gu, Y.-l., Zeng, G.-m., Hu, X.-j., Wang, H., Zhou, L.,
Jiang, L.-h., Zhao, B.-b., 2016. Production of biochars from Ca impregnated ramie
biomass (Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud.) and their phosphate removal potential.
RSC Adv. 6, 5871e5880.
Liu, S.-j., Liu, Y.-g., Tan, X.-f., Zeng, G.-m., Zhou, Y.-h., Liu, S.-b., Yin, Z.-h., Jiang, L.-h.,
Li, M.-f., Wen, J., 2018b. The effect of several activated biochars on Cd immo-
bilization and microbial community composition during in-situ remediation of
heavy metal contaminated sediment. Chemosphere 208, 655e664.
Liu, W.-J., Jiang, H., Yu, H.-Q., 2015. Development of biochar-based functional ma-
terials: toward a sustainable platform carbon material. Chem. Rev. 115,
12251e12285.
Liu, W., Zhang, J., Zhang, C., Ren, L., 2011a. Sorption of norfloxacin by lotus stalk-
based activated carbon and iron-doped activated alumina: mechanisms, iso-
therms and kinetics. Chem. Eng. J. 171, 431e438.
Liu, Y., Yang, M., Wu, Y., Wang, H., Chen, Y., Wu, W., 2011b. Reducing CH4 and CO2
emissions from waterlogged paddy soil with biochar. J. Soils Sediments 11,
930e939.
Lu, W., Ding, W., Zhang, J., Li, Y.,̌Luo, J., Bolan, N., Xie, Z., 2014. Biochar suppressed
́
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
the decomposition of organic carbon in a cultivated sandy loam soil: a negative
priming effect. Soil Biol. Biochem. 76, 12e21.
Luo, S., Wang, S., Tian, L., Li, S., Li, X., Shen, Y., Tian, C., 2017a. Long-term biochar
application influences soil microbial community and its potential roles in
semiarid farmland. Appl. Soil Ecol. 117, 10e15.
Luo, Y., Lin, Q., Durenkamp, M., Dungait, A., Brookes, P., 2017b. Soil priming effects
following substrates addition to biochar-treated soils after 431 days of pre-in-
cubation. Biol. Fertil. Soils 53, 315e326.
Lyu, H., Gao, B., He, F., Zimmerman, A.R., Ding, C., Huang, H., Tang, J., 2018a. Effects of
ball milling on the physicochemical and sorptive properties of biochar: exper-
imental observations and governing mechanisms. Environ. Pollut. 233, 54e63.
Lyu, H., Tang, J., Shen, B., Siddique, T., 2018b. Development of a novel chem-bio
hybrid process using biochar supported nanoscale iron sulfide composite and
Corynebacterium variabile HRJ4 for enhanced trichloroethylene dechlorination.
Water Res. 147, 132e141.
Mahmoud, D.K., Salleh, M.A.M., Karim, W.A.W.A., Idris, A., Abidin, Z.Z., 2012. Batch
adsorption of basic dye using acid treated kenaf fibre char: equilibrium, kinetic
and thermodynamic studies. Chem. Eng. J. 181, 449e457.
Major, J., Steiner, C., Downie, A., Lehmann, J., 2009. Biochar effects on nutrient
leaching. In: Lehmann, J., Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for Environmental Man-
agement: Science and Technology, 1th ed. Earthscan Publication Ltd., London,
UK; Sterling, VA, USA, pp. 271e287.
Marou
sek, J., Strunecký, O., Stehel, V., 2019. Biochar farming: defining economically
perspective applications. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 21, 1389e1395.
Mia, S., Singh, B., Dijkstra, F.A., 2019. Chemically oxidized biochar increases
ammonium-15 N recovery and phosphorus uptake in a grassland. Biol. Fertil.
Soils 1e12.
Mitchell, P.J., Simpson, A.J., Soong, R., Simpson, M.J., 2015. Shifts in microbial
community and water-extractable organic matter composition with biochar
amendment in a temperate forest soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 81, 244e254.
Mohamed, B.A., Ellis, N., Kim, C.S., Bi, X., Emam, A.E.-r., 2016. Engineered biochar
from microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of switchgrass for increasing water-
holding capacity and fertility of sandy soil. Sci. Total Environ. 566, 387e397.
Mohammadipanah, F., Dehhaghi, M., 2017. Classification and taxonomy of actino-
bacteria. In: Wink, J., Mohammadipanah, F., Hamedi, J. (Eds.), Biology and
Biotechnology of Actinobacteria. Springer, Cham, pp. 51e77.
Mohammadipanah, F., Hamedi, J., Dehhaghi, M., 2015. Halophilic bacteria: poten-
tials and applications in biotechnology. In: Maheshwari, D., Saraf, M. (Eds.),
Halophiles. Springer, Cham, pp. 277e321.
