WEEK 6

http://www.fremantleports.com.au/About/WorkingPort/Pages/default.aspx https://www.quora.com/profile/Dave-Robinson-26 http://www.johnholland.com.au/what-we-do/industry-

Fremantle's
sectors/intermodal-transport/ Inner Harbour

Tutorial - Port , Airport & Railway Engineering

Unit Coordinator: Dr Amin Chegenizadeh - Amin.Chegenizadeh@curtin.edu.au

Breakwater

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Rubble mound breakwater
The structure consist of two parts trunk and head

• Flatter the slope the less the

weight of the stone
Head
• Failure could be due to poor
interlocking capacity
• Artificial armours are used if
no natural rocks nearby.
• The head generally heavier
Head
rocks used may be 4-6 tonnes.
Section 1

Courtesy : M.J. Disco A : GENERIC QUANTITATIVE DAMAGE DESCRIPTION FOR RUBBLE MOUND STRUCTURES, Holland

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Rubble mound breakwater

• It works on permeability and it allows the gradual dissipation of energy

• The armour has high permeability and the core has low permeability
• It cab be different shapes, types and sizes.
Armour stone should be
rough friction is high
compared to artificial
armour stand the high The core should be impermeable http://en.ccccltd.cn/business/infrastructureconstruction/othe
rprojects/201011/W020101112405012410753.jpg

waves and high tide.

Sea side Harbour side

Flatter slope

Sea bed
Armour
Core https://highteawithmrswoo.com.au/nobbys-breakwater-newcastle/

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Forces on Rubble mound structure
1st pushing

Friction
• Before waves break, the
crest height of the wave
will increase and breaking
2nd Pulling
will occur with massive
force on the breakwater

• For design purposes,

Hmax/d > 0.78, if say we
have 4 m design water
depth (d) you can have a
Gravity forces
maximum wave height

( Hmax ) of 3.12 m We may

adopt 4m.
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
Forces on Vertical wall Sliding failure

F should be < µ x V
Waves forces
(F)

Base Friction (µ)

Gravity forces (V)

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Forces on Vertical wall Sliding - Overturning

Designed B value
B
must be must be large enough.
As heavier weight of structure
Horizontal Force
will produce higher
compression forces preventing
overturning
Any tension created at the
bottom of the structure on the
seaside may contribute to
overturn the structure
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Rubble mound - Components
*Design depends on soil, site specific matters and importance of site

Super structure
Armour

Under layer

Core

Foundation

Toe Berm

Filter layer

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Vibro-compaction
• What is it ? It uses probe-type vibrators hung from
cranes.
or mounted on piling equipment to densify granular
soils up to 40m deep.
• It reduces settlement.
• It rearranges the soil particles.
• Granular fill is introduced into the annulus around
the vibrator to maintain working platform level and to
assist densification. http://kellerme.com/portfolio-item/palm-jumeirah-dubai/

• Increases bearing capacity and mitigates

A total of 636.000 m² of Vibro Compaction on the Palm
liquefaction potential in seismic areas. project around the main facilities.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Design of Armour Layer using Hudson Formula continued

WrH3
W=
KD (Sr − 1)3 cot Ѳ

W= Weight of individual armour unit in Newton (1kg = 9.8 * N)

Wr = unit weight of armour in N/M3

H= Design wave height in m

K𝐷 = Stability coefficient (non - dimensional factor ) , it depends on the type of armour unit and other placement
measures, as smaller armour size would have higher K 𝐷 values.
Sr = Specif gravity of the armour unit relative to water = unit weight of armour /unit weight of water = Wr / Ww

Ww = unit weight of sea water

Ѳ= angle of armour slope

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Design of Armour Layer using Hudson Formula

• Design water depth (d) = Still (Mean) water depth+ tidal Surge correction

Hmax
• When wave break, > 0.78, hence Hmax = 0.78 X d
d

• One assumption in this design is to adopt significant wave height rather than
maximum wave height , in addition, research has found that
Hmax = 1.8 Hs ( which can vary between 1.6 – 2) depending on many factors

So use significant wave height for design purpose as:

H
Hs = max
1.8

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example Rubble mound breakwater
You are requested to design a section of rubble mound breakwater using Hudson’s formula. The still
water depth in that section is 4.4 m. The tidal correction due to storm surge was given as 0.7m. Stability
coefficient (K 𝐷 ) for an armour unit is adopted as 2. Note that unit weight of the armour unit and sea
water is 2.65 t/m3 and 1.03 t/m3 respectively. Assuming the slope of the armour is V:H 1:1.5, design the
following components of the rubble mound breakwater.
• Armour Layer
• Nominal diameter and thickness of the layers
• Core layer
• Toe Berm
• Bedding layer

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example continued

Design water depth (d) = Still (Mean) water depth+ tidal Surge correction = 4.4 + 0.7 = 5.1 m

Hmax
When wave break = > 0.78, so Hmax = 0.78 X 5.1 m = 3.98 m which can be taken as 4.0 m
d

One assumption in this design to adopt significant wave height (Hs) rather than the maximum
wave height , in addition, research has found that Hs value which can vary between (1.6 – 2) Hmax
which depending on many factors.

