Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 14 15

Contents lists available at ScienceDirec

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvma

Review

Composting technology in waste stabilization: On the methods,

challenges and future prospects
Chukwudi O. Onwosi*, Victor C. Igbokwe, Joyce N. Odimba, Ifeanyichukwu E. Eke,
Mary O. Nwankwoala, Ikemdinachi N. Iroh, Lewis I. Ezeogu
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

articleinfo abstract

Article history: Composting technology has become invaluable in stabilization of municipal waste due to its environmental compatibility. In
Received 1 November 2016 this review, different types of composting methods reportedly applied in waste management were explored. Further to that, the
Received in revised form major factors such as temperature, pH, C/N ratio, moisture, particle size that have been considered relevant in the monitoring
18 December 2016 of the composting process were elucidated. Relevant strategies to improve and optimize process effectiveness were also
Accepted 20 December 2016 Available addressed. However, during composting, some challenges such as leachate generation, gas emission and lack of uniformity in
online 29 December 2016 assessing maturity indices are imminent. Here in, these challenges were properly addressed and some strategies towards
ameliorating them were proffered. Finally, we highlighted some recent technologies that could improve composting.
Keywords: © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Compost
Compost stability
Thermophiles
Optimization
Bulking agents
Odour emissions

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2. Benefits of composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3. The microbiology of composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4. Factors affecting composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.1. Turning frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 4.3. C/N
ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4. Moisture content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5. Electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.6. Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7. pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.8. Particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5. Optimization strategies for effective composting operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1. Statistical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.1. One variable-at-a-time (OVAT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.2. Factorial designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.3. Fuzzy logic estimation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1.4. Markov chain approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.2. Kinetic modeling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3. Use of bulking agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6. Challenges in
composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chukwudi.onwosi@unn.edu.ng (C.O. Onwosi).
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.12.051 0301-4797/© 2016
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
6.1. Lack of uniformity of compost maturity index
6.2. Odour or gas emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3. Leachate generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7. Future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1. Introduction
Globally, urbanization as well as steady rise in human population has
resulted in generation of large quantity of wastes. These waste streams have
led to a number of challenges (environmental, social and economic)
especially in the developing countries (Awasthi et al., 2014; Sukholthaman
and Sharp, 2016). To overcome these concerns, effective management
strategies for these wastes should be adopted (Moh and Manaf, 2017).
Among the various waste treatment options, composting has gained wide
popularity owing to its associated benefits such as hygienization of waste,
cost effectiveness and conversion of waste to value-added products (Qian et
al., 2014). Composting is a biochemical as well as heterogeneous process
involving mineralization of organic matter to CO 2, NH3, H2O and
incomplete humification resulting in a stabilized final product with reduced
toxicity and pathogenic organisms (Das et al., 2011). It constitutes series of
techniques towards organic waste treatment that is in total agreement with
sustainable agriculture (Adbrecht et al., 2011). Composting is a reliable
waste treatment option that could be useful in reduction of the negative
effects that may arise due to application of organic waste to the soil. This is
because it provides sanitized and stabilized products which could be utilized
as potential source of organic fertilizers or in soil amendments (Qian et al.,
2014). It is a continuous process which reduces the organic substances into
smaller volumes (Raut et al., 2008). This occurs under natural or controlled
conditions that involve the decomposition of organic matter to useful
product (compost) through microbial activities (Giglotti et al., 2005).
Therefore, composting process is influenced by physico-chemical
parameters such as temperature, pH, particle size, moisture content,
aeration, and electrical conductivity (Li et al., 2013; Juarez et al., 2015).
Considering the benefits of composting, it can be used to transform
organic matter to useful products using degradative attributes of both macro
and micro-organisms found in the contaminant matrix. It is a widely used
technology for transforming organic waste to organic manure (compost),
thus recycles mineral nutrients (nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium
(K)) that could be utilized for agricultural purposes (Wang et al., 2015). This
makes compost a serious competitor in the fertilizer market (Proietti et al.,
2016). Thermophilic conditions associated with composting provide room
for total hygienization of compost by destroying pathogenic organisms
present in waste (Kulikowska, 2016; Pandey et al., 2016). Composting
process results in organic matter decomposition and humification (i.e.,
humic acid and humic substances formation). Therefore, if it used as
bioremediation option, it plays significant role as stabilizer (immobilizes
metal in the soil) and as washing agent since it is good source of humic
substances that could deployed in treatment of soil contaminated with heavy
metals (Kulikowska et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, these merits attendant with composting procedures can
only be achieved if the process is effectively managed. (Storino et al., 2016).