Mohammadipanah, F., Panahi, H.K.S., Imanparast, F., Hamedi, J., 2016. Development
of a reversed-phase liquid chromatographic assay for the quantification of total
persipeptides in fermentation broth. Chromatographia 79, 1325e1332.
Mohan, D., Sarswat, A., Ok, Y.S., Pittman Jr., C.U., 2014. Organic and inorganic con-
taminants removal from water with biochar, a renewable, low cost and sus-
tainable adsorbentea critical review. Bioresour. Technol. 160, 191e202.
Mortazavian, S., Jones-Lepp, T., Bae, J.-H., Chun, D., Bandala, E.R., Moon, J., 2019.
Heat-treated biochar impregnated with zero-valent iron nanoparticles for
organic contaminants removal from aqueous phase: material characterizations
and kinetic studies. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 76, 197e214.
Mukherjee, A., Zimmerman, A., Hamdan, R., Cooper, W., 2014. Physicochemical
changes in pyrogenic organic matter (biochar) after 15 months of field aging.
Solid Earth 5, 693e704.
Nan, H., Yang, F., Zhao, L., Masek, O.e., Cao, X., Xiao, Z., 2018. Interaction of inherent
minerals with carbon during biomass pyrolysis weakens biochar carbon
sequestration potential. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 1591e1599.
Nazaries, L., Murrell, J.C., Millard, P., Baggs, L., Singh, B.K., 2013. Methane, microbes
and models: fundamental understanding of the soil methane cycle for future
predictions. Environ. Microbiol. 15, 2395e2417.
Ndirangu, S.M., Liu, Y., Xu, K., Song, S., 2019. Risk evaluation of pyrolyzed biochar
from multiple wastes. J. Chem. 2019.
Nguyen, B.T., Lehmann, J., Kinyangi, J., Smernik, R., Riha, S.J., Engelhard, M.H., 2009.
Long-term black carbon dynamics in cultivated soil. Biogeochemistry 92,
163e176.
Nguyen, T., Ngo, H., Guo, W., Zhang, J., Liang, S., Yue, Q., Li, Q., Nguyen, T., 2013.
Applicability of agricultural waste and by-products for adsorptive removal of
heavy metals from wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 148, 574e585.
Nguyen, T.T.N., Wallace, H.M., Xu, C.-Y., Zwieten, L.V., Weng, Z.H., Xu, Z., Che, R.,
Tahmasbian, I., Hu, H.-W., Bai, S.H., 2018. The effects of short term, long term
and reapplication of biochar on soil bacteria. Sci. Total Environ. 636, 142e151.
Nguyen, T.T.N., Xu, C.-Y., Tahmasbian, I., Che, R., Xu, Z., Zhou, X., Wallace, H.M.,
Bai, S.H., 2017. Effects of biochar on soil available inorganic nitrogen: a review
and meta-analysis. Geoderma 288, 79e96.
Noyce, G.L., Basiliko, N., Fulthorpe, R., Sackett, T.E., Thomas, S.C., 2015. Soil microbial
responses over 2 years following biochar addition to a north temperate forest.
Biol. Fertil. Soils 51, 649e659.
Odinga, E.S., Waigi, M.G., Gudda, F.O., Wang, J., Yang, B., Hu, X., Li, S., Gao, Y., 2020.
Occurrence, formation, environmental fate and risks of environmentally
persistent free radicals in biochars. Environ. Int. 134, 105172.
Palansooriya, K.N., Ok, Y.S., ̌Awad, Y.M., Lee, S.S., Sung, J.-K., Koutsospyros, A.,
Moon, D.H., 2019a. Impacts of biochar application on upland agriculture: a
review. J. Environ. Manag. 234, 52e64.
Palansooriya, K.N., Wong, J.T.F., Hashimoto, Y., Huang, L., Rinklebe, J., Chang, S.X.,
Bolan, N., Wang, H., Ok, Y.S., 2019b. Response of microbial communities to
biochar-amended soils: a critical review. Biochar 1, 3e22.
Palansooriya, K.N., Yang, Y., Tsang, Y.F., Sarkar, B., Hou, D., Cao, X., Meers, E.,
27
Rinklebe, J., Kim, K.-H., Ok, Y.S., 2020. Occurrence of contaminants in drinking
water sources and the potential of biochar for water quality improvement: a
review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 549e611.
Pan, B., Lam, S.K., Mosier, A., Luo, Y., Chen, D., 2016. Ammonia volatilization from
synthetic fertilizers and its mitigation strategies: a global synthesis. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 232, 283e289.