So we can adopt Hmax = 1.8 Hs

So use significant wave height for the design
H 4.0
Hence, Hs = max = = 2.22m, now we can use Hudson Formula to calculate the weight of the
1.8 1.8
armour unit.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example continued
W r H3
Hudson Formula W=
K (S −1)3 cot Ѳ
D r

W= Weight of individual armour unit in Newton (1kg =9.8 * N)

Wr = unit weight of armour in N/M3

H= Design wave height in m

K𝐷 = Stability coefficient (non - dimensional factor ) , it depends on the type of armour unit and other
placement measures, as smaller armour size have higher K 𝐷 values
Sr = Specif gravity of the armour unit relative to water = unit weight of armour /unit weight of water
= Wr / Ww
Ww = unit weight of sea water

Ѳ= angle of armour slope

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example continued
knowing cot Ѳ = 1.5,

WrH3
We can substitute W in Hudson Formula = Wr
KD ( −1)3 cot Ѳ
Ww

2.65 x 2.223
W= 2.65 = 2.43 t we can provide 2.5 t (2500 kg) boulder stone
2 (1.025−1)3 x 1.5

Now we can determine the nominal diameter (D) of the stone

𝑤 1 2500 1
D =( )3 =( )3 = 0.98 m
𝑤𝑟 2650
Where :
W = weight of armour unit in kg
Wr = mass density of armour unit in kg/m3

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example continued

Armour thickness (T) calculated by the formula

T = nkd (D)

T = 2 x 1.15 x0.98 = 2.25 m,

so thickness of layers can be approximately 2.3 m or 1.15 m for

each layer.

Where:
n = number of layers = 2
kd = layer coefficient = 1.15 due to gaps between stones. Different values for different units.
D = nominal diameter of the stone
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Example continued

Crest Width B is calculated by the formula

B= n kd D
Where:
B = Crest width in m
n = number of stone = 2
kd = Layer Coefficient
D = nominal diameter of the stone

B = 2 x 1.15 x 0.98 = 2.25 m

Adopt 4 m width to allow for vehicle during construction

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example continued
Core layer
The size of stone in Core layer will be = W/100 = 2500/100 = 25kg
Stone weight will then be a range of 20 kg to 30 kg

Toe Width
Toe Width of the toe = 2 times wave height
2 X 2.22 = 4.44 m adopt 5m
The height of the toe will be half of the width = 2.5 m
For toe width use a stone of w/10= 2500/10= 250 kg adopt sizes between 200kg - 300kg

Bedding layer - foundation

The size of stone in core layer will be = W/200 = 2500/200 = 12.5 kg
Use between 10 to 15 kg with thickness of layer = 150mm
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 RMB Cross Section - Shallow Water up to 6m
Design depends on soil and site specific matters and importance

2500kg in 2 layers

4.0 m
W/10= 200kg - 300kg

W/100= 20kg-30kg
DWL 5.1
MWL 4.4
W/200 = 10kg- 15kg
5.0 m

2.5 m
150 mm

Geotextile
filter

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 RMB Cross Section - Deeper Water >8m
Design depends on soil and site specific matters and importance
W

W/10
Second layer & toe foundation
W/200
W/4000
W/4000

When soft sand or clay soil exists excavate below

seabed and fill with rooks along with soil bed

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Runway

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway orientation - Wind Analysis
For the design of airfield runway,

• The crosswind normally calculated using a wind vector diagram.

• Whereas prevailing winds will be represented using wind rose.

