Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Geohazards and human settlements: Lessons learned from multiple

relocation events in Badong, China – Engineering geologist’s perspective
Wenping Gong a, *, C. Hsein Juang b, Janusz Wasowski c
a
Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA
c
National Research Council, Institute for Geohydrological Protection, via Amendola 122 I, 70126 Bari, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Mountainous regions are inherently susceptible to geohazards, such as landslides and debris flows, with the
Geohazard threat of natural disasters compounded by human activities (mainly settlements). Lessons learned from past
Human settlement events that involved the interactions between human activities and geohazards are helpful for future site se­
Landslide
lections of human settlements in mountainous regions. To this end, the events associated with county seat re­
Mountainous region
Three Gorges Reservoir
locations in Badong, a typical county in the Three Gorges Reservoir region, China, are studied from an
engineering geologist’s perspective. Over its history, the county seat was relocated multiple times, with the first
relocation traced back to the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) and the last two relocations linked to the Three Gorges
Dam project. By studying geohazards and their interactions with human activities in these county-seat re­
locations, and through the reconstruction of these events, we secure insights into decision-making for these
events. As part of the reconstruction of these relocation events, we analyze a giant pre-historic landslide, whose
discovery ultimately prompted the third relocation. Using the case history of this landslide, we also discuss and
emphasize the importance of proactive monitoring of geohazards for disaster resilience enhancement, recog­
nizing that our knowledge of nature is vastly incomplete.

1. Introduction
Geohazards such as landslides and debris flows occur throughout
much of the world and often lead to a loss of life and property (Aleotti
and Chowdhury, 1999; Dai et al., 2002; Petley, 2012; Iverson et al.,
2015). The impact of geohazards is particularly harsh when they are
concurrent or closely associated with other disastrous events such as
flooding. Terms like a cascade of hazards or consecutive disasters are used
in the literature to emphasize the importance of anticipating such linked
events for timely risk management and mitigation (Gill and Malamud,
2016; AghaKouchak et al., 2018; Pescaroli et al., 2018; de Ruiter et al.,
2020). For example, on 9 October 1963, a 270 million m3 mass slid into
the newly constructed Vajont Reservoir (Italy). It generated a huge wave
that overtopped the dam and killed nearly 2000 people (Genevois and
Ghirotti, 2005). Another dramatic example comes from Zhouqu County,
China, where a massive debris flow took place on 7 August 2010,
destroying more than 200 houses and killing approximately 1700 people
(Dijkstra et al., 2012). Indeed, despite the progress in mitigation efforts,
geohazards still pose a major threat to humans. For example, Chinese
Government data indicate that each year thousands of geohazards occur
in mainland China, causing more than hundreds of deaths and a direct
economic loss of billions of RMB, as shown in Fig. 1(a-c) (NBSC, 2018).
With accelerated population growth and limited land resources,
human settlements are becoming a necessity in mountainous regions
susceptible to landslides and debris flows (van Steijn, 1996; Van Den
Eeckhaut et al., 2007; Frattini and Crosta, 2013). This trend is especially
evident in developing countries, where many construction projects have
been carried out in mountainous regions (Sidle and Ziegler, 2012; Zhou
and Zhao, 2013; Li et al., 2014; Juang et al., 2019). With a total in­
vestment in billions of U.S. dollars, the Three Gorges Dam in China
represents a prominent example of a megaproject located in a moun­
tainous region (Highland, 2008; Tang et al., 2019a). According to Liu
et al. (2007), in the few years following the impoundment of the Three
Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in 2003, over 5700 geohazards occurred in the
TGR region (Fig. 1d). The susceptibility to landslides and debris flows in
the mountainous areas can be compounded by ongoing climate changes,
especially under extreme weather conditions (Nadim et al., 2006; Lama
and Devkota, 2009; Huggel et al., 2012). Moreover, land-use change or

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: wenpinggong@cug.edu.cn (W. Gong), hsein@clemson.edu (C.H. Juang), j.wasowski@ba.irpi.cnr.it (J. Wasowski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106051
Received 30 July 2020; Received in revised form 4 January 2021; Accepted 13 February 2021
Available online 20 February 2021
0013-7952/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
W. Gong et al.
geomorphic change brought about by human activities can also have a
profound impact on geohazard activity and the occurrence of disasters
linked to slope surface processes (Sidle et al., 2004; Wasowski et al.,
2010; Cendrero et al., 2020).
Limited choices of settlement locations in mountainous regions
imply a higher risk to the settlers as, out of necessity, they often have to
occupy the only available flattish ground of alluvial terraces or debris
flow fans, which are susceptible to both flooding and geohazards
(consecutive disasters). The Zhouqu County event (Dijkstra et al., 2012)
serves as a painful reminder of this dilemma and the geohazard threat in
mountainous regions. Thus, an improved understanding of the in­
teractions between human activities and the natural environment is a
necessary pre-requisite for the efforts aimed at the reduction of impacts
of geohazards in mountainous regions (Van Den Eeckhaut et al., 2007;
Zimmermann and Keiler, 2015; Lyu et al., 2018; Juang et al., 2019;
Wasowski and Pisano, 2020).