Panahi, H.K.S., Mohammadipanah, F., Dehhaghi, M., 2016. Optimization of extrac-
tion conditions for liquid-liquid extraction of persipeptides from Streptomyces
zagrosensis fermentation broth. Eur. Chem. Bull. 5, 408e415.
Paris, O., Zollfrank, C., Zickler, G.A., 2005. Decomposition and carbonisation of wood
biopolymersda microstructural study of softwood pyrolysis. Carbon 43, 53e66.
Parr, J.F., Sullivan, L.A., 2005. Soil carbon sequestration in phytoliths. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 37, 117e124.
Peterson, S.C., Jackson, M.A., Kim, S., Palmquist, D.E., 2012. Increasing biochar sur-
face area: optimization of ball milling parameters. Powder Technol. 228,
115e120.
Pourret, O., Houben, D., 2018. Characterization of metal binding sites onto biochar
using rare earth elements as a fingerprint. Heliyon 4, e00543.
Purakayastha, T., Kumari, S., Pathak, H., 2015. Characterisation, stability, and mi-
crobial effects of four biochars produced from crop residues. Geoderma 239,
293e303.
Purevsuren, B., Avid, B., Gerelmaa, T., Davaajav, Y., Morgan, T., Herod, A.,
Kandiyoti, R., 2004. The characterisation of tar from the pyrolysis of animal
bones. Fuel 83, 799e805.
Qian, W., Zhao, A.-z., Xu, R.-k., 2013. Sorption of As(V) by aluminum-modified crop
straw-derived biochars. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 224, 1610.
Qin, Y., Zhu, X., Su, Q., Anumah, A., Gao, B., Lyu, W., Zhou, X., Xing, Y., Wang, B., 2019.
Enhanced removal of ammonium from water by ball-milled biochar. Environ.
Geochem. Health 1e9.
Quilliam, R.S., Glanville, H.C., Wade, S.C., Jones, D.L., 2013. Life in the ‘charospher-
e’eDoes biochar in agricultural soil provide a significant habitat for microor-
ganisms? Soil Biol. Biochem. 65, 287e293.
Raboin, L.-M., Razafimahafaly, A.H.D., Rabenjarisoa, M.B., Rabary, B., Dusserre, J.,
Becquer, T., 2016. Improving the fertility of tropical acid soils: liming versus
biochar application? A long term comparison in the highlands of Madagascar.
Field Crop. Res. 199, 99e108.
Rahimzadeh, H., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Panahi, H.K.S., Rashidi, A.,
Goli, S.A.H., Mostafaei, M., Ardjmand, M., Nizami, A.S., 2018. Potential of acid-
activated bentonite and SO3H-functionalized MWCNTs for biodiesel produc-
tion from residual olive oil under biorefinery scheme. Front. Energy Res. 6, 137.
Rajaeifar, M.A., Hemayati, S.S., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Mahmoudi, S.B., 2019.
A review on beet sugar industry with a focus on implementation of waste-to-
energy strategy for power supply. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 103, 423e442.
Rajapaksha, A.U., Chen, S.S., Tsang, D.C., Zhang, M., Vithanage, M., Mandal, S., Gao, B.,
Bolan, N.S., Ok, Y.S., 2016. Engineered/designer biochar for contaminant
removal/immobilization from soil and water: potential and implication of
biochar modification. Chemosphere 148, 276e291.
Raveendran, K., Ganesh, A., Khilar, K.C., 1995. Influence of mineral matter on
biomass pyrolysis characteristics. Fuel 74, 1812e1822.
Rimstidt, J.D., Vaughan, D.J., 2003. Pyrite oxidation: a state-of-the-art assessment of
the reaction mechanism. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 67, 873e880.
Robertson, S.J., Rutherford, P.M., Lopez-Gutierrez, J.C., Massicotte, H.B., 2012. Bio-
char enhances seedling growth and alters root symbioses and properties of sub-
boreal forest soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 92, 329e340.
Rouquerol, J., Rouquerol, F., Llewellyn, P., Maurin, G., Sing, K.S., 2013. Adsorption by
Powders and Porous Solids: Principles, Methodology and Applications. Aca-
demic press.
Sackett, T.E., Basiliko, N., Noyce, G.L., Winsborough, C., Schurman, J., Ikeda, C.,
Thomas, S.C., 2015. Soil and greenhouse gas responses to biochar additions in a
temperate hardwood forest. GCB Bioenergy 7, 1062e1074.
Sadegh-Zadeh, F., Parichehreh, M., Jalili, B., Bahmanyar, M.A., 2018. Rehabilitation of
calcareous saline-sodic soil by means of biochars and acidified biochars. Land
Degrad. Dev. 29, 3262e3271.