Showing the orientation of the runway.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway orientation - Wind Analysis
Crosswind = V x sin Ɵ

Ɵ = angle between wind direction & runway

V = velocity of wind (Intensity of wind) - knots

Normally, calculated using a wind vector

diagram as shown – which also allows the
headwind and tailwind to be determined around

Taking off / Landing

http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_13_part2.pdf

According to the ICAO maximum cross wind component allowed is between

15-35 km/hr depending on type of aircraft size for small aircraft around 15
VSin Ɵ Knots where as for larger aircrafts up to 35 knots. < 25kn/hr for medium and
light aircraft.
Ɵ

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Headwind
Component
Knots
Flight Direction

Crosswind Component
Runway

Knots

Example
Wind speed= 20 knots -
Tailwind
Angle between runway and direction
Component
of wind =60o
Knots
Crosswind component
= V x sin Ɵ
=20sin(60) =17 Knots
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway orientation - Wind Coverage (95%)

• We need to know the ( % ) of time that the allowable cross wind

component occurred throughout the yearly period. It is required to
achieve 95% with cross wind component of generally < 25 knots
(46km/hr) . (1 knot = 1.85 km/hr).
• E.g. 345 days out of 365 days = 95% of the year. This is the % of
time that crosswind has not exceeded the 25knots within a year
and remain within a limit.
• An additional runway is built to compensate primary runways that
provide less than the recommended 95 percent wind coverage for
the airplanes throughout the year.
• but for larger aircraft coverage needs to be (98) %.
• We need to calculate graphically using two methods of wind ross.
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway orientation - Wind Rose I
• Compass type : direction and duration

• 16 parts along with concentric circles ( %

of time per year)

• A wind rose is used to graphically

represent prevailing winds direction and

duration. Generally in 5,10, and more

years. Preferably minimum 10 years.

• Checking longest line of wind.

• Calm period: means % of time that wind

intensity was <3.5knots. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-wind-rose-diagram-

of-Brixton-London-Source-the-authors-afterWindFindercom-
GmbH_fig6_295399232
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway orientation - Wind Rose I
• Compass type : direction and duration

• A wind rose is used to graphically

represent prevailing winds direction and

duration. Preferably minimum 10 years.

• Checking longest line of wind rose.

• Calm period: means % of time wind

intensity <3.5knots.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway orientation – Windrose II
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
The wind data (10yrs) is populated in the windrose received from the department
of meteorology to help assist professionals like engineers to orient the runways

Explaining the Windrose : a scaled graphical presentation of wind information

• The circle is divided into 16 parts each of 22.5o
(N,S.E,W) then divided into further 12 parts total of 16 parts.
• Each part of the windrose is having a direction including intensity.
• Importantly, the direction of the above part will have a percentage
will be entered into a segment inside the windrose, By adding the
how much % of time wind intensity occurred starting from the centre
along whole length of the selected template. those will be added to
ensure the 95% coverage is achieved.
• The + signs in some segments of the windrose are occur less than one
tenth of the time.
http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_13_part2.pdf

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway orientation - Wind Analysis
Meteorological data of wind velocity and directions are collected
Wind direction vs wind speed

http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_13_part2.pdf Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Runway orientation - WindroseFAA - Federal Aviation Administration

To be oriented
within 13 knots
= 24 km/hr

http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_13_part2.pdf
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway orientation - Windrose
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration

The prevailing wind direction is

determined by calculating the
area. In this instance, a runway
orientated 105o – 285o would
have 2.27% of the winds
exceeding the design
crosswind component of 13
knots

http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_13_part2.pd
Generally an additional runway is built to compensate primary runways
that provide less than the recommended 95 percent wind coverage for
the airplanes forecasted to use the airport.
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Head wind effect on runway length

Landing
We prefer the runway
orientation to be opposite to Touchdown Point
the wind. That is why we
prefer head wind ?
Landing distance reduced due to breaking effect

Taking off
Lift-off Point

Taking- off distance reduced due to lift force effect

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Tail wind effect on runway length

Landing

Touchdown Point

Landing distance longer due to pushing effect

Taking off
Lift-off Point

Design to be more expensive if Taking- off distance longer due to rolling effect as aircraft requires greater ground speed
runway is oriented in the same
direction of tail wind.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Altitude and Temperature effect on take off distance
• Airplane requires a longer runway on a higher temperature.
This is due to less dense air, creating weak lift of the aircraft
Effecting combustion, due to lack of oxygen like some of the
gulf countries in summer requiring longer runway forces as
you need higher speed and to lift off.

• If temperature higher than standard then air density is less.

• If altitude is above sea level then air density is less.
• In both conditions exists we need longer runway.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Altitude and Temperature effect on take off distance

Lift-off Point

Longer take- off distance – higher throttle

less thrust

Lift-off Point

15o C Normal taking- off distance – full efficiency

MSL
Temperature
Mean Sea Level
(MSL)
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway Lengths – Landing Terminology
Landing Distance (LD) field length required to stop from crossing the point of threshold at 15m at correct
approach angle

Landing Run (LR) field length required to stop from the point of touchdown

Threshold Point

Touchdown Point

Landing Run – LR
Landing Distance – LD = 0.6 LDA

Landing Distance Available – LDA

Normal Landing

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway Lengths – Take-off Terminology
Take-off Distance(TOD) field length required to reach a height of 10.7m