This paper explores the past relationships between human activities
and geohazards in the TGR mountainous region. In particular, we
investigate the causes of the repeated relocations of the Badong County
seat. Badong County is located about 69 km upstream from the Three
Gorges Dam (Fig. 1d). Throughout its history that goes back to the Sui
dynasty (598 CE), the county seat was relocated three times (Fig. 2). The
First Relocation included a series of county seat transfers in the Song
dynasty (960–1279 CE), likely due to the Yangtze River floods and
geohazards events. The Second Relocation during 1982–2003 was pri­
marily due to the Three Gorges Dam’s construction and secondarily to
the debris flow hazard. The Third Relocation took place between 2007
and 2017 under the threat of the reactivation of a giant landslide. By
reconstructing these relocations, we aim to better understand the in­
teractions between human activities and geohazards and the rationale
behind the decision-making, thus providing insights into the sustainable
development in mountainous regions.
2. The First Relocation (960–1279 CE): from Jiuxianping to
Xinling Town
According to Yudi Guangji (Ouyang et al., 2003), a book containing
geographical records edited during 1111–1117 (in the Song dynasty),
the Badong County was set up as a county-level administrative unit in
598 CE Jiuxianping, a town located on the north bank of the Yangtze
Fig. 1. Geohazard statistics (earthquakes and collateral seismic hazards excluded) in the period 2000–2017 in mainland China and the Three Gorges Reservoir
region: (a) Number of geohazards in mainland China (Note: collapses are referred to the slope instability problems for the slope with dip angle greater than 60◦ , such
as rockfalls, rock avalanches, and topplings; and, the others are referred to debris flows, ground fissures, ground subsidence); (b) Number of casualties due to
geohazards in mainland China; (c) Cost of geohazards in mainland China; (d) Location map and distribution of geohazards in Three Gorges Reservoir region.
2
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
River, was then selected as the county seat (Fig. 2). The records in
Daqing Yitong Zhi (Mu and Pan, 2008), another ancient book published
during the period 1686–1842 (Qing dynasty), indicated that in 981–983
CE (Song dynasty), the county seat of Badong was transferred to Xinling,
a town located on the south bank of the Yangtze River. However, sub­
sequently, the county seat was moved back to Jiuxianping before its
final transfer to Xinling. The exact timing of these county seat transfers
and the reasons behind them are not known, though historical accounts
can be found in the poetry literature (Lu, 1925; Chen, 2003) and local
legends.
An archaeological survey in 1984 discovered the ruins of Jiuxianp­
ing. Later, a comprehensive study of the Jiuxianping Site in 1994
concluded that most ruins would have been submerged below the
designed reservoir water level of the Three Gorges Dam. The Jiuxianp­
ing Site was excavated from 2001 to 2003, involving an archaeological
area of 28,000 m2. Many cultural relics from the pre-Song dynasty were
unearthed, and the layout of the county seat in the Song dynasty was
revealed (SCTGPCC and NCHA, 2010). The reconstructed urban devel­
opment of the county seat during different periods in the Song dynasty is
shown in Fig. 3(a). Below, the possible timing and reasons for the
transfers of the county seat during the First Relocation period are
assessed.
The subsurface stratigraphy of the Jiuxianping Administrative Zone
suggests that the county seat was submerged four times and rebuilt three
times during the Song dynasty (SCTGPCC and NCHA, 2010). In partic­
ular, four layers with different cultural relics were recognized, and all of
them were overlain by sandy units of flood origin (Fig. 3b). Thus, it is
apparent that during the First Relocation period, the county seat was
likely transferred four times from Jiuxianping (on the north bank of the
Yangtze River) to Xinling (on the south bank). These transfers were
likely due to the Yangtze River floods. Except for the last transfer, the
county seat was moved back to Jiuxianping each time after the floods.
Thanks to the presence of cultural relics, the probable times of these
county seat transfers can be estimated: 1) Early-Middle Northern Song
(consistent with the records in Daqing Yitong Zhi), 2) Late Northern
Song, 3) Early Southern Song (in agreement with the poetry of Si Rong),
and 4) Middle-Late Southern Song. Notably, the county seat in Jiux­
ianping was the most prosperous in the Late Northern Song period, as
evidenced by the extent of the Residential and Commerce zones shown
in Fig. 3(a).
W. Gong et al. Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051

Fig. 2. Routes of the three main relocations of Badong County seat (background aerial photo of 26 February 2017) (Note: 65 m contour represents the water level
before the impoundment of the Three Gorges Reservoir; and, 145 m and 175 m contours represent the operational water levels of the Three Gorges Reservoir).

Fig. 3. History of urbanization and impact of geohazards at Jiuxianping Site during the First Relocation period (960–1279 CE) of Badong County seat (see Fig. 2 for
the location of the Jiuxianping Site): (a) Plane layout of the county seat in Jiuxianping in the Song Dynasty; (b) Subsurface stratigraphy at the Administrative Zone in
Jiuxianping; (c) Areas affected by geohazards (landslide and debris flow) in Jiuxianping during the Middle-Late Southern Song period.

In light of the above findings, an interesting question arises: why was
the county seat transferred back to Jiuxianping three times, but after­
ward, a new location (Xinling) was preferred? A geomorphologic
assessment of the area around the Jiuxianping indicated that the terrain
was moderately sloping and located close to the river. Thus, Jiuxianping
must have been a popular site for human settlements, which might be
the reason for the repeated rebuilding of the county seat there after the
floods. Further, the north river bank generally receives more sunlight
than the south bank; and, in the context of the Chinese “Feng Shui,” the
houses are preferably south-facing. Finally, according to traditional

3
W. Gong et al.
culture, Chinese people are reluctant to leave their hometowns. All these
factors might have favored the rebuilding of the county seat in
Jiuxianping.