This implies that there should be adequate planning during composting to
produce useful or value-added products (Zhang and Sun, 2016a,b; Awasthi
et al., 2016). Therefore, successful operation involves the use of right
mixing ratios (Zang et al., 2016); optimization of the various process
parameters such as aeration rate, bulking agents, C/N ratio and moisture
content (Kazemi et al., 2016); use of adequate bulking agent (especially
during composting of sewage sludge) (Chowdhury et al., 2014); and use of
mathematical models for effective simulation of the composting process
(Petric and Selimbasic, 2008; Vasiliadou et al., 2015).
To this end, the current study was undertaken to provide comprehensive
review of the previous studies on composting technology. It is no gainsaying
141
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
the existence of a large pool of articles that bordered on composting but there is
scant information on the challenges encountered during composting. Herein,
efforts were made to highlight these bottlenecks facing the composting process
and also delineate the major steps towards the optimization of parameters for
improved composting performance. Therefore, the main areas of focus are
outlined as follows: (a) Different types, stages and benefits of composting, (b)
microbiology of composting, (c) factors affecting composting, (d) operational
strategies for successful composting operation, (e) challenges of composing,
and (f) future trends.
2. Benefits of composting
According to Zhang and Sun (2014), green waste has traditionally been
incinerated or deposited in landfills, which are unwelcome practices because
they produce huge quantities of greenhouse gases and occupy valuable
agricultural land. Composting has received increasing attention as an
environmentally acceptable way to dispose of and utilize organic wastes (Zhang
and Sun, 2014). Raut et al. (2008) opined that composting helps in managing
large quantities of organic wastes in a sustainable manner; composting recycles
organic materials into useful products. Composting has been shown to be
effective in reducing relatively persistent organic compounds such as veterinary
pharmaceuticals (Li et al., 2015). The product of composting, (compost) has
also been found to have many benefits. Composts derived from organic wastes
have recently been proved to have better quality than commercial inorganic
fertilizers (Chowdhury et al., 2015). According to Hermann et al. (2011)
composts can replace soil conditioners in support of humus formation, which is
a benefit that cannot be achieved artificially. The humic-like fraction of
composts improves plant growth and health and also exerts biocontrol on
different soil-borne phytopathogens such as fungi (Traversa et al., 2010).
Parascaris equorum eggs (generally known to have pathological effects on
animals such as horses when ingested) were effectively rendered nonviable
through composting (Gould et al., 2013). Temperature build-up during
composting has resulted in elimination of pathogenic organisms in waste
(Pandey et al., 2016). Mohammad et al. (2012) acknowledged the contribution
of compost to improving the water-holding capacity of soil. They further stated
that compost provides better tilts.
3. The microbiology of composting
Composting is a biochemical process which is carried out by diverse groups
of different kinds of microorganisms and nematodes. It is a solid-state
fermentation process (Kaiser,1996) which is majorly carried out by aerobic
thermophiles (Thambirajah et al., 1995; Pietronave et al., 2004). Though
composting is thought to be an oxygen-demanding process which involves the
hydrolysis of organic matter into humus (Pepe et al., 2013; Bialobrzewski et al.,
2015), anaerobic organisms such as Clostridium has been implicated in the
process (Franke-Whittle et al., 2014; Bhatia et al., 2013). The nutrient potential
of compost as well as its effect on agricultural productivity can be linked to the
physiological activities of different microbial groups. This was shown by Pepe
et al. (2013) who isolated several free-living diazotrophic organisms belonging
to some bacterial genera such as Stenotrophomonas, Alcaligenes,
Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Xanthomonas, Achromobacter and Caulobacter from
compost, and shown their ability to enhance the nitrogen content of the
compost. Likewise, to the roles played by the normal microbiota of mammals in
fighting pathogens, microbial communities in compost can be used in the bio-
control of soilborne pathogens in plants (Mehta et al., 2014). These microbial
consortia in compost suppress the development of plant diseases by their ability
142 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
to produce several antimicrobial compounds, exude heat, compete with
pathogens and affect the viability of soil-borne pathogens. Due to the key roles
played by microorganisms in the composting process, different commercial
formulations of inoculants are available for the agronomic enhancement of the
endproduct such as Effective Microorganism (EM) and Microbial Activator
Super LDD 1 (Karnchanawong and Nissaikla, 2014). A succession of different
microbial communities has been observed during composting (Mehta et al.,
2014). These participating microbial consortia vary according to the
predominant physicochemical conditions of the different composting stages
(Bhatia et al., 2013; Bialobrzewski et al., 2015). The three different stages of
composting have been highlighted by some authors (Bhatia et al., 2013; Mehta
et al., 2014). At the beginning of the composting process, mesophiles are the
predominant organisms. This is the moderate-temperature stage which involves
the decomposition of readily degradable soluble compounds in the compost.