Sajedi, H., Mohammadipanah, F., Shariat Panahi, H.K., 2018. An image analysis-aided
method for redundancy reduction in differentiation of identical Actinobacterial
strains. Future Microbiol. 13, 313e329.
S
anchez-García, M., Cayuela, M.L., Rasse, D.P., Sa nchez-Monedero, M.A., 2019. Bio-
chars from Mediterranean agroindustry residues: physicochemical properties
relevant for c sequestration and soil water retention. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7,
4724e4733.
Schnitzer, M.I., Monreal, C.M., Facey, G.A., Fransham, P.B., 2007a. The conversion of
chicken manure to biooil by fast pyrolysis I. Analyses of chicken manure, biooils
and char by 13C and 1H NMR and FTIR spectrophotometry. J. Environ. Sci.
Health Part B 42, 71e77.
Schnitzer, M.I., Monreal, C.M., Jandl, G., Leinweber, P., Fransham, P.B., 2007b. The
conversion of chicken manure to biooil by fast pyrolysis II. Analysis of chicken
manure, biooils, and char by curie-point pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry (Cp Py-GC/MS). J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B 42, 79e95.
Shaaban, A., Se, S.-M., Dimin, M., Juoi, J.M., Husin, M.H.M., Mitan, N.M.M., 2014.
Influence of heating temperature and holding time on biochars derived from
rubber wood sawdust via slow pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 107, 31e39.
Shafizadeh, F., 1982. Introduction to pyrolysis of biomass. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 3,
283e305.
Shan, D., Deng, S., Zhao, T., Wang, B., Wang, Y., Huang, J., Yu, G., Winglee, J.,
Wiesner, M.R., 2016. Preparation of ultrafine magnetic biochar and activated
28 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
carbon for pharmaceutical adsorption and subsequent degradation by ball
milling. J. Hazard Mater. 305, 156e163.
Shen, Z., Zhang, J., Hou, D., Tsang, D.C., Ok, Y.S., Alessi, D.S., 2019. Synthesis of MgO-
coated corncob biochar and its application in lead stabilization in a soil washing
residue. Environ. Int. 122, 357e362.
Shirzad, M., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Dashtic, B.B., Rajaeifard, M.A., Aghbashlo, M.,
Tabatabaei, M., 2019. A comprehensive review on electricity generation and
GHG emission reduction potentials through anaerobic digestion of agricultural
and livestock/slaughterhouse wastes in Iran. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 111,
571e594.
Sizmur, T., Fresno, T., Akgül, G., Frost, H., Moreno-Jime nez, E., 2017. Biochar modi-
fication to enhance sorption of inorganics from water. Bioresour. Technol. 246,
34e47.
Smith, F.A., White, J.W., 2004. Modern calibration of phytolith carbon isotope sig-
natures for C3/C4 paleograssland reconstruction. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 207, 277e304.
Solaiman, Z.M., Anawar, H.M., 2015. Application of Biochars for Soil Constraints:
Challenges and Solutions. Elsevier.
Soltanian, S., Aghbashlo, M., Almasi, F., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Nizami, A.-S.,
Ok, Y.S., Lam, S.S., Tabatabaei, M., 2020. A critical review of the effects of pre-
treatment methods on the exergetic aspects of lignocellulosic biofuels. Energy
Convers. Manag. 212, 112792.
Song, Z., Lian, F., Yu, Z., Zhu, L., Xing, B., Qiu, W., 2014. Synthesis and characterization
of a novel MnOx-loaded biochar and its adsorption properties for Cuþ 2 in
aqueous solution. Chem. Eng. J. 242, 36e42.
Spokas, K.A., 2010. Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O:C
molar ratios. Carbon Manag. 1, 289e303.
Stott, D., Kennedy, A., Cambardella, C., 2018. Impact of soil organisms and organic
matter on soil structure. In: Lal, R. (Ed.), Soil Quality and Soil Erosion. Routledge,
pp. 57e73.
Sun, F., Lu, S., 2014. Biochars improve aggregate stability, water retention, and pore-
space properties of clayey soil. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 177, 26e33.
Sun, T., Levin, B.D., Guzman, J.J., Enders, A., Muller, D.A., Angenent, L.T., Lehmann, J.,
2017. Rapid electron transfer by the carbon matrix in natural pyrogenic carbon.
Nat. Commun. 8, 14873.
Swiatkowski, A., Pakula, M., Biniak, S., Walczyk, M., 2004. Influence of the surface
chemistry of modified activated carbon on its electrochemical behaviour in the
presence of lead (II) ions. Carbon 42, 3057e3069.
Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Dehhaghi, M., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H.,
Mollahosseini, A., Hosseini, M., 2019a. Reactor technologies for biodiesel pro-
duction and processing: a review. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 74, 239e303.
Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Valijanian, E., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Nizami, A.-
S., Ghanavati, H., Sulaiman, A., Mirmohamadsadeghi, S., Karimi, K., 2019b.
A comprehensive review on recent biological innovations to improve biogas
production, part 1: upstream strategies. Renew. Energy.
Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Valijanian, E., Kazemi Shariat Panahi, H., Nizami, A.-
S., Ghanavati, H., Sulaiman, A., Mirmohamadsadeghi, S., Karimi, K., 2019c.
A comprehensive review on recent biological innovations to improve biogas
production, part 2: mainstream and downstream strategies. Renew. Energy 146,
1392e1407.
Tabatabaei, M., Soltanian, S., Aghbashlo, M., Nizami, A.-S., 2019d. Fast pyrolysis of
biomass: advances in science and technology: a book review. J. Clean. Prod. 213,
1411e1413.
Takaya, C., Fletcher, L., Singh, S., Okwuosa, U., Ross, A., 2016. Recovery of phosphate
with chemically modified biochars. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4, 1156e1165.
Tan, X.-f., Liu, Y.-g., Gu, Y.-l., Xu, Y., Zeng, G.-m., Hu, X.-j., Liu, S.-b., Wang, X., Liu, S.-
m., Li, J., 2016. Biochar-based nano-composites for the decontamination of
wastewater: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 212, 318e333.
Tang, J., Lv, H., Gong, Y., Huang, Y., 2015. Preparation and characterization of a novel
graphene/biochar composite for aqueous phenanthrene and mercury removal.
Bioresour. Technol. 196, 355e363.
Teutscherova, N., Lojka, B., Hou
ska, J., Masaguer, A., Benito, M., Vazquez, E., 2018.
Application of holm oak biochar alters dynamics of enzymatic and microbial
activity in two contrasting Mediterranean soils. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 88, 15e26.
Tomczyk, A., Sokołowska, Z., Boguta, P., 2020. Biochar physicochemical properties:
pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol.
1e25.
Trakal, L., Veselska

rík, I., Vítkov
, V., Safa

a, M., Cíhalov , S., Koma
a rek, M., 2016. Lead
and cadmium sorption mechanisms on magnetically modified biochars. Bio-
resour. Technol. 203, 318e324.
Trompowsky, P.M., de Melo Benites, V., Madari, B.E., Pimenta, A.S., Hockaday, W.C.,
Hatcher, P.G., 2005. Characterization of humic like substances obtained by
chemical oxidation of eucalyptus charcoal. Org. Geochem. 36, 1480e1489.
Uchimiya, M., Bannon, D.I., Wartelle, L.H., 2012. Retention of heavy metals by
carboxyl functional groups of biochars in small arms range soil. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 60, 1798e1809.
Van Zwieten, L., Kimber, S., Morris, S., Downie, A., Berger, E., Rust, J., Scheer, C., 2010.
Influence of biochars on flux of N2O and CO2 from Ferrosol. Soil Res. 48,
555e568.
Van Zwieten, L., Singh, B., Kimber, S., Murphy, D., Macdonald, L., Rust, J., Morris, S.,
2014. An incubation study investigating the mechanisms that impact N2O flux
from soil following biochar application. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 191, 53e62.
Ventura, M., Alberti, G., Panzacchi, P., Delle Vedove, G., Miglietta, F., Tonon, G., 2019.
Biochar mineralization and priming effect in a poplar short rotation coppice
from a 3-year field experiment. Biol. Fertil. Soils 55, 67e78.
Verhoeven, E., Six, J., 2014. Biochar does not mitigate field-scale N2O emissions in a
Northern California vineyard: an assessment across two years. Agric. Ecosyst.
Environ. 191, 27e38.
Vithanage, M., Rajapaksha, A.U., Zhang, M., Thiele-Bruhn, S., Lee, S.S., Ok, Y.S., 2015.
Acid-activated biochar increased sulfamethazine retention in soils. Environ. Sci.
Pollut. Res. 22, 2175e2186.
Wan, S., Wang, S., Li, Y., Gao, B., 2017. Functionalizing biochar with MgeAl and
MgeFe layered double hydroxides for removal of phosphate from aqueous
solutions. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 47, 246e253.
Wan, S., Wu, J., Zhou, S., Wang, R., Gao, B., He, F., 2018. Enhanced lead and cadmium
removal using biochar-supported hydrated manganese oxide (HMO) nano-
particles: behavior and mechanism. Sci. Total Environ. 616, 1298e1306.
Wan, Y., Chen, P., Zhang, B., Yang, C., Liu, Y., Lin, X., Ruan, R., 2009. Microwave-
assisted pyrolysis of biomass: catalysts to improve product selectivity. J. Anal.