The final abandonment of Jiuxianping may be attributed to the
landslide and debris flows, which, respectively, hit the western and
eastern parts of the county seat (Fig. 3c) during the Middle-Late
Southern Song period (SCTGPCC and NCHA, 2010). Evidence for the
occurrence of a damaging landslide comes from a 200 m long gravel
road between the west Tomb Zone and the west Residential Zone. The
archaeological survey report (SCTGPCC and NCHA, 2010) indicated that
the relics from the Middle-Late Southern Song period were unearthed at
both left and right sides of the road, while these relics were not
discovered along the road. As such, we may infer that the landslide with
an estimated width of 200 m destroyed the houses built in the Middle-
Late Southern Song period and transported their remains down to the
Yangtze River. Elsewhere, in the eastern part of the county seat, the
subsurface stratigraphy revealed a mixed gravelly-sandy deposit of
debris flow origin (SCTGPCC and NCHA, 2010). This deposit layer was
found above the cultural layer of the Middle-Late Southern Song period,
implying that the debris flow was a destructive agent in the eastern part
of the county seat.
3. The Second Relocation (1982–2003): from Xinling Town to
Huangtupo
Xinling Town is located on the south bank of the Yangtze River
(Fig. 2) and the north slope of the Jinzi Mountain, characterized by a
dip-slope structure. Considering the local geological setting, the town
area at the foot of the mountain could be susceptible to landslides and
debris flows during the rainy season (from May to September). More­
over, most of the town’s houses were distributed along the Yangtze River
bank and, therefore, potentially vulnerable to flooding. Nevertheless,
except for the flood in July 1981 that destroyed 213 houses in Xinling
(CCBCA, 1993), catastrophic geohazards or flood events had rarely been
reported over the past 1000 years. Hence, following the First Relocation
in the Song dynasty, the county seat remained in Xinling for a long time.
The recent threat to the town came from the Gezhouba Dam, the first
dam on the Yangtze River constructed between 1971 and 1988. Upon
completing the Gezhouba Dam, the town’s houses located below the
Fig. 4. The Second Relocation (1982–2003) of Badong County seat and the catastrophic debris flows that occurred in Xinling in 1991.
4
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
elevation of 99 m were expected to be submerged. This problem affected
only a small part of Xinling; the involved residents and factories were
relocated in 1979–1983. In total, 55 families and three factories were
resettled at the foothill of the Jinzi Mountain, with a cost of 35 million
RMB (CCBCA, 1993). It was a small-scale relocation compared to the
resettlement program initiated later by the Chinese Government for the
construction of the Three Gorges Dam. The Three Gorges Dam project
prompted a relocation of more than 1.1 million people from the ex­
pected inundation areas, including the whole town of Xinling, to
accommodate the planned TGR operational water level of 145–175 m.
Thus, the county seat of Badong again had to be relocated. Following the
recommendations of two consulting firms (Xie and Tan, 2008), the
county seat was relocated to Huangtupo, 1.0 km west of Xinling (Fig. 4).
The construction of the new city at Huangtupo started in 1982.
Pieces of evidence of slope instability, including ground displacements,
cracks, and rockfalls, were observed during the construction period. An
in-depth site investigation conducted in 1988 by a third consulting firm
indicated the presence of two giant ancient landslides at Huangtupo,
which was later confirmed by a fourth consulting firm in 1989. How­
ever, after seven years of construction activity and an investment of
more than 180 million RMB, the new city with a size of approximately
200,000 m2 had been built at Huangtupo. Many residents and factories
in Xinling had already been resettled there. Hence, public debates arose
as to “whether the new city of Huangtupo was indeed built on the site
with huge landslides and what to do next.”
The resettlement debate was interrupted by a series of catastrophic
debris flows that occurred on 6 August 1991 on the north slope of the
Jinzi Mountain (Fig. 4). The debris flows were triggered by an intense
storm (i.e., 183 mm of rain in 11 h). With a total volume of 300,000 m3,
the debris flows destroyed the southern part of Xinling. Overall, three
people lost their lives, 171 were injured, and 2591 houses were severely
damaged, with a direct loss of 90 million RMB (Tan, 2015). Under such
circumstances, the enthusiasm about the new city of Huangtupo was
reignited as people desperately needed new space to move into, while
the threat of potential future landslides was ignored. Subsequently, the
old county seat in Xinling was submerged in 2003, following the rise of
the TGR water level. By that time, most of the residents and factories had
been relocated from Xinling to Huangtupo.
W. Gong et al.
4. The Third Relocation (2007–2017): from Huangtupo to
Xirangpo and Guandukou
The resettlement program in the TGR region led to a massive urban
expansion in the reservoir area, with most people resettled in the cities.
In this process, the plans for the new Badong County seat foresaw a
population of 90,000 in 1993. Meanwhile, another investigation con­
ducted by a fifth consulting firm in 1992 re-confirmed that the urban
area of Huangtupo occupied the site of an ancient landslide (Tan, 2015).
The new city construction began in Xirangpo (Fig. 2), while the con­
struction activities in Huangtupo slowed down. In 1995, two landslides
occurred in Huangtupo (Tan, 2015): the 60,000 m3 Erdaogou landslide
and the 128,000 m3 Sandaogou landslide (Fig. 5). The Erdaogou land­
slide killed five people and destroyed three houses, with a direct eco­
nomic loss of 20 million RMB. There were no casualties reported in the
Sandaogou landslide case as an emergency evacuation was enforced
before the landslide event; however, its economic losses were more
significant. Later, during the impoundment of the TGR, three other
landslides occurred in Huangtupo (Tan, 2015; Fig. 5). It became evident
that Huangtupo was not a suitable location for the new county seat.