Rate of Climb (ROC) rate of gain of height on take-off (m/min)

Take-off Run (TOR) field length required to the point of lift-off

10.7 m Clearway
X

10.7 m
Stopway

Critical speed is where the aircraft must try to take –off even with one engine

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runways – Declared Distances

(Take-off Distance Available)

(Accelerate Stop Distance Available)

(Take-off Run Available)

(Landing Distance Available)

• Both related to take off , but Stopway is designed to

take the weight of the aeroplane unlike the clearway
• Difference between TODA and TORA = Clearway

Source: tc.gc.ca

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Stopway and Clearway

http://newlangsyne.com/articles/declared/index.htm

Remember speed depend about the Take-off weight of the aircraft

Heavier that weight the higher the speed of that aircraft it varies between
250 km/hr – 360 km/hr
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Runway Declared Distances
Declared distances are operational characteristics of runway associated
with the take-off and landing of aeroplanes
Take-Off Run Available (TORA) The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run
of an aeroplane taking off

Take-Off Distance Available (TODA) TORA + Clearway (CW)

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available TORA + Stopway (SW)

(ASDA)
Landing Distance Available (LDA) length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of a
landing aeroplane, connecting at the threshold and extending usually for
the physical length of the runway pavement

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runways – Declared Areas

Source: tc.gc.ca

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runways – Declared Areas

TODA = 1.15 TOD ---------- 1

TORA = 1.15 TOR ---------- 2

Clearway = TODA –TORA ----------- 3

TOR = TOD – Distance between lift off and 10.7m climb ------- 4

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Basic Runway Length
e.g. 1800 m runway with 300 m above MSL what will
Three adjustments: be the new length?

1800m X 2.5/100 X 300/100 = 135 m to be added

Elevation level = Mean Sea Level - MSL new runway length = 1935m

Elevation: add (2.5 % ) per each 100m elevation above sea level

Standard Temperature: 15o

Temperature: add (0.76% - 1.2% ) per oC M.A.D.T above 15oC (up to 32oC)

Zero gradient

Gradient: add (7% - 10% ) per 1% up gradient

Effective gradient = (maximum elevation – minimum elevation) on centreline X 100 < 0.1% For A, B and C type
runway length runway

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway Design – ICAO Criteria
Length

In general TODA (Take Off Distance Available) = 1.15 TOD (Take Off Distance)

LD (Landing Distance ) = 0.6 LDA (Landing Distance Available)

For aeroplanes of MTOW < 5700 kg, minimum runway length = 500m, plus 60m for each 300m elevation above

sea level

Width Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)

MTOW > 22700 kg : 45m + 7.5m sealed shoulders if used by large jets

MTOW < 22700kg : 30m with widened ends

MTOW < 5700kg : 18m

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway Design – Longitudinal slopes
1. Effective gradient = (maximum elevation – minimum elevation) on centreline X 100 < 0.1%
runway length

2. No portion of runway to be steeper than:

• 1.25% for runways Classes A and B (end quarters not steeper than 0.8%)

• 1.5% for runways Class C

3. Uniform slopes to be provided at each end, if possible for:

• 600m if used by large jets

• 300m elsewhere

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runway Design – Vertical Curves
Rate of change in gradient

1. Runway Classes A and B < 0.1% per 30m (0.33% per 100m)
(min. radius of curvature 30,000m)

2. Class C and Others < 0.3% per 30m (1.0% per 100m)

(min. radius of curvature 10,000m)

3. Other international classes < 0.2% per 30m (0.67% per 100m)

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Runways – Declared Areas

TODA = 1.15 TOD ---------- 1

TORA = 1.15 TOR ---------- 2

Clearway = TODA –TORA ----------- 3

TOR = TOD – Distance between lift off and 10.7m climb ------- 4

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example
Calculate the suitable length of full strength pavement and clearway for a runway
with 385 m above sea level altitude, at location with mean daily temperature of
25 ̊C, to be used by an aircraft with the following characteristics:
• Take-off distance (TOD) to 10.7 m 1100 m
• Landing distance from 15 m (at sea level + 15 C ̊ ) 410 m
• Take-off speed 324 km/h
• Approximate rate of climb 400 m/min

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example
Adjust for temperature at 25 Co
(25-15 /32-15) x (1.2-0.76) + 0.76 = 1.019% / Co
(since the difference is 10o c)
At 25 Co = 1.388% x (25-15) = 10.19 % or 0.1019
So, it will be = 0.1019 +1 = 1.102
1.20 %/oC
1.019 %/oC

