Envelopes in Architecture (A4113)

Designing holistic envelopes for contemporary buildings

Silvia Prandelli, Werner Sobek New York
A4113 ENVELOPES IN ARCHITECTURE - FALL 2016
Supply chain
for holistic facades

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Systems

Door systems Media Facades Rainscreen facades

Dynamic facades Mesh System Structural glass/Cable

Glass floors Multiple skins Shading systems

Green facades Panelized systems Stick/Unitized systems

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Curtain wall facades

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What are the components of a façade system?

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What are the components of a façade system?

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What are the components of a façade system?

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Glass

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 Glass Types

Base Glass (float glass)

Heat Treated Glass
Laminated Glass
Insulating Glass
Fire Rated Glass
Burglar Resistant Glass
Sound Protection Glass
Decorative Glass
Curved Glass

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Base Glass (Float Glass)

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3500 BC Glass Making: Man-made glass objects, mainly non-transparent glass beads, finds in
Egypt and Eastern Mesopotamia

1500 BC Early hollow glass production: Evidence of the origins of the hollow glass
industry, finds in Egypt

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27 BC - 14 AD Glass Blowing: Discovery of glassblowing, attributed to Syrian craftsmen from the Sidon-
Babylon area.

> The blowing process has changed very little since then.

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Flat Glass Blown sheet

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15th century Lead Crystal Glass: During the 15th century in Venice, the first clear glass called cristallo
was invented.

In 1675, glassmaker George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass by adding lead oxide to
Venetian glass.

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16th century Sheet Glass: Larger sheets of glass were made by blowing large cylinders which were
cut open and flattened, then cut into panes

19th century Sheet Glass: The first advances in automating glass manufacturing were patented in
1848 by Henry Bessemer, an English engineer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by
forming the ribbon between rollers.

20th century Sheet Glass: On March 25, 1902, Irving W Colburn patented the sheet glass drawing
machine, making the mass production of glass for windows possible.

20th century Sheet Glass: The first real innovation came in 1905 when a Belgian named Fourcault
managed to vertically draw a continuous sheet of glass of a consistent width from the molten tank.

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Flat Glass Bessemer Method

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Flat Glass Drawn Glass

Fourcault Process Colburn-Owens Process

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20th century Modern Sheet Glass:

1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the
first successful commercial application

• for forming a continuous ribbon of glass

• using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity

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Float Glass Float Process

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Float Glass Float Process

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Float Glass Float Process
Stage 1: Melting and refining
Fine-grained ingredients, closely controlled for quality, are
mixed to make a batch, which flows into the furnace which
is heated to 1500 ºC. Float today makes glass of near
optical quality. Several processes - melting, refining,
homogenizing – take place simultaneously in the 2,000
tones of molten glass in the furnace. They occur in
separate zones in a complex glass flow driven by high
temperatures, as the diagram shows. It adds up to a
continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 hours,
that delivers glass at 1,100oC, free from inclusions and
bubbles, smoothly and continuously to the float bath.
The melting process is key to glass quality; and
compositions can be modified to change the
properties of the finished product.
Stage 2: Float bath
Glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory
spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin,
starting at 1,100ºC and leaving the float bath as a
solid ribbon at 600ºC.
The principle of float glass is unchanged from the
1950s. But the product has changed dramatically:
• from a single equilibrium thickness of 6.8mm to a
range from sub-millimeter to 25mm;
• from a ribbon frequently marred by inclusions,
bubbles and striations to almost optical perfection.
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Float Glass Coating

Soft coating

Stage 3: Coating

Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high temperature
technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.

On-line chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of coatings is the most

significant advance in the float process since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of
coatings, less than a micron thick, to reflect visible and infrared wavelengths, for instance.

Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass ribbon flows beneath the coaters. Further
development of the CVD process may well replace changes in composition as the principal way of varying the
optical properties of float glass.

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Float Glass Annealing

Stage 4: Annealing

Despite the tranquility with which float glass is formed,

considerable stresses are developed in the ribbon as it cools.

Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the cutter.
The picture shows stresses through the ribbon, revealed by
polarized light.