Following the two catastrophic landslides in 1995, another site
investigation was undertaken at Huangtupo by a sixth consulting firm
from 2001 to 2002 (Tan, 2015). In particular, two exploratory tunnels
(with a total length of 504 m) and 71 boreholes (with a total length of
4341 m) were made to reveal the stratigraphic configuration at
Huangtupo. The subsurface investigation further proved that Huang­
tupo was the site of a giant ancient landslide (69.2 million m3 in vol­
ume). As depicted in Fig. 5, the Huangtupo landslide can be further
divided into four ‘smaller’ landslides: the Yuanyichang, Biandianzhan,
No.1 Linjiang, and No.2 Linjiang landslides. The volumes of these four
‘smaller’ landslides are 13.5 million m3, 13.3 million m3, 22.5 million
Fig. 5. Landslides within the giant Huangtupo landslide (UAV photography taken on 24 May 2018).
5
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
m3, and 19.9 million m3, respectively.
It should be noted that unlike the first two investigations, the last
four all indicated the presence of ancient landslides at Huangtupo,
although with varying degrees of evidence and knowledge. However,
only the sixth investigation revealed the subsurface stratigraphic
configuration at Huangtupo, thanks to a vastly increased investigation
effort (i.e., a large increase in the number of boreholes and the use of
exploratory tunnels). The accurate stratigraphic configuration, coupled
with frequent landslides at Huangtupo and the improved understanding
of landslides during the past two decades, led to the final diagnosis of the
Huangtupo landslide. The need to have an adequate site investigation
effort in such an event was demonstrated.
Considering the risk of landslide reactivation by the long-term
reservoir operation and the human activities in Huangtupo, a compre­
hensive landslide monitoring system, including underground and sur­
face components, was built in 2003. With the aid of this monitoring
system, several landslide reactivations have successfully been forecasted
(Tan, 2015). The Third Relocation of Badong County seat, from
Huangtupo to Xirangpo and Guandukou, was initiated in 2007 and
completed in 2017. In this relocation, over 15,000 Huangtupo residents
were resettled in Guandukou, where 2351 new houses had been built,
while the government and commercial operations were moved to Xir­
angpo. The direct cost of the Third Relocation was more than 1.17
billion RMB (Tan, 2015). The buildings constructed at Huangtupo dur­
ing the previous relocation were demolished to reduce the overloading
on the Huangtupo landslide.
For this third relocation, the sites of Xirangpo and Guandukou were
carefully and thoroughly investigated, although the investigation efforts
were not at the same level as those at the site of Huangtupo landslide.
These investigation efforts were considered adequate, as they benefited
from the accumulated knowledge of geohazards and the observation
W. Gong et al.
data at Huangtupo and surrounding areas in the past two decades.
5. Summary of the multiple relocation events
The analysis of historical documents and geological data allows the
reconstruction of the multiple relocation events of Badong County seat
(Fig. 6). The First Relocation period (960–1279 CE) was characterized
by several back-and-forth transfers of the county seat, which could be
attributed to the Yangtze River floods and geohazards (landslides/debris
flows). The Second Relocation (1982–2003) was linked to the con­
struction of the Three Gorges Dam and geohazards (debris flows), and
the Third Relocation (2007–2017) was related to the non-recognition of
pre-existing and potential new geohazards (landslides) during the site
selection (termed ‘siting’) for new settlements. Indeed, these multiple
local relocations represent only a subset of the human migrations in the
TGR mountainous region. The threat of floods and geohazards has long
played a significant role in the decision-making regarding human
settlements.
During the First Relocation period, the back-and-forth transfers
represented a passive response of the residents to the frequent recur­
rence of natural disasters. Without the benefit of modern science and
technologies, these transfers appeared to be an effective strategy (i.e.,
hazard avoidance). On the other hand, the Second Relocation could be
viewed as an active strategy since the residents had to move to higher
Fig. 6. Timing of the multiple relocations of Badong County seat, history of associated hazards, and the Three Gorges Dam construction.
6
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
ground (because Xinling Town was about to be inundated under the
reservoir’s designed water level). However, an inadequate site investi­
gation failed to recognize the existence of a giant ancient landslide,
which, coupled with the other geohazards induced or reactivated by the
TGR operation and the human activities on Huangtupo, led to the Third
Relocation.
Although the site selected for the Second Relocation of the Badong
County seat may be viewed as a negative example in a siting study,
lessons learned from the sequence of human activities associated with
this relocation are meaningful. For example, based on the monitoring
data regarding this giant reservoir landslide, the knowledge of reservoir
landslides has been significantly improved, and new technologies for
stabilizing landslides have been advanced (Tang et al., 2019a). With the
improved knowledge on reservoir landslides and the associated tech­
nological advances, the local communities’ resilience (i.e., the ability to
prevent, mitigate, cope with, and recover from geohazard disasters) in
this region has been enhanced. Unlike the Second Relocation, the Third
Relocation from Huangtupo to Xirangpo and Guandukou may be viewed
as a positive example in the siting study of human settlements,
benefiting from the advances in technologies and the lessons learned
from past failures. The site choice has proved correct, as no geohazard
incidents have been reported in the newly urbanized areas since the
completion of the relocation in 2017.