Appl. Pyrolysis 86, 161e167.
Wang, B., Gao, B., Fang, J., 2017a. Recent advances in engineered biochar pro-
ductions and applications. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 2158e2207.
Wang, B., Lian, G., Lee, X., Gao, B., Li, L., Liu, T., Zhang, X., Zheng, Y., 2020. Phos-
phogypsum as a novel modifier for distillers grains biochar removal of phos-
phate from water. Chemosphere 238, 124684.
Wang, J., Xiong, Z., Kuzyakov, Y., 2016. Biochar stability in soil: meta-analysis of
decomposition and priming effects. GCB Bioenergy 8, 512e523.
Wang, L., Wang, Y., Ma, F., Tankpa, V., Bai, S., Guo, X., Wang, X., 2019. Mechanisms
and reutilization of modified biochar used for removal of heavy metals from
wastewater: a review. Sci. Total Environ.
Wang, M., Sheng, G., Qiu, Y., 2015a. A novel manganese-oxide/biochar composite for
efficient removal of lead(II) from aqueous solutions. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
12, 1719e1726.
Wang, N., Chang, Z.-Z., Xue, X.-M., Yu, J.-G., Shi, X.-X., Ma, L.Q., Li, H.-B., 2017b.
Biochar decreases nitrogen oxide and enhances methane emissions via altering
microbial community composition of anaerobic paddy soil. Sci. Total Environ.
581, 689e696.
Wang, X., Song, D., Liang, G., Zhang, Q., Ai, C., Zhou, W., 2015b. Maize biochar
addition rate influences soil enzyme activity and microbial community
composition in a fluvo-aquic soil. Appl. Soil Ecol. 96, 265e272.
Wang, Y., Wang, X., Liu, M., Wang, X., Wu, Z., Yang, L., Xia, S., Zhao, J., 2012. Cr (VI)
removal from water using cobalt-coated bamboo charcoal prepared with mi-
crowave heating. Ind. Crop. Prod. 39, 81e88.
Weber, K., Quicker, P., 2018. Properties of biochar. Fuel 217, 240e261.
Wei, A., Ma, J., Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Song, J., Yu, X., 2018a. Enhanced nitrate removal
and high selectivity towards dinitrogen for groundwater remediation using
biochar-supported nano zero-valent iron. Chem. Eng. J. 353, 595e605.
Wei, D., Li, B., Huang, H., Luo, L., Zhang, J., Yang, Y., Guo, J., Tang, L., Zeng, G., Zhou, Y.,
2018b. Biochar-based functional materials in the purification of agricultural
wastewater: fabrication, application and future research needs. Chemosphere
197, 165e180.
Wink, J., Mohammadipanah, F., Panahi, H.K.S., 2017. Practical aspects of working
with actinobacteria. In: Wink, J., Mohammadipanah, F., Hamedi, J. (Eds.),
Biology and Biotechnology of Actinobacteria. Springer, Cham, pp. 329e376.
Wong, J.T.F., Chen, Z., Chen, X., Ng, C.W.W., Wong, M.H., 2017. Soil-water retention
behavior of compacted biochar-amended clay: a novel landfill final cover ma-
terial. J. Soils Sediments 17, 590e598.
Wornat, M.J., Hurt, R.H., Yang, N.Y., Headley, T.J., 1995. Structural and compositional
transformations of biomass chars during combustion. Combust. Flame 100,
131e143.
Wu, J., Li, Z., Huang, D., Liu, X., Tang, C., Parikh, S.J., Xu, J., 2020. A novel calcium-
based magnetic biochar is effective in stabilization of arsenic and cadmium
co-contamination in aerobic soils. J. Hazard Mater. 122010.
Xiao, J., Hu, R., Chen, G., 2020. Micro-nano-engineered nitrogenous bone biochar
developed with a ball-milling technique for high-efficiency removal of aquatic
Cd (II), Cu (II) and Pb (II). J. Hazard Mater. 387, 121980.
Xiao, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Jiang, P., Zhou, G., Liu, J., 2016. Effects of bamboo leaves and
their biochar additions on soil N2O flux in a Chinese chestnut forest. J. Plant
Nutr. Fert. 22, 697e706.
Xiu, S., Shahbazi, A., Li, R., 2017. Characterization, modification and application of
biochar for energy storage and catalysis: a review. Trends Renewable Energy 3,
86e101.
Xu, G., Lv, Y., Sun, J., Shao, H., Wei, L., 2012. Recent advances in biochar applications
in agricultural soils: benefits and environmental implications. Clean 40,
1093e1098.