To relieve these stresses the ribbon undergoes heat-treatment

in a long furnace known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely
controlled both along and across the ribbon.

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Float Glass Inspection

Stage 5: Inspection

The float process is renowned for making perfectly flat, flaw-free glass. But to ensure the highest quality,
inspection takes place at every stage.

Occasionally a bubble is not removed during refining, a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts ripples into the
glass ribbon. Automated on-line inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected. And it
enables computers downstream to steer cutters round flaws.

Inspection technology now allows more than 100 million measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating
flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see. The data drives 'intelligent‘ cutters, further improving product quality to the
customer.

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Float Glass Cutting

Stage 6: Cutting to order

Diamond wheels trim off selvedge - stressed edges - and

cut the ribbon to size dictated by computer.

Float glass is sold by the square meter.

Computers translate customers' requirements into

patterns of cuts designed to minimize wastage.

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Heat Treated Glass

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Heat Treatment

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Heat Treatment Tempered Glass

Thermally Fully Tempered Glass:

Generally speaking, “Toughened glass’ is about 4 – 5 times

stronger than its non-toughened equivalent.

Minimum thickness of glass is 3 mm.

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Heat Treatment Tempered Glass

Chemically Tempered Glass:

When glasses are dipped into a bath with melted

potassium salt at a temperature above 380ºC, an
exchange takes place between the potassium ions
in the salt and the sodium ions on the surface of
the glass.
Tempered
Chemical tempering should be considered in the
following situations:

• When glass thickness is less than 2.5mm

potassium

• Where glass with complex bending or

dimensional characteristics cannot be tempered
with thermal tempering.

Chemical tempering can be used on previously

curved glass, and also on glass that is less than 2
mm thick.
sodium
The shape of the glass sheet will not be modified
during tempering, so perfectly coupled sheets can
be obtained during PVB lamination.

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Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Toughened or Heat Strengthened Float

Fully Tempered

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Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Float Glass

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Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Toughened or Fully Tempered Glass Heat Strengthened Glass

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Laminated Glass

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Laminated Glass

In 1903, French chemist Edouard Benedictus

accidentally broke a bottle of cellulose acetate in his
laboratory.

As a result, he discovered that the cellulose, upon

hardening, held the fragments of glass together. This
subsequently led to the use of cellulose as a binding
agent in the glass laminating process.

A Saint-Gobain patent of the process followed in

1910. Further development by DuPont and
Monsanto led to the use of laminated windscreens in
cars after the second world war. • Performance?
• safety
• security
• sound control
• solar energy performance
• ultraviolet radiation protection
• hurricane, earthquake and bomb blast

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Laminated Glass Process

Technical data
Minimum glass size 250 x 400 mm
Maximum glass size 3300 x 9000
mm

Glass types
• Float glass, also with the
latest coatings
• Tempered and heat
strengthened glass

Laminating interlayers
• PVB
• EVA
• SGP (SentryGlas®plus)

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Laminated Glass Infill

Glass Pane

PVB, SGP,…
Infill

PVB, SGP,…

Glass Pane

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Laminated Glass Interlayer
1. Butacite® polyvinyl butyral interlayer (PVB) has
been continuously improved over the past 67
years from its inception as the preferred material
for safety glass. It has established all of the
advantages of laminated glass: Safety and
security, sound dampening; ability to offer solar
control for energy savings; protection of interiors
from fading; and added beauty.

2. SentryGlas®Plus interlayer (SGP) for laminated

safety glazing is the latest innovation in DuPont’s
family of glass laminating products. It extends
the performance of laminated glass beyond
current technologies. SentryGlas® Plus
Interlayer offers five times the tear strength and
100 times the rigidity of conventional PVB
interlayer. Because of its added strength, clarity,
durability, fabrication and installation ease, it is
an excellent candidate for demanding
applications in the architectural market place. It
can offer improved ballistic protection or thinner
constructions than are now possible with
conventional laminated glass.