The interactions between human activities and geohazards in
W. Gong et al.
mountainous regions are complex. The lessons learned from the multiple
relocations of Badong County seat enhance the understanding of these
interactions. The geohazards may lead to a disturbance of human ac­
tivities, even causing an abandonment of human settlements (e.g.,
Jiuxianping and Huangtupo). Whereas the lessons learned from past
events can guide siting studies for human settlements, and the accu­
mulated knowledge and advanced technologies can further enhance the
communities’ resilience. On the contrary, human activities (e.g., the
Three Gorges Dam’s construction, the periodic fluctuation of the reser­
voir water level, and settlements) may reactivate pre-existing geo­
hazards or induce new geohazards. Improved understanding of these
complex interactions is a pre-requisite for future site selections of human
settlements and other engineering projects in the mountainous regions.
The impact of human activities on geohazards may be revealed through
two effects: increasing load and reducing resistance. For example, the
new city construction on Huangtupo increased the load (caused by new
buildings). It reduced the resistance of the sliding mass (e.g., shear
strength of the slip surface may be reduced due to the construction
disturbance). In comparison, the stabilization efforts (e.g., by installing
stabilizing piles) can increase the resistance.
6. Monitoring as a means to enhance disaster resilience
It is vitally important to implement an effective and proactive
monitoring strategy when facing the threat of geohazards in populated
areas (Wasowski and Bovenga, 2015; Kirschbaum and Stanley, 2018).
Moreover, operational monitoring can enhance disaster resilience,
especially when combined with early warning capability. The moni­
toring data can also help analyze the spatio-temporal behaviors of
geohazards, which is significant for predictive purposes. In this section,
we take the giant Huangtupo landslide as an example to demonstrate
how the collection and analysis of the ground and monitoring infor­
mation can lead to a better understanding of the landslide activity and
Fig. 7. Badong Field Test Site (BFTS) established at Huangtupo (after Tang et al., 2019a).
7
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
behavior, and thereby enhance disaster resilience. To study the
Huangtupo landslide, a field test facility, known as the Badong Field Test
Station (BFTS), was constructed by the China University of Geosciences
(Wuhan) from 2009 to 2012. The BFTS consists of a tunnel complex in
the No.1 Linjiang landslide and a series of ground monitoring compo­
nents (Fig. 7; Tang et al., 2015a & Tang et al., 2019a).
The tunnel complex built within the landslide allows close observa­
tion of the bedrock, sliding mass, and slip surfaces. The mechanical and
hydraulic properties of the sliding mass can be directly determined via
in-situ tests in the tunnel. The deformations within the sliding mass and
on the ground surface, the earth pressures and the pore water pressures
within the sliding mass, the rainfall at Huangtupo, and the TGR water
level are monitored real-time. The monitoring data enable the stability
assessment of the existing landslides and potential slope failures under
the long-term operation of the TGR (Sun et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2015a
& b). It is worth noting that the test facilities at BFTS provide a
comprehensive means to study and monitor the Huangtupo landslide
and offer a model field test station for research, education, and devel­
opment of the next generation of engineering geologists.
6.1. Ground surface cracks at Huangtupo
In some cases, landslide activity can be simply assessed by detecting
and mapping the development of cracks at the ground surface, as these
features can be taken as evidence of instability. An exhaustive field
investigation was conducted in 2008 to detect the ground surface cracks
at Huangtupo. More than 150 cracks were mapped, whose distribution is
shown in Fig. 8. Most of the cracks were perpendicular to the landslide
sliding direction (or roughly parallel to the Yangtze River), indicating
tensile origin. The numbers of cracks identified within the four ‘smaller’
landslides (Yuanyichang, Biandianzhan, No. 1 Linjiang, and No. 2 Lin­
jiang) were 6, 40, 76, and 28, respectively. Thus, in relative terms, the
stability of No.1 Linjiang landslide might be the lowest, followed in
W. Gong et al. Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051

Fig. 8. Distribution of the ground surface cracks detected at the Huangtupo landslide (UAV photography taken on 24 May 2018).

sequence by Biandianzhan, No. 2 Linjiang, and Yuanyichang. Further,
the density of the ground surface cracks at the toe of the Huangtupo
landslide was greater than that at the crown, implying that the reac­
tivation of this giant landslide might be induced by the failure of the toe.
The long-term operation of the reservoir might have contributed to this
phenomenon.
6.2. Ground surface displacements at Huangtupo
The ground monitoring system at Huangtupo included the surface
displacement measurements obtained using mainly the Global Posi­
tioning System (GPS) and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS).
The GPS monitoring relied on 25 GPS stations (Fig. 8), among which two
were set up as the reference points. Based on the GPS results, the
northeast (NE20◦ ) sliding direction of the Huangtupo landslide was
ascertained. For illustration purposes, the ground surface displacements

Fig. 9. Surface displacements of the Huangtupo landslide measured by GPS in the period between 2003 and 2009 (Note: the locations of the GPS measurement points
G1, G2, …, G23 are shown in Fig. 8): (a) Yuanyichang landslide; (b) Biandianzhan landslide; (c) No.1 Linjiang landslide; (d) No.2 Linjiang landslide.

8
W. Gong et al.
of the Huangtupo landslide during the period between 2003 and 2009
are plotted in Fig. 9. The results showed that the No.1 Linjiang landslide
was affected by the largest cumulative displacements (i.e., greater than
150 mm), followed by the Biandianzhan landslide (i.e., with displace­
ments greater than 70 mm), No. 2 Linjiang landslide, and Yuanyichang
landslide. Notably, the monitoring results were consistent with the in­
dications of the relative instability based on the ground surface crack
observations.