The metabolic activities of these organisms and their growth leads to heat
evolution and a rapid temperature increase. This rise in temperature causes the
mesophiles to be succeeded by the thermophilic microorganisms, giving rise to
the high-temperature phase of the composting process where the high
temperature enables the thermophiles to decompose polysaccharides, proteins
and fats. This increased temperature is also important since it leads to the death
of weed seeds and soil-borne pathogens. The mesophiles become predominant
at the final stage of composting which involves cooling-down and maturation.
This curing stage stabilizes the compost for plant use. The presence of certain
microorganisms can be used as a good indicator of the stage and quality of the
maturing process (Bhatia et al., 2013; Pepe et al., 2013). For instance, the
predominance of bacillales or actinobacteria can be used as an indicator of a
good composting process (Sundberg et al., 2013). Keratin, a mechanically
stable protein which is a major component of feathers, wool, nails and hairs,
can be hydrolyzed by microbial activity into smaller units. This was shown by
Habbeche et al. (2014), who characterized a thermostable keratin-degrading
enzyme from Actinomadura keratinilytica, an actinomycete isolated from
poultry compost. This keratinase was shown to have high catalytic efficiency
and stability in the presence of detergents. Mayende et al. (2006) isolated
thermophilic Bacillus strains from compost materials capable of producing,
cellulases and polyphenol oxidases at optimal temperatures of 70 C and 40 C,
respectively.
Microorganisms have been associated with the composting of munitions-
contaminated soils (Bennett et al., 1995).
Depending on the composition of the substrate and the operating process
conditions, obligate anaerobic methanogens may lead to the evolution of
methane during composting (Franke-Whittle et al., 2014). This may have a
high global warming potential in the environment. Though compost is
generally considered as an environmentally safe technology, it may lead to
the introduction of highly pathogenic organisms into the soil (Innerebner et
al., 2006). This was further highlighted by Casati et al. (2009) and McCabe
et al. (2011) who reported compost sites as important reservoirs of
Legionella species. Composting facilities may also represent a significant
source of aerosolized pathogens, causing different opportunistic infections
(Grisoli et al., 2009). Escherichia coli O157:H7, a cytotoxin-producing
serotype (Brooks et al., 2013) can cause outbreaks by being transmitted
through contaminated compost or irrigation water (Oliveira et al., 2012;
Islam et al., 2005). On the other hand, indigenous microflora of a finished
compost material was shown to be effective in suppressing the growth of
different test pathogens (Pietronave et al., 2004).
4. Factors affecting composting
The effectiveness of the composting process is influenced by factors such
as temperature, oxygen supply (i.e. aeration), moisture content, pH, C/N
ratio, particle size and degree of compaction (Li et al., 2013; Juarez et al.,
2015 ).
4.1. Turning frequency
In the course of a composting process, the most common procedure for
aeration is through turning of the compost material. This makes composting
material readily available for microbial utilization and thus, results in gas
emission (Parkinson et al., 2004). While improved aeration at the early
stages of organic matter degradation results in the shortening of the duration
for waste stabilization, however, excess aeration or turning could result in
loss vital components of composting (Awasthi et al., 2014). Therefore,
optimization of the turning regime must be pursued in order to retain the
relevant nutrients or to achieve other specific objectives such as higher rate
of hygienization (pathogen reduction) (Kalamdhad and Kazmi, 2009).
Ogunwande et al. (2008) observed that there is a strong link between turning
frequency and some physicochemical variables which could be used as
indicators of compost maturity (Getahun et al., 2012). For instance, turning
frequency affects total nitrogen, pH, moisture content, C/N ratio, dry matter,
total carbon, and temperature of composting piles (Getahun et al., 2012).