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Laminated Glass Comparison

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Insulating Glass

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Insulating Glass

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Insulating Glass

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Insulating Glass

Hermetically
sealed
insulated glass
units are
fabricated with
dual seals
using
continuous
spacers for
maximum
performance
and longevity.

This
combination
allows to offer
windows with a
standard 10-12
year warranty
against seal
failure.

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Glass sizes

Typical manufacturing limits in the US are governed by the demand of the residential market:

•Maximum panel size 102” x 144”

•Minimum/maximum thickness 6/10mm

Oversized glass is available with this US suppliers:

•Cristacurva
•AGNORA
•AGC
•Rochester Insulated glass
•Glass design Concepts

Oversized glass is available with this EU suppliers:

•BGT
•Cricursa

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Glass sizes

FRITTING LAMINATING COATING TEMPERING

Supplier Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

Width (in) Height (in) Width (in) Height (in) Width (in) Height (in) Width (in) Height (in)

AGNORA
Canada
84 240 130 300 130 240 130 275

Guardian 84 160 96 180 102 144(168*) 84 (96*) 160

US

Cristacurva 94 240 118 240 130 204 118 240

Mexico/US

Viracon 84 165 84 165 84 147(165*) 96 165

US

AGC/Interpane 60 120 84 144 84 (126)** 144(236)** 84 144

US/EU

BGT Any coating can be

EU
112 236 106 354 supplied to BGT for 112 236
processing

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Fire Rated Glass

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Fire Rated Glass Fire Performance Classifications

E=Stability
INTEGRITY
Glazing products to contain smoke and
flames

Fire Rated Glass is evaluated

as a component of a complete
fire resistive Assembly:
EW=Stability + Radiation Reduction
INTERGRITY & RADIATION
• Glass REDUCTION
• Frame Glazing Products to reduce radiant
• Door heat transfer
• Hardware
• Gasket & Seals
• Anchoring INTEGRITY & TEMPERATURE
• Installation INSULATION
EI=Stability + Temperature Insulation
Glazing Products providing a barrier to
radiant and conducted heat transfer

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Fire Rated Glass Types

Allowable Temp
increase
140º K in the
middle
180º K at one
place

Foamed interlayer
Broken or melted
glass

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Fire Rated Glass Certified Sizes

Glass width (mm) Glass width (mm)

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Fire Rated Glass Fully Glazed

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Burglar Resistant Glass

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Burglar Resistant Glass

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Bullet Resistant Glass

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Sound Protection Glass

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Sound Protection Glass

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Sound Protection Glass

$$$$

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Decorative Glass

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Decorative glass

Different glass manufacturers can offer decorative glass solutions

•Fritting/ Double fritting

•Back painted

•Digital printing

•Colored/fabric interlayer

•Patterned glass

•Dichroic glass

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Fritting

10 mm

2 mm diameter 3.6 mm diameter 3.6 mm diameter 2 mm diameter

3 mm apart
2 mm apart 1.5 mm apart 1.5 mm apart 2 mm apart

Typical manufacturing limits:

•Standard maximum panel size 84”x65” (2100 x 4100mm). Oversized glass up to 84”x240” (2100x6100mm)

•Minimum distance apart and width of lines is 3mm

•Minimum diameter of dot or hole is 2mm

•Minimum distance between dots or holes is 1.5mm

•White, black and grey ceramic ink are the most commonly used colors

•Non-standard color availability should be checked with suppliers on a case by case basis

•Range may be limited to one color per glass

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Fritting

IAC building ,New York

• Fritted glass on SSG unitized system
• White fritting at 100% on the spandrel panel, fading at 0% at eye level

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Fritting

Cooper Square Hotel, US

• Fritted glass on unitized system
• Each elevation has its own glass pattern
• White fritted glass is mixed with perforated aluminum panels

Solid metal panels mounted on units

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Fritting

Louis Vuitton, New York

• White fritted glass on solid wall with openings
• Fritting is uniform through the façade, except at the
shop windows where a transparent glass has been
used

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Fritting

Anchorage Museum Expansion, US

• Fritted mirrored glass on capped stick system
• Vertical stripes fritted pattern