Similarly, adjustment for altitude 0.76 %/oC

(385/100) 2.5% = 9.625% or 0.096

15oC 25oC 32oC
Std temp

So, adjustment will be = 0.096 +1= 1.096

Both adjustments = 1.102 X 1.096 = 1.208 = 1.21

For landing = (410/ 0.6) x 1.21= 825.47 m

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Example
For taking –off
Speed is known which is 324 km/h X 0.277778 (1000/3600) = 90 m/s

Then, the distance x to achieve the height (10.7m)

ROC=400 m/min = 400 in 60 secs

Hence, the airplane reaches 10.7 m height within = 60 sec/400 m x 10.7 m = 1.61 sec
So, x= 90 m/sec X 1.61 sec = 144m

OR
10.7m
324km/h x 1000/60 = 5400 m/min
400 m/min= 5400 m/min tan ϴ
Tan ϴ = 4.24, therefore tan 4.24 = 10.7/x
X = 10.7m/tan 4.24
X= 144 m X

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example
TOR = TOD – Distance between lift off and 10.7m climb ------- 4
TOR = TOD – x value = 1100 – 144 = 956 m
TODA = 1.15 TOD ---------- 1

TODA= 1100 x 1.15 x 1.21 = 1528m (this govern)

TORA = 1.15 TOR ---------- 2

TORA = 956 x 1.15 x 1.21 = 1328 m

Clearway = TODA –TORA ----------- 3

c/way = 1528 -1328 = 200 m

is ½ of TORA < C/way then adopt it if not use existing C/way = 200m
which is also < ½ runway length

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example – Clear way – CASA

For Clearway - Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority Manual of Standard (CASA)

CHAPTER SEVEN — DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LICENSED AERODROMES

If adopt the CASA specifications, that

7.19.4 – The declared length of a clearway is not to exceed half the length of TORA, ie. the

clearway will be equal to or less than half the runway length.

Clearway width 7.19.5 – The width of the clearway is to be at least 150m for code 3
or 4 runways and at least 80m for code 2 runways.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Railway

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Track Structural Components - Rails
• The height of the rail should be adequate so that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness and strength as a beam.

• The center of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the mid-height of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

• Hot-rolled steel it provide a continuous, level, surface with minimal friction.

• Transfers load to railway formation.

• Lateral guide of wheels.

•http://www.lppm.itb.ac.id/research/?p=323
Web need not be thicker than l2mm, in order to give stiffness. A stiff track (less deflection) requires less power to operate.

• It is found that for weight of rail/unit length : a bout 50 km/h is saved by using a 41 kg/m rail, instead of 31 kg/m rail.

• Head should have sufficient metal to allow for wear before replacing. The top should be broad, nearly flat, to present sufficient bearing area to the wheel.

• The corners are rounded for rolling. The rail :

Fasteners HEAD thicker & stronger

(on compression)
WEB
http://perthtrains.nachohat.org/image/4776/
Flat FOOT (on tension)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FT_Rail.jpg
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Track Structural Components – Rails (stiffness and durability)
Head: HEAD thicker & stronger (on compression)
• The head of the rail should have adequate depth to
allow for vertical wear.
• It should also be sufficiently wide so that not only is a
wider running surface available,
but also the rail has the desired lateral stiffness.

Web:
• http://www.lppm.itb.ac.id/research/?p=323
The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand
the stresses arising due to the loads bone by it, after
WEB
allowing for normal corrosion.

Foot:
• Foot should be broad to give sufficient bearing on the
Fasteners
sleeper, therefore need sufficient thickness to be able to
withstand vertical and horizontal forces after allowing
for loss due to corrosion.
• The foot should be wide enough for stability against
overturning.
http://perthtrains.nachohat.org/image/4776/
Flat foot (on tension)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FT_Rail.jpg
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Track Structural Components - Rails
Gauges ( width between the two rails)

Narrow Meter Gauge (MG) = 1m

Standard Gauge (SG) = 1.44m

Broad Gauge (BG) =1.67m with 2.6 m sleepers density (5 sleepers for 13m )

Advantage of Broad over other Gauges:

• Stability
HEAD thicker & stronger
• Higher than 100km/hr
(on compression)
WEB
• Axle load can be greater

• Therefore can be Economical Flat FOOT (on tension)

http://perthtrains.nachohat.org/image/4776/

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Depth of Ballast below Rail

S
W
S-W
sleeper

45o
D
Tan Q = D / (S-W)/2

D = (S-W)/2

D = This should be minimum

http://www.brainkart.com/article/Design-of-Ballast-Section_4195/

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Stresses on railway components