During the co-composting of municipal solid waste and poultry manure,
mixing of compost feedstock resulted in improved homogenization of the
compost (Petric et al., 2012). Lazcano et al. (2008) also stated that mixing of
composting materials prevents compaction e which may lead to poor
porosity and low air distribution in the compost bed. Different turning
regimes have been reported by different authors. These turning regimes
range from once a day to weekly turning of the compost feedstock. Li et al.
(2015) used a once a day turning regime during the composting of swine
manure to ensure an oxygen supply and also to maintain aerobic conditions
in the compost materials. Ros et al. (2006) reported the use periodic turning
(each 4e5 days) for duration of three months in the composting of pig slurry.
While composting municipal solid waste, weekly turning regime was also
reported by Mohee et al. (2015). Petric et al. (2015) improved co-
composting of municipal solid waste and poultry manure by mixing for
30min daily. Comparing the effects of two different turning regimes on
compost bacterial population, Awasthi et al. (2014) observed that three-day
and weekly turning regime led to a significant increase in aerobic bacteria
populations in the compost piles while everyday turning did not significantly
increase the bacteria population.
4.2. Temperature
Temperature is one of the main parameters for monitoring the
composting process (Xiu-lan et al., 2016; Raut et al., 2008; Chen et al.,
2015). At the same time, temperature is also a function of the process as
stated by Turan (2008). A significant temperature gradient occurs in the
composting pile because of non linear mass and energy balances (Zhang et
al., 2012). Kulikowska (2016) observed that composting is an exothermic
process which depends on the initial temperature and biodegradability of the
substrates. Raut et al. (2008) agreed that the temperature during composting
could rise as a result of the accelerated biodegradation of organic matter by
microorganisms. However, Ryckeboer et al. (2003) pointed out that the
efficiency of the composting process decreases as temperature rises.
Temperature is a significant factor in determining the relative advantage of
some microbial population over another. This could be attributed to the
effect of temperature on the physicochemical characteristics of composts
and subsequent bioavailability of the substrate to the composting
microorganisms (Chen et al., 2015). Chen et al. (2015) further opined that
temperature evolution during composting can be divided into four phases
namely mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling and maturation stage. Lazcano et
al. (2008), proposed two stages of temperature evolution, namely, the
thermophilic stage (active phase), and a maturing stage (characterized by a
temperature drop). Sundberg et al. (2004) noted that the active phase of
composting is dominated by bacteria. Organic matter poses health risk to
both humans and animals because they contain pathogenic organisms (e.g
faecal coliforms, intestinal parasites). According to Ravindran and Sekaran
(2010), composting at temperatures above 55 C favors the elimination of
parasites, pathogens and ensures maximal sanitary conditions. If the
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
thermophilic phase lasts beyond three days, the compost will be free of
weed seeds and pathogens and sanitation requirements could be fulfilled
(Zhang and Sun, 2014). Although, Chan et al. (2016) noted that the
thermophilic phase should last for a week for complete elimination of
pathogens. Cempirkova and Soch (2007) opined that time and temperature
regimes required for the elimination of coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli
and other pathogens varies. Temperatures between 52 and 60 C are
considered to maintain the greatest thermophilic activity in composting
systems (Vuorinen and Saharinen, 1997). The thermophilic phase is
indicative of the decomposition and stabilization of the initial organic matter
content (Paradelo et al., 2013). Rich and Bharti (2015) pointed out that the
optimum temperature is 40e65 C for composting. Miyatake and Iwabuchi
(2005) observed the highest level of thermophilic activity at 54 C which lies
in the range stated by Rich and Bharti (2015) and Vuorinen and Saharinen
(1997). Also, the inhibition of thermophiles low pH explains the frequently
observed lag phase (in the transition from mesophilic to thermophilic
conditions) at the initial phase of composting (Sundberg et al., 2004). High
temperature and excessive amount of ammonia can inhibit the growth and
activity of nitrifying bacteria in the thermophilic phase (Huang et al., 2004).
However, care must be taken that temperatures do not become too elevated
(i.e greater than 71 C) because excessive heat can destroy thermophilic
microbial populations (Imbeah, 1998; Huang et al., 2004). Compost
temperatures must not exceed 60e65 C as this would kill almost all
microorganisms and cause the process to cease (Imbeah, 1998). Sudharsan
and Kalamdhad (2015) further explained that temperatures greater than 65 C
might inactivate fungi, actinomycetes, and most of the bacteria that are
essential in degradation during the thermophilic stages; this allows only
spore-forming bacteria to be developed. Chen et al. (2011) observed that
excessive heat during composting could also be a fire hazard.