Although the magnitude of the monitored surface displacement
varied somewhat among the GPS stations, the surface displacements
generally increased with time in a stepwise manner (Fig. 9). The step­
wise displacement phenomenon is a common feature of reservoir land­
slides due to the periodic fluctuation of the reservoir water level and the
rainfall seasonality (Song et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2019a). Illustrated in
Fig. 10 is the relationship between the monthly rate of the surface dis­
placements of No. 1 Linjiang landslide and the time. Fig. 10 also shows
data of the reservoir water level and the rainfall collected each month.
The fluctuation of the reservoir water level was modest from September
2004 to September 2006, and the monthly rate of the displacements
matched the rainfall data. The monthly rate of the displacements in the
rainy season was about 5.0 mm/month, while in the dry season, it was
less than 2.0 mm/month. The influence of rainfall on the displacement
was reasonably uniform within the landslide.
On the other hand, the displacements from September 2006 to
September 2009 were induced by a combination of the seasonal rainfall
and the reservoir water level’s periodic fluctuation. Hence, the influence
Fig. 10. Monthly rate of the surface displacements of the No.1 Linjiang landslide versus reservoir water level (a) and monthly rainfall (b) (Note: the locations of the
GPS measurement points G1, G2, …, G22 are shown in Fig. 8).
9
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
of the reservoir water level’s fluctuation on the displacements may be
approximated by removing the displacements caused by the seasonal
rainfall. During the impoundment of the reservoir, the monthly rate of
the displacements was slightly decreased. In contrast, during the
drawdown of the reservoir, the monthly rate was increased dramatically
(i.e., 9.0–12.0 mm/month). This influence of the reservoir water level
fluctuation on the displacements decreased with the number of the
impoundment-drawdown cycles and the distance from the river.
In summary, the monthly rate of the surface displacements was high
during the drawdown of the reservoir and relatively low during the
reservoir impoundment (Fig. 10a). This pattern could apply to many
reservoir landslides in the TGR region (Tang et al., 2019b). Moreover,
the rate of the surface displacements was high in the rainy seasons and
relatively low in other periods (Fig. 10b). It should be noted that the
influences of the periodic fluctuation of the reservoir water level and the
rainfall on the displacements and stability of a landslide can be
complicated. The mechanical and hydraulic properties of the sliding
mass, the intensity and duration of the rainfall, and the rate of the
fluctuation of the reservoir water level can all be contributing factors.
The underlying mechanism may only be revealed through detailed
coupled hydraulic-mechanical analyses.
6.3. Pre-historic movements of the Huangtupo landslide
The subsurface landslide displacements obtained from inclinometers
indicated the presence of multiple sliding zones within the Huangtupo
W. Gong et al.
landslide (Tang et al., 2015b). The depths of these sliding zones gener­
ally corresponded to the depths of weak interlayers (i.e., whose
strengths were smaller than those of the neighboring layers). In partic­
ular, the tunnel excavation in the No.1 Linjiang landslide revealed three
major sliding zones. The uranium‑thorium dating of the calcite samples
from the sliding zones helped interpret the timing of the historical ac­
tivity of the Huangtupo landslide. The results obtained from the ura­
nium‑thorium dating, conducted on a MAT-262 instrument at China
University of Geosciences (Wuhan), indicated three distinctive episodes
of pre-historic movement of the No.1 Linjiang landslide. Their apparent
ages were estimated to be 40 × 104a ~ 38 × 104a, 31 × 104a ~ 30 ×
104a, and 22 × 104a ~ 18 × 104a, respectively (Lu, 2017). Besides,
through borehole investigations, samples of the sliding zones of the No.
2 Linjiang and Biandianzhan landslides were collected. The ura­
nium‑thorium dating results showed three distinctive episodes of pre-
historic activity for the No. 2 Linjiang landslide, and their apparent
ages matched those of the No.1 Linjiang landslide. As for the Bian­
dianzhan landslide, the uranium‑thorium dating suggested a much
younger period of pre-historic activity, with an apparent age of 16 ×
104a ~ 13 × 104a (Lu, 2017). The above findings denote a very long and
complicated history of slope movements at Huangtupo. The episodes of
the pre-historic activity demonstrate that natural causes were sufficient
to destabilize the Huangtupo landslide periodically. Today, climate
changes, as well as increasing anthropogenic pressures, represent
additional factors that complicate the natural hazard assessment (Sidle
et al., 2004; Cendrero et al., 2020).
7. Concluding remarks
The events associated with the county seat relocations in Badong, a
typical county in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) region, China, were
studied and reconstructed in this paper. With lessons learned from both
failed and successful relocations, the community resilience in the TGR
region has been enhanced.
The implications of this study could be summarized as follows. First,
in a siting study of human settlements in mountainous regions, it is vital
to conduct a proper site investigation and obtain useful data needed for a
comprehensive assessment of susceptibility to natural hazards and the
potential impact of human activities on the local geological environ­
ment. However, siting a megaproject such as the relocation of a city
cannot be solely a technical issue; often, political considerations may
outweigh the technical preference. From a geological engineering
perspective, an in-depth site investigation that provides adequate data
to address the technical problems and anticipate the future impacts of
human activities on the local geological environment should always be
the first requirement. Second, although our understanding of geo­
hazards has substantially improved over the last few decades, it is far
from perfect. For example, in only a few years after the 2008 Wenchuan
earthquake, human activities coupled with post-seismic geohazards
necessitated multiple relocations (Zhang et al., 2014; Fan et al., 2018).