Permanent deformation of
Point load Point load subgrade subsequently

Rail
Sleeper
Sleeper Type of soil and

High compaction satisfaction

• Point load will be to achieve
Failure occurs when rail
converted to Uniformly bearing capacity required
deflections become
distributed load(UDL)
excessive this is a point Ballast Low
• Centre bound sleepers
load coming from
could occur due to bad Pressure Bulb
moving load
ballast compaction
e.g. hammer blow Subgrade

bearing capacity of subgrade is exceeded

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

Stresses on Soil - Manifest as heaves and/or ballast pockets

Stable state of the

Onset of instability
permanent way

Surface Growth of heave

manifestation of
heave

Remember some times subgrade material pushed into ballast impeding drainage
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Tractive Power and Resistance
Wheel-rail interaction is determined by factors such as the :

• track geometry

• wheel loads – stresses due to tractive forces and / or braking forces

• Hauling capacity from the tractive power

• Speed

Wheel-rail interaction is modelled by mainly 2 forces :

• Tractive Power
• Train Resistance

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Newtons Law

When train is travelling at constant speed

F = RT (Total resistance) and a=0

When train is accelerating

F > RT and a>0

The force available for acceleration after overcoming resistance, T

Tractive Force from acceleration = F – RT

Tractive force reduces as speed increases

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Tractive Power
W
Pr = rated power (KW)

(1) rated power,

Pr = 0.278 FV (KW)
Pr = 0.278 FV

Power available through wheel adhesion is

limited when F = Fad = μW (KN)

Where :
Pad = Adhesion power (KW) F = Drawbar pull (kN) = μW
V = velocity (km/h)
W = Total weight – vector quantity force acting through
Pad = 0.278 FadV wheels = Mg (kN)= 10 M (KN)
M = Mass - scalar quantity (1 metric ton = 0.984 ton)
= 0.278 (10 μM) V g = 9.81 M/S2
μ = coefficient of adhesion
Pad = 2.78 μMV (KW) (2) Fad = Total wheel adhesion = (KN) = μ X W
= μ X 10 M = 10 μ M

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Tractive Power – Coefficient of Adhesion
Coefficient of adhesion, μ is a function of velocity

μ = 0.25 at starting when V < 50 km/h

= 0.2 when V > 90 km/h

Alternatively, Kemp developed these values and the table below:

μ = 0.161 + 7.5 and μwet = 0.8 μdry (3)

V + 44

V km/h 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 100
μ 0.331 0.288 0.262 0.245 0.233 0.224 0.217 0.213

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Train Resistance
Total Resistance, RT is the sum of all resistances

RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC (4)

Rs is the resistance due to inertia when loco is at rest

Starting Resistance,

Rs = 50 to 100 (N/t) (5)

RR is the resistance due to the wheel-rail interaction on level grade

Rolling Resistance,

RR = 11 + 0.08 V + 0.0025 V2 (N/t) (6)

The term V2 is the air resistance component of RR

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Resistance – cont’d
Gradient Resistance, RG is the resistance due to grades - vertical alignment when G is in %

RG = 100 G (N/t) (7)

V Sin Ɵ
V Cos Ɵ
W

W= Mg
𝜃 𝜃

Resistance to Curves, RC is the resistance due to curves - horizontal alignment

W

RC = approximated by Geq

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
= 100 Geq , Since, Geq = 0.01 (r= radius) then,
𝑟

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
RC = (8)
𝑟

* Constant = 6000 (N/t) = for cars, 12000 (N/t) for locos

https://www.hls.ie/automatic-lubrication-systems/service-sectors/train-and-tram-rail-lubrication/ Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Vertical Alignment – Gradient Types
(1) Ruling gradient This is the design gradient the max gradient of operation for a given load and speed

when T=0 then F=RT , therefore Ruling gradient = RT /100

(2) Acceleration gradient < Ruling Gradient

acceleration can be achieved within the adopted railway operations

(3) Momentum gradient > Ruling Gradient

uses additional energy stored as momentum to negotiate grades steeper than the Ruling
Gradient if not available there is additional loco is required see next gradient

(4) Pusher gradient > Momentum gradient

additional loco is required to negotiate steep grades

http://bpmselect.com/search.html?keyword=rail+vehicles&csi=410000
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Momentum Gradient
• When a train is travel to a velocity head hv before it stalls.
𝑉2 𝑉2
hv = (m) (when V is in m/s) or (m) (when V is in km/h), g= 9.81 m/s2
2𝑔 254
km/h = 2x9.81x 3.6X 3.6 = 254

A 6% rotational bonus is typically allowed, therefore,

𝑉2
hv = (m) (9)
240 where V is in km/h 6% bonus = 254.27 /1.06 = 240

Example: a train is travelling at 60km/h on a ruling gradient will have enough kinetic energy to achieve a height (velocity
head) of 15m if the engine is turned off
602
h60 =
240