Xu, Q., Chen, Z., Wu, Z., Xu, F., Yang, D., He, Q., Li, G., Chen, Y., 2019. Novel lanthanum
doped biochars derived from lignocellulosic wastes for efficient phosphate
removal and regeneration. Bioresour. Technol. 289, 121600.
Yan, J., Han, L., Gao, W., Xue, S., Chen, M., 2015. Biochar supported nanoscale zer-
ovalent iron composite used as persulfate activator for removing trichloroeth-
ylene. Bioresour. Technol. 175, 269e274.
Yan, L., Kong, L., Qu, Z., Li, L., Shen, G., 2014. Magnetic biochar decorated with ZnS
nanocrytals for Pb (II) removal. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 3, 125e132.
Yang, F., Zhang, S., Li, H., Li, S., Cheng, K., Li, J.-S., Tsang, D.C., 2018. Corn straw-
derived biochar impregnated with a-FeOOH nanorods for highly effective
copper removal. Chem. Eng. J. 348, 191e201.
Yang, F., Zhang, S., Sun, Y., Du, Q., Song, J., Tsang, D.C., 2019a. A novel electrochemical
modification combined with one-step pyrolysis for preparation of sustainable
thorn-like iron-based biochar composites. Bioresour. Technol. 274, 379e385.
Yang, F., Zhang, S., Sun, Y., Tsang, D.C., Cheng, K., Ok, Y.S., 2019b. Assembling biochar
 H. Kazemi Shariat Panahi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 270 (2020) 122462
with various layered double hydroxides for enhancement of phosphorus re-
covery. J. Hazard Mater. 365, 665e673.
Yao, Y., 2013. Sorption of Phosphate and Other Contaminants on Biochar and its
Environmental Implications. University of Florida.
Yao, Y., Gao, B., Chen, J., Yang, L., 2013a. Engineered biochar reclaiming phosphate
from aqueous solutions: mechanisms and potential application as a slow-
release fertilizer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 8700e8708.
Yao, Y., Gao, B., Chen, J., Zhang, M., Inyang, M., Li, Y., Alva, A., Yang, L., 2013b.
Engineered carbon (biochar) prepared by direct pyrolysis of Mg-accumulated
tomato tissues: characterization and phosphate removal potential. Bioresour.
Technol. 138, 8e13.
Yao, Y., Gao, B., Fang, J., Zhang, M., Chen, H., Zhou, Y., Creamer, A.E., Sun, Y., Yang, L.,
2014. Characterization and environmental applications of clayebiochar com-
posites. Chem. Eng. J. 242, 136e143.
Yao, Y., Zhang, Y., Gao, B., Chen, R., Wu, F., 2018. Removal of sulfamethoxazole (SMX)
and sulfapyridine (SPY) from aqueous solutions by biochars derived from
anaerobically digested bagasse. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25, 25659e25667.
Yek, P.N.Y., Peng, W., Wong, C.C., Liew, R.K., Ho, Y.L., Mahari, W.A.W., Azwar, E.,
Yuan, T.Q., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., 2020. Engineered biochar via mi-
crowave CO2 and steam pyrolysis to treat carcinogenic Congo Red Dye. J. Hazard
Mater. 122636.
Yi, S., Sun, Y., Hu, X., Xu, H., Gao, B., Wu, J., 2018. Porous nano-cerium oxide wood
chip biochar composites for aqueous levofloxacin removal and sorption
mechanism insights. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25, 25629e25637.
Yoon, K., Cho, D.-W., Tsang, D.C., Bolan, N., Rinklebe, J., Song, H., 2017. Fabrication of
engineered biochar from paper mill sludge and its application into removal of
arsenic and cadmium in acidic water. Bioresour. Technol. 246, 69e75.
Yu, C., Tang, Y.-l., Fang, M.-x., Luo, Z.-y., Ceng, K., 2005. Experimental study on alkali
emission during rice straw pyrolysis. J. Zhejiang Univ. Eng. Sci. 39, 1435.
Yu, C., Wang, M., Dong, X., Shi, Z., Zhang, X., Lin, Q., 2017a. Removal of Cu(II) from
aqueous solution using Fe3O4ealginate modified biochar microspheres. RSC
Adv. 7, 53135e53144.
Yu, Z., Dang, Q., Liu, C., Cha, D., Zhang, H., Zhu, W., Zhang, Q., Fan, B., 2017b. Prep-
aration and characterization of poly (maleic acid)-grafted cross-linked chitosan
microspheres for Cd (II) adsorption. Carbohydr. Polym. 172, 28e39.
Zabaniotou, A., Stavropoulos, G., Skoulou, V., 2008. Activated carbon from olive
kernels in a two-stage process: industrial improvement. Bioresour. Technol. 99,
320e326.