This reminds us that sustainable development in mountainous regions
could only be achieved if harmony between human activities and local
geological environments is ensured. Third and finally, in the pursuit of
disaster resilience enhancement, the importance of an effective strategy
to monitor hazards cannot be over-emphasized. Our knowledge about
nature is vastly incomplete; proactive monitoring, which is essentially a
“learn as you go” approach (Peck, 1969), reflects our awareness and
high respect for the often-unpredictable power of nature.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
10
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
Acknowledgments
The financial support provided by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41977242 and 41702294) is acknowl­
edged. The authors wish to thank Professor Huiming Tang of China
University of Geosciences (Wuhan) for his kind assistance in providing
unpublished reports and data used in this article. Professor Tang was a
principal consultant in the Third Relocation of the Badong County seat
and led the construction of the Badong Field Test Station (BFTS). His
work on landslides prevention and mitigation over the past decades has
received international recognition.
References
AghaKouchak, A., Huning, L.S., Chiang, F., Sadegh, M., Vahedifard, F., Mazdiyasni, O.,
Moftakhari, H., Mallakpour, I., 2018. How do natural hazards cascade to cause
disasters? Nature 561 (7724), 458–460.
Aleotti, P., Chowdhury, R., 1999. Landslide hazard assessment: Summary review and
new perspectives. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 58 (1), 21–44.
CCBCA (Compilation Committee of Badong County Annals), 1993. Annals of Badong
County. Hubei Science and Technology Press, Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
Cendrero, A., Forte, L.M., Remondo, J., Cuesta-Albertos, J.A., 2020. Anthropocene
geomorphic change. Climate or human activities? Earth’s Future 8 (5)
e2019EF001305.
Chen, X., 2003. Ancient Badong County city: another national cultural relic. J. Hubei
Institute for Nationalit. Phil. Soc. Sci. 21 (6), 5–8 (in Chinese).
Dai, F.C., Lee, C.F., Ngai, Y.Y., 2002. Landslide risk assessment and management: An
overview. Eng. Geol. 64 (1), 65–87.
de Ruiter, M.C., Couasnon, A., van den Homberg, M.J., Daniell, J.E., Gill, J.C., Ward, P.
J., 2020. Why we can no longer ignore consecutive disasters. Earth’s Future 8 (3)
e2019EF001425.
Dijkstra, T.A., Chandler, J.H., Wackrow, R., Meng, X.M., Ma, D.T., Gibson, A.,
Whitworth, M., Foster, C., Lee, K., Hobbs, P.R.N., Reeves, H., Wasowski, J., 2012.
Geomorphic controls and debris flows - the 2010 Zhouqu disaster, China. In:
Eberhardt, E., Froese, C., Turner, K., Leroueil, S. (Eds.), Landslides and Engineered
Slopes: Protecting Society through Improved Understanding: Proceedings of the 11th
International Symposium on Landslides and 2nd North American Symposium on
Landslides. C.R.C. Press Inc.
Fan, X., Juang, C.H., Wasowski, J., Huang, R., Xu, Q., Scaringi, G., Westen, C.J.,
Havenith, H.B., 2018. What we have learned from the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake
and its aftermath: a decade of research and challenges. Eng. Geol. 241, 25–32.
Frattini, P., Crosta, G.B., 2013. The role of material properties and landscape morphology
on landslide size distributions. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 361, 310–319.
Genevois, R., Ghirotti, M., 2005. The 1963 Vaiont landslide. Giornale di Geologia
Applicata 1 (1), 41–52.
Gill, J.C., Malamud, B.D., 2016. Hazard interactions and interaction networks (cascades)
within multi-hazard methodologies. Earth Syst. Dynam. 7 (3), 659–679.
Highland, L., 2008. Geographical Overview of the Three Gorges Dam and Reservoir,
China - Geologic Hazards and Environmental Impacts. U.S. Geological Survey Open-
File Report 2008-1241, pp. 1241–2008.
Huggel, C., Clague, J.J., Korup, O., 2012. Is climate change responsible for changing
landslide activity in high mountains? Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 37 (1), 77–91.
Iverson, R.M., George, D.L., Allstadt, K., Reid, M.E., Collins, B.D., Vallance, J.W.,
Schilling, S.P., Godt, J.W., Cannon, C.M., Magirl, C.S., Baum, R.L., Coe, J.A.,
Schulz, W.W., Bower, J.B., 2015. Landslide mobility and hazards: implications of the
2014 Oso disaster. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 412, 197–208.
Juang, C.H., Dijkstra, T., Wasowski, J., Meng, X., 2019. Loess geohazards research in
China: advances and challenges for mega engineering projects. Eng. Geol. 251, 1–10.
Kirschbaum, D., Stanley, T., 2018. Satellite-based assessment of rainfall-triggered
landslide hazard for situational awareness. Earth’s Future 6 (3), 505–523.
Lama, S., Devkota, B., 2009. Vulnerability of mountain communities to climate change
and adaptation strategies. J. Agricult. Environ. 10, 76–83.
Li, P., Qian, H., Wu, J., 2014. Environment: accelerate research on land creation. Nature
News 510 (7503), 29–31.
Liu, C., Liu, Y., Wen, M., Li, T., Lian, J., Qin, S., 2007. Research on the Geo-Hazards
Genesis and Assessment in the Three Gorges Reservoir of Changjiang River in China.
Geological Publishing House, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
Lu, Y., 1925. Ru Shu Ji. Commercial Press, Shanghai, China (in Chinese).