= 15.0 m
hv = 15.0 m

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Energy Consumption
The energy consumption of a locomotive can be calculated from the work done through velocity profile,
For each section of rail, the following can be extracted,
• Section Length, L = distance between two points, LAB , LBC, ….
• Average velocity, 𝑉ത = average velocity between points, 𝑉ത AB , 𝑉ത BC, ….
The data is populated in the table below

For Tractive Effort, T = full tractive effort of loco on acceleration gradients or momentum grades
= RT at speed of operation
Total work done, W = ∑T . L (kN.km) = 0.278 ∑T . L (kW.h) (10)

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example -1

A railway hauls 2000 t trains using a 120 t, 2600 kW loco on a ruling grade
of 1 in 100, 2 km long, with 200 m radius of curvature at 30km/h. It is
intended to increase train load to 3000 t. Examine the following two
proposals by:

a) Reducing the grade to 1 in 120 and easing the curves to maintain

30km/h.

b) Increasing the speed on the run up to the grade so that it becomes the
momentum grade with a drop back to 30km/h at the top.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example -1
a) Reduce grade to 1 in 120 and ease the curves to maintain 30km/h

Check the availability of power due to adhesion

Fad = 10 μ M 7.5
μ = 0.161 +
V + 44
7.5
μ = 0.161 + = 0.262 where v = 30km/h
30+44

Pad = 0.278 Fad V = 0.278 x 10 x μ x M x V ( KW) = 2.78 x 0.262 x 120 x 30 = 2622 KW

Pad > Pr , therefore Pr = 2600 KW will govern

Since F = R T at constant speed then 2600 = 0.278 x R T x 30

We need to calculate R T

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example -1
a) Calculate R T

Eq. 4 RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC Rs Starting Resistance,

RR Rolling Resistance,
Eq. 5 RS = 0 as the train is already in motion RG Gradient Resistance,
RC Resistance to Curves,
3120 t
Eq. 6 RR = (11 + 0.08(30) + 0.0025(30)2 ) N/t x 1000 = 48.8 kN

Eq. 7 RG = 100 G N/t

1 3120 t
= 100 ( x 100(%)) N/t x 1000 = 260.0 kN
120

3000𝑡 × 6 𝑘𝑁/𝑡 + 120𝑡 × 12 𝑘𝑁/𝑡 19440

Eq. 8 RC = = kN
r r
19440
RT = 0 + 48.8 + 260.0 +
r
19440
= 308.8 + kN
r
Substitute R T

19440
2600 = 0.278 (308.8 + ) x 30
r
r = 6588 m it is not possible to increase the train load to 3000 t

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example -1
b) Increase the speed on the run up to the grade so that it becomes the momentum grade with a
drop back to 30km/h at the top
𝑉2 Eq. 4 RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC
Eq. 9 hv = 240
Eq. 5 RS = 0 as the train is already in motion
3120 t
1 𝑉2 Eq. 6 RR = (11 + 0.08(99) + 0.0025(99)2 ) N/t x 1000 N/kN
2000 m x = 𝑉 =30km/h
100 240 = 95.4 kN
Solving, V = 69 km/h Eq. 7 RG = 0 (assuming running 0% grade)
3000𝑡 × 6 𝑘𝑁/𝑡 + 120𝑡 × 12 𝑘𝑁/𝑡
Eq. 8 RC =
For the train to return to 30km/h, the total velocity to be 200
= 97.2 kN
achieved at run-up RT = 0 + 95.4 + 0 + 97.2
= 192.6 kN
Vrun-up = 69 km/h + 30km/h

= 99km/h Power required to achieve speed of 99 km/h is when F = RT

P = 0.278(192.6)(99)
Let’s check whether this can be achieved: P = 5300 kW > Pavailable (NOT OK!)
Additional loco is required

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 2
The most adverse section of a railway line contains a 195m radius
curve on a 1 in 350 grade. It is proposed to run goods trains on this
section of 3000t mass and be hauled by one 2500 kW rated power
loco, weighing 120t.
Calculate the maximum speed at which the train can negotiate this
section.