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Fritting

Charlotte R. Bloomberg Children’s Center, Baltimore

• Fritted mirrored glass on capped stick system
• 30% fritting on low iron glass – custom pattern

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Fritting
Allianz HQ, Zurich
• Fritted glass on SSG unitized system and stick patch plate system to the ground floor
• 100% fritted framed panels to replicate the marble used on Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona
Pavilion
• Two colors per glass: composite layers of black and white fritting dots
• Curtains have been included into the double glazed unit

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Fritting
Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg
• Fritted curved glass on SSG unitized system-
• Double dotted fritting pattern and double coatings.
• Challenge in overlying the laminated front panel to match the
architectural pattern.

Low-iron
laminated glass

Solar control
coating
Chrome
mirror dots Low-e coating

Monolithic
float glass
Grey dot frit

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 Digital Printing

Different patterns and colours

Printed plastic interlayer can be supplied to glass processors for

laminating.

Typical manufacturing limits:

o Maximum panel size 60”x 144”. Oversized panels from EU up to 2400

mm x 5800 mm
o Different levels of transparency are achievable
o Different colors are possible

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 Digital Printing

Icelandic Institute of Natural History

• Digitally printed interlayer in laminated glass: different

patterns are achievable with an higher resolution than
ceramic fritting

• More expensive compared to ceramic fritting

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Digital Printing
Harlem hospital
• Digitally printed glass, patterns will have higher resolution
compared with ceramic frit
• Glass supplied by GGI, NJ
• Standard and bespoke patterns available

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Interlayers
Different types of interlayer can be used including colored, fabric, metal and organic films > $$$ / longer supply

Fabric interlayer

Vanceva interlayer

Organic interlayer (wood,silk)

Metallic interlayer

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Interlayers

Yamaha building, Tokyo

• Glass with laminated interlayer made of gold dust manufactured locally.
• Cable net secondary structure for a lighter appearance.

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Patterned Glass
LASVIT LIQUIDKRISTAL OLIVIA BY JOEL BERMAN
Maximum sizes105”x145” Maximum sizes 53”x108”

PATTERNS BY JOEL BERMAN

Maximum sizes varies _ Compatibility with exterior use to be confirmed and dependant
on loading

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Patterned Glass
Vakko Center, Istanbul
• Patterned glass manufactured locally
• Curved shaped to increase glass strength where most necessary (at the bolt connections)

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Dichroic Glass
• Dichroic glass changes color as the viewer
moves in relation to the glass.

• The glass has a transparent color and a

reflective color, which will often be opposite
colors of the spectrum.

• Dichroic glass is an expensive product, but

the dichroic film that we also use is much
more economical.

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Curved Glass

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Curved Glass

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 Curved Glass

Single curved
• Single curved process can be mechanized to be cost effective
• Single curved glass has tolerances similar to flat glass
• Coatings should be carefully selected depending on the radius of curvature, the direction of the curve
and the environmental requirements not to be readable or cause any visual distortions on the glass.
• A convex curvature may project the light away from the central point causing the reflected image to
be stretched out in all directions.

Double curved
• Double curved glass is available within selected glass suppliers across the globe.
• Minimum radia of curvature will be different from single curved glass.
• Where tempered glass is required for safety purposes or strenght chemical tempering might be
required if low radia are required.

Cold bent
• More cost effective compared to hot bent glass, single and double glazed panels are installed and
bent on site at room temperatures on a pre-curved secondary structure.
• Certain limitations exist for maximum imposed deflections to the panel. These are dependent on
panel sizes, glass thickness, glass retention system and load imposed onto the glass.
• Glass must be tempered to withstand higher stresses due to the imposed deflections.
• Specific calculations need to be carried out by the glass supplier on the selected glass build up to
confirm the warranty extent.

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Curved Glass

Single curved

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Curved Glass

Double curved

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Curved Glass

Cold Bent

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Curved Glass

Cold Bent

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Curved Glass

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Aluminum framing

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 Aluminum extrusions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHkwq_2yY9E

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Aluminum finishes

Main finishes include:

• Chemical processes

• Anodizing

• Painted processes

• PPC (Polyester Powder Coating)

• PVDF (PolyVinyliDene Fluoride)

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Anodizing
 Cleaning:
Alkaline and/or acid cleaners remove grease, and surface dirt.