Zhang, M.-m., Liu, Y.-g., Li, T.-t., Xu, W.-h., Zheng, B.-h., Tan, X.-f., Wang, H., Guo, Y.-
m., Guo, F.-y., Wang, S.-f., 2015. Chitosan modification of magnetic biochar
produced from Eichhornia crassipes for enhanced sorption of Cr(VI) from
aqueous solution. RSC Adv. 5, 46955e46964.
Zhang, M., Gao, B., 2013. Removal of arsenic, methylene blue, and phosphate by
biochar/AlOOH nanocomposite. Chem. Eng. J. 226, 286e292.
Zhang, M., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., Inyang, M., 2012a. Synthesis of porous MgO-
biochar nanocomposites for removal of phosphate and nitrate from aqueous
solutions. Chem. Eng. J. 210, 26e32.
29
Zhang, M., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., Inyang, M., 2012b. Synthesis, characterization,
and environmental implications of graphene-coated biochar. Sci. Total Environ.
435, 567e572.
Zhang, M., Shen, Q., Wu, H., 2017. Adsorption characteristics of bio-oil on biochar in
bioslurry fuels. Energy Fuels 31, 9619e9626.
Zhang, T., Walawender, W.P., Fan, L., Fan, M., Daugaard, D., Brown, R., 2004. Prep-
aration of activated carbon from forest and agricultural residues through CO2
activation. Chem. Eng. J. 105, 53e59.
Zhao, L., Zheng, W., Ma
sek, O., Chen, X., Gu, B., Sharma, B.K., Cao, X., 2017. Roles of
phosphoric acid in biochar formation: synchronously improving carbon
retention and sorption capacity. J. Environ. Qual. 46, 393e401.
Zhao, X., Song, Z., Liu, H., Li, Z., Li, L., Ma, C., 2010. Microwave pyrolysis of corn stalk
bale: a promising method for direct utilization of large-sized biomass and
syngas production. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 89, 87e94.
Zhao, X., Yan, X., Wang, S., Xing, G., Zhou, Y., 2013. Effects of the addition of rice-
straw-based biochar on leaching and retention of fertilizer N in highly fertil-
ized cropland soils. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 59, 771e782.
Zheng, H., Wang, X., Chen, L., Wang, Z., Xia, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Luo, X., Xing, B.,
2018. Enhanced growth of halophyte plants in biochar-amended coastal soil:
roles of nutrient availability and rhizosphere microbial modulation. Plant Cell
Environ. 41, 517e532.
Zheng, H., Wang, Z., Deng, X., Herbert, S., Xing, B., 2013a. Impacts of adding biochar
on nitrogen retention and bioavailability in agricultural soil. Geoderma 206,
32e39.
Zheng, H., Wang, Z., Deng, X., Zhao, J., Luo, Y., Novak, J., Herbert, S., Xing, B., 2013b.
Characteristics and nutrient values of biochars produced from giant reed at
different temperatures. Bioresour. Technol. 130, 463e471.
Zheng, J., Han, J., Liu, Z., Xia, W., Zhang, X., Li, L., Liu, X., Bian, R., Cheng, K., Zheng, J.,
2017. Biochar compound fertilizer increases nitrogen productivity and eco-
nomic benefits but decreases carbon emission of maize production. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 241, 70e78.
Zheng, J., Stewart, C.E., Cotrufo, M.F., 2012. Biochar and nitrogen fertilizer alters soil
nitrogen dynamics and greenhouse gas fluxes from two temperate soils.
J. Environ. Qual. 41, 1361e1370.
Zhou, C., Heal, K., Tigabu, M., Xia, L., Hu, H., Yin, D., Ma, X., 2020. Biochar addition to
forest plantation soil enhances phosphorus availability and soil bacterial com-
munity diversity. For. Ecol. Manage. 455, 117635.
Zhou, G., Zhou, X., Zhang, T., Du, Z., He, Y., Wang, X., Shao, J., Cao, Y., Xue, S.,
Wang, H., 2017. Biochar increased soil respiration in temperate forests but had
no effects in subtropical forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 405, 339e349.
Zhou, X., Zhou, J., Liu, Y., Guo, J., Ren, J., Zhou, F., 2018. Preparation of iminodiacetic
acid-modified magnetic biochar by carbonization, magnetization and func-
tional modification for Cd(II) removal in water. Fuel 233, 469e479.
€ berl, T., Paris, O., 2006. Mechanical properties of pyrolysed wood: a
Zickler, G., Scho
nanoindentation study. Philos. Mag. A 86, 1373e1386.
Zimmerman, A.R., Ouyang, L., 2019. Priming of pyrogenic C (biochar) mineralization
by dissolved organic matter and vice versa. Soil Biol. Biochem. 130, 105e112.