Lu, S., 2017. Study on Slip Zone Properties and Evolution Characteristics of Huangtupo
Landslide in Three Gorges Reservoir Area [Dissertation]. China University of
Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
Lyu, H.M., Shen, J., Arulrajah, A., 2018. Assessment of geohazards and preventative
countermeasures using A.H.P. incorporated with G.I.S. in Lanzhou, China.
Sustainability 10 (2), 304.
Mu, Z., Pan, X., 2008. Daqing Yitong Zhi. Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,
Shanghai China (in Chinese).
Nadim, F., Kjekstad, O., Peduzzi, P., Herold, C., Jaedicke, C., 2006. Global landslide and
avalanche hotspots. Landslides 3 (2), 159–173.
NBSC (National Bureau of Statistics of China), 2018. China Statistical Yearbook 2018.
China Statistics Press, Beijing, China.
Ouyang, M., Li, Y., Wang, X., 2003. Yudi Guangji. Sichuan University Press, Chengdu,
China (in Chinese).
W. Gong et al.
Peck, R.B., 1969. Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil
mechanics. Geotechnique 19 (2), 171–187.
Pescaroli, G., Nones, M., Galbusera, L., Alexander, D., 2018. Understanding and
mitigating cascading crises in the global interconnected system. Int. J. Disaster Risk
Reduct. 30, 159–163.
Petley, D., 2012. Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology 40 (10),
927–930.
Sidle, R.C., Ziegler, A.D., 2012. The dilemma of mountain roads. Nat. Geosci. 5 (7),
437–438.
SCTGPCC (State Council tThree Gorges Project Construction Committee) and NCHA
(National Cultural Heritage Administration), 2010. The Jiuxianping Site in Badong,
Hubei. Reports on Cultural Relics Conservation in the Three Gorges Dam Project B
(site report), Vol. 15. Science Press, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
Sidle, R.C., Taylor, D., Lu, X.X., Adger, W.N., Lowe, D.J., de Lange, W.P., Newnham, R.
M., Dodson, J.R., 2004. Interactions of natural hazards and society in Austral-Asia:
evidence in past and recent records. Quat. Int. 118-119, 181–203.
Song, K., Wang, F., Yi, Q., Lu, S., 2018. Landslide deformation behavior influenced by
water level fluctuations of the Three Gorges Reservoir (China). Eng. Geol. 247,
58–68.
Sun, G., Zheng, H., Tang, H., Dai, F., 2016. Huangtupo landslide stability under the water
level fluctuations of the Three Gorges reservoir. Landslides 13 (5), 1167–1179.
Tan, X., 2015. Vicissitudes: The Records of the Overall Relocation of the Huangtupo in
Badong County. China Photographic Publishing House, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
Tang, H., Li, C., Hu, X., Su, A., Wang, L., Wu, Y., Criss, R., Xiong, C., Li, Y., 2015a.
Evolution characteristics of the Huangtupo landslide based on in situ tunneling and
monitoring. Landslides 12 (3), 511–521.
Tang, H., Li, C., Hu, X., Wang, L., Criss, R., Su, A., Wu, Y., Xiong, C., 2015b. Deformation
response of the Huangtupo landslide to rainfall and the changing levels of the Three
Gorges Reservoir. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 74 (3), 933–942.
11
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106051
Tang, H., Wasowski, J., Juang, C.H., 2019a. Geohazards in the Three Gorges Reservoir
Area, China - lessons learned from decades of research. Eng. Geol. 261 (1), 105267.
Tang, M., Xu, Q., Yang, H., Li, S., Iqbal, J., Fu, X., Huang, X., Cheng, W., 2019b. Activity
law and hydraulics mechanism of landslides with different sliding surface and
permeability in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Eng. Geol. 260, 105212.
Van Den Eeckhaut, M., Poesen, J., Govers, G., Verstraeten, G., Demoulin, A., 2007.
Characteristics of the size distribution of recent and historical landslides in a
populated hilly region. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 256 (3–4), 588–603.
Van Steijn, H., 1996. Debris-flow magnitude-frequency relationships for mountainous
regions of Central and Northwest Europe. Geomorphology 15 (3–4), 259–273.
Wasowski, J., Bovenga, F., 2015. Remote sensing of landslide motion with emphasis on
satellite multi-temporal interferometry applications: An overview. In: Landslide
Hazards, Risks and Disasters. Academic Press, pp. 345–403.
Wasowski, J., Pisano, L., 2020. Long-term InSAR, borehole inclinometer, and rainfall
records provide insight into the mechanism and activity patterns of an extremely
slow urbanized landslide. Landslides 17 (2), 445–457.
Wasowski, J., Lamanna, C., Casarano, D., 2010. Influence of land-use change and
precipitation patterns on landslide activity in the Daunia Apennines, Italy. Q. J. Eng.
Geol. Hydrogeol. 43 (4), 387–401.
Xie, X., Tan, Z., 2008. Badongxian Yimin Zhi 1971–2005. China Three Gorges Publishing
House, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
Zhang, L.M., Zhang, S., Huang, R.Q., 2014. Multi-hazard scenarios and consequences in
Beichuan, China: the first five years after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Eng. Geol.
180, 4–20.
Zhou, N.Q., Zhao, S., 2013. Urbanization process and induced environmental geological
hazards in China. Nat. Hazards 67 (2), 797–810.
Zimmermann, M., Keiler, M., 2015. International frameworks for disaster risk reduction:
Useful guidance for sustainable mountain development? Mt. Res. Dev. 35 (2),
195–203.