 Ques 4) Discuss the difference between Working stress method (WSM) and

Limit state method (LSM)?

 Ans) The working stress method of design (WSM) is almost a 100 years old
codified method of design.
 It is based on linear elastic theory and is still an accepted method of design
in India for certain special structures such as RC bridges (IRC 21), water
tanks (IS 3370) and chimneys (IS 4998).
 The method is essentially simple in concept, as well as in application.
 Also most structures designed in accordance with WSM have been
generally performing satisfactorily for many years.
 The design from WSM generally results in relatively large sections of
structural members as compared to other methods of design, thus giving a
better serviceability performance (less deflections, crack-widths, etc.) under
the usual working loads.
 The method assumes that the structural material behaves in a linear elastic
manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting the
 stresses in the material induced by the expected 'working loads' (service
loads) on the structure.
 The specified permissible ('allowable') stresses are kept well below the
material strength (i.e., in the initial phase of the stress-strain curve).
 The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often
referred to as the factor of safety.
 To analyse the stresses under the applied loads on conctere, strain
compatibility (due to bond) is assumed, whereby the strain in the
reinforcing steel is assumed to be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to
which it is bonded.
 The stress in steel is linearly related to that in the adjoining concrete by a
constant factor (called the modular ratio), defined as the ratio of the
modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
 However due to several factors including long term effects of creep and
shrinkage, the effects of stress concentrations etc., result in significant local
increases in and redistribution of the calculated stresses.
 Thus the assumption of linear elastic behaviour and that the stresses under
working loads can be kept within the 'permissible stresses' are not found to
be realistic.
 WSM also does not provide a realistic measure of the actual factor of
safety underlying a design.
 WSM also fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act
simultaneously, but have different degrees of uncertainty.
 This may result in very unconservative designs, particularly when two
different loads (say, dead loads and wind loads) have counteracting effects.
 Thus to overcome these disadvantages probabilistic concepts of design
developed.
 In WSM safety margins were provided in design to safeguard against the
risk of failure (collapse or unserviceability) in terms of 'permissible stresses'
primarily on the basis of engineering judgement.
 The main variables in design calculations that are subject to varying degrees
of uncertainty and randomness are the loads, material properties and
dimensions also including unforeseen factors such as construction methods,
 workmanship and quality control, intended service life of the structure,
possible future change of use, frequency of loading, etc.
 Thus reliability-based methods were developed in order to handle various
uncertainties in design more rationally in the mathematical framework of
probability theory and quantify the risk involved in the design.
 The probabilistic 'reliability-based' approach was then simplified and
reduced to a deterministic format involving multiple (partial) safety factors
(rather than probability of failure) and thus the philosophy of limit stales
method (LSM) of design was introduced.
 Unlike WSM, which based calculations on service load conditions alone,
LSM uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide
adequate safely at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at
service loads, by considering all possible 'Limit states'.
 The various multiple safety factors are selected on sound probabilistic basis,
involving the separate consideration of different kinds of failure, types of
materials and types of loads.
  LSM considers a limit state as a state of impending failure, beyond which a
structure ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of
either safety or serviceability; i.e., it either collapses or becomes
unserviceable.
 Two types of limit states considered in LSM are Ultimate Limit State and
Serviceability limit state.
 The objective of limit states design is to ensure that the probability of any
limit stare being reached is acceptably low.