 Pre-Treatment:
Etching, Brightening

 Anodizing:
The anodic film is built and combined with the metal by passing an electrical current through an acid
electrolyte bath in which the aluminum is immersed.

 Coloring:
Coloring is achieved in one of four ways:
Electrolytic Coloring, Integral Coloring, Organic Dyeing and Interference Coloring

 Sealing:
This process closes the pores in the anodic film, giving a surface resistant to staining, abrasion, and
color degradation.

Cleaning Pre-Treatment Anodizing Coloring Sealing

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Paints

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Curtain wall systems

Stick Curtain Wall Unitised Curtain Wall

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

+ Flexibility - Labour intensive + Factory Quality - More Expensive
+ Lower Cost - Site Workmanship + Fast Construction - Greater lead times
- Outside Access + No outside access - Specialised supply
Req’d Req’d chain

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Curtain wall systems

Stick System Curtain Wall

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Curtain wall systems

Unitised System Curtain Wall

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kE2TsiCD3z
4#action=share

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Limitations? 1

The Diana Center

Weiss/Manfredi

Reykjavik Opera House

Henning Larsen Architects

90
 1

Reykjavik Opera House

Henning Larsen Architects
91
 1

Reykjavik Opera House

Henning Larsen Architects
92
 1

The Diana Center

Weiss/Manfredi
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 1

The Diana Center

Weiss/Manfredi
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Limitations? 2

Sydney Opera House

Jørn Utzon

Oslo opera house

Snohetta

95
 2

Oslo opera house

Snohetta
96
 2

Oslo opera house

Snohetta
97
 2

Sydney Opera House

Jørn Utzon
98
 2

Sydney Opera House

Jørn Utzon
99
 2

Sydney Opera House

Jørn Utzon
100
Limitations? 3

Disney Music Hall

Frank Gehry

de Young Museum
Herzog & de Meuron

101
 3

de Young Museum
Herzog & de Meuron
102
 3

de Young Museum
Herzog & de Meuron
103
 3

Disney Music Hall

Frank Gehry
104
 3

Disney Music Hall

Frank Gehry
105
Budget costing
for holistic facades

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Systems

Door systems Media Facades Rainscreen facades

Dynamic facades Mesh System Structural glass/Cable

Glass floors Multiple skins Shading systems

Green facades Panelized systems Stick/Unitized systems

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Materials

Acrylic/Polycarbonate Concrete/GRC/Ductal Plastic/GRP

Aluminum ETFE Steel/Stainless/Titanium

Bronze Copper Brass Zinc Fabric Stone

Brick/Terracotta/Ceramics Glass Wood

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A case study

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Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

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Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Aluminum Zinc Concrete/GRC/Ductal Carbon fiber/fiber reinforced

plastic

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

Carbon-fiber Reinforced plastic 76$/ft2 (600€/m2)

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

40$/ft2 (315€/m2)
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic
Additional cost for black finish

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

Black glass-fiber reinforced/

35$/ft2 (275€/m2)
UHPFRC Concrete

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

60$/ft2 (480€/m2)
Stainless Steel
Additional cost for black finish

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

30$/ft2 (250€/m2)
Aluminum
Additional cost for black finish

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 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Cladding Material Preliminary costs

Carbon-fiber Reinforced plastic 76$/ft2 (600€/m2)

40$/ft2 (315€/m2)
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic
Additional cost for black finish
Black glass-fiber reinforced/
35$/ft2 (275€/m2)
UHPFRC Concrete
60$/ft2 (480€/m2)
Stainless Steel
Additional cost for black finish
30$/ft2 (250€/m2)
Aluminum
Additional cost for black finish

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Up next

September 22nd
Tom Reiner - Critic Team #1
Structural Design

September 29th
John Ivanoff - Critic Team #3
Environmental Requirements

October 6th
Erik Verboon - Critic Team #2
Geometry Modelling

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See you next month!

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