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 2
F = all resistance B
Gradient 1
So P= 2500 KN A 350

and V = ?
A
Curvature
We also know that :
P= 0.278 FV and Pad= 2.78 uMV
Note that loco is 120t and car is 3000t R = 195 B

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 2
Determine the resistance
Rs Starting Resistance,
Eq. 4 RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC (4) RR Rolling Resistance,
RG Gradient Resistance,
Eq. 5 RS = 0 as the train is already in motion RC Resistance to Curves,
Eq. 6 RR = 11 + 0.08 V + 0.0025 V2 (N/t)

3120 t
RR = (11 + 0.08 V + 0.0025V2) N/t x = 34.32 + 0.25V + 0.0078V2 kN
1000 N/kN

Eq. 7 RG = 100 G N/t

1 3120 t
= 100 ( x 100) N/t x = 89.1 kN
350 1000 N/kN

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 3000𝑡 × 6 𝑘𝑁𝑡 +120𝑡×12 𝑘𝑁𝑡

Eq. 8 RC = , (3000t cars and 120t loco) = = 99.7 kN
𝑟 195

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 2
Determine the resistance
B
Eq. 4 RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC Gradient 1
A 350
RT = 0 + 34.32 + 0.25V + 0.0078V2 + 89.1 + 99.7

RT = 224.5 + 0.25V + 0.0078V2 Curvature

A

Given rated power = 2500kW, then the maximum velocity calculated

R = 195 B
power when RT = F:

Eq. 1 Rated Power = Pr = 0.278 FV

2500 = 0.278 (224.5 + 0.25V + 0.0078V2) X V

0 = 0.0022V3 + 0.0695V2 + 62.42V – 2500

V = 37 km/h
Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim
 Example 2
Determine the resistance from adhesion

Given friction = Pad = 2.78 UMV

7.5 (3)
μ = 0.161 +
V + 44

𝟕.𝟓 𝟕.𝟓 2502 𝑉

Pad = 2.78 (0.161 + ) x 120 V = 2.78 x 120 x v (0.161 + ) Pad = 53.7 V +
𝑽+𝟒𝟒 𝑽+𝟒𝟒 𝑉+44

If we equate the two powers we get:

2502 𝑉
53.7 V + = 0.0022V3 + 0.0695V2 + 62.42V – 2500
𝑉+44

V= 66km/hr
Note we can get Pad = 5046 KN by substituting u and M =120t and V= 66

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 3
What is the maximum mass of the train, where locomotive weighing 120 tonnes, rated power
5000 KW, can pull up a gradient of 0.175% and including 1200 m radius curve, at 50 km/h
of a constant speed.

1) Calculate RT and assume the total train mass (Haul mass) = (120 + m) tonnes.

R0 = 0 (loco is in motion) RR =11 + 0.08 V + 0.0025 V2 (N/t)

RR = (120 +m) [ 11 + (0.08 x 50) + 0.0025 x 50 2] x 10-3 (KN)

RR = [120 +m] (0.02125) (KN)

RR = 2.55 + 0.02125m (KN) RG = 100 G (N/t)

RG = 100 x 0.175 x (120+m) x 10 -3

RG = 2.1 + 0.0175 m (KN)

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 3
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
RC=
𝒓
RC = [(12000/1200) x120 x 10 -3] + [ (6000/1200) x m x 10-3]

RC = 1.2 + 0.005m (KN)

Hence total resistance RT will be:

RT = Rs + RR + RG + RC

= 0 + (2.55 + 0.02125m) + (2.1 + 0.0175m) + (1.2 + 0.005m)

= (2.55 + 2.1 +1.2) + (0.02125 + 0.0175 + 0.005) m

= 5.85 + 0.04375 m KN

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 3
2) Check the available power due to adhesion

Fad = u 10 M at constant speed

7.5
μ = 0.161 + = 0.241 where v=50 km/h
50+44

Pad = 0.278 Fad V (KW)

Pad = 0.278 μ10 M V (KW)

= 0.278x 0.241x10 x 120 x50 = 4019.88 KW

Pr = 5000KW
Pad < Pr
As the power du to adhesion is less than the rated power then P ad is reality
condition. Therefore, this friction power = 4019.88 KW will govern in this case as it
Pr = 0.278 FV (KW) will limit the power.

5000 = 0.278 x (5.85 + 0.04375 m) x 50

Since F = RT (at constant
speed).
m = 8088.28 tonnes

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim

 Example 3
Pad < Pr
As the power du to adhesion is less than the rated power then Pad is reality condition.
Therefore, this friction power = 4019.88 KW will govern in this case as it will limit the power.
Since F = RT (at constant speed)

F = = 5.55 + 0.035 m KN ---------------------(4)

P = Pr = 4019.88 KW which is the only available power

Since Pad < Pr therefore we use 4019.88kN instead of Pr = 5000kN and use

Pr = 0.278 FV (KW) with the new limited value

4019.88 = (0.278) (5.85 + 0.04375 m) x (50)

m = 6476.57 tonnes
Therefore, the maximum haulage mass the train can pull under the mentioned parameter (condition) is:
6477 +120 = 6597.97 t

Dr. Zuhair Ebrahim