The temperatures of the composting mass indicate the rate of degradation of
the organic matter and in real-time shows the establishment of optimal
conditions that facilitate microbial degradation (Awasthi et al., 2014).
4.3. C/N ratio
During composting, microbes break down organic compounds to obtain
energy for metabolism and acquire nutrients (such as N, P, K) to sustain their
populations (Chen et al., 2011). C, N, P and K are the major nutrients needed
by the microorganisms involved in composting (Pace et al., 1995). However, C
and N are the most crucial: C is used as energy source while N is used for
building cell structure (Chen et al., 2011; Iqbal et al., 2015). Igoni et al. (2008)
stated that when the amount of N is limiting, microbial growth decreases and
thus result in slow decomposition of the available C. They also added that if the
amount of N present is beyond the requirement of the microbial population, the
excess N is volatilized as ammonia gas. Therefore, the C/N ratio is an indicator
of the degree of decomposition of an organic matter; as C is lost as CO 2 during
bio-oxidation (Lazcano et al., 2008). According to Yang et al. (2015), C/N ratio
decreases during composting. They explained that the decrease in C/N ratio
occurs because the rate of organic N mineralization is lower than that of
organic C.
Adjustment of raw materials to give a C/N ratio of 25e30:1 is ultimate for
active composting (Huang et al., 2004), although initial C/N ratio of 20e40:1
has regularly given good composting yield (Pace et al., 1995). Petric et al.
(2015) however adopted initial C/N values between 25 and 40 and even as high
as 50 as recommended values for composting. The C/N ratios imply that
microorganisms use up available C 30e35 times faster than the rate at which
they convert N (Igoni et al., 2008). Bulking agents could be used to adjust C/N
ratios (Zhang and Sun, 2016a,b). At lower C/N ratio, N will be available in
excess and would be lost as ammonia gas, with resultant undesirable odour.
Lower C/N ratio liberates huge amount of soluble basic salt thus making the
soil unfavourable to plant growth (Awasthi et al., 2014). Mohee et al. (2015)
observed that low starting C/N ratio gave a malodorous characteristic in the
compost feedstock. Meanwhile, higher ratio means that there is inadequate N
for optimal growth of microorganisms, such that the compost remains
comparatively cool and decomposition advances at a slow rate (Chen et al.,
143
2011). A wide variety of bulking agents (e.g., rice husk, wood chip, sawdust,
and peanut shells) are generally added to organic material to enhance the
porosity and the C/N ratio of feedstock prior to composting (Wang et al., 2015;
Zhang and Sun, 2016a,b). Co-composting of manure with such bulking agents
is an odour control measure due to the absorption of excess moisture (Imbeah,
1998). Zhang and Sun (2016a,b) also reported the use of urea in adjusting C/N
ratio. The bulking agents are also degraded in the process. The more
decomposed a waste is, the lower the C to N ratio (Lazcano et al., 2008). Ros et
al. (2006) spelled out that initial C/N ratio affects the mineralization of organic
matter as well as nitrification processes.
4.4. Moisture content
Moisture content (MC) is a critical parameter in the composting process. It
influences the oxygen uptake rate, free air space, microbial activity, and
temperature of the process (Petric et al., 2012). According to Bernal et al.
(2009), the optimal MC for effective composting depends on the waste type or
form. They opined that the feedstock MC should be at 50e60%. Luangwilai et
al. (2011) pointed out that the optimum MC required for biological activity
during composting is between 40 and 70% of the compost weight. As MC
increases, the rate of gas diffusion declines, and the oxygen uptake rate
becomes inadequate in meeting the metabolic demands of the microorganisms.
The composting process may finally become anaerobic due to restricted activity
(Mohammad et al., 2012). Sudharsan and Kalamdhad (2015) observed that
there was an inverse link between MC and temperature; as the temperature
became elevated, MC decreased. Turan (2008) observed low temperature at
when moisture was high. According to Makan et al. (2013), MC is a useful
means of measuring other important factors such as water availability, which
could slow down microbial activity under low moisture range. They attributed
this to the relative to the relative ease of measuring moisture content. During
composting, the MC is vital for distribution of soluble nutrients needed for the
microbial metabolic activity (Guo et al., 2012). They opined that the optimum
moisture content depends on the specific physicochemical properties and
biological features of the materials being composted.
According to Sudharsan and Kalamdhad (2015), loss of moisture during the
composting process can be counted as a strong indication of decomposition
rate. Very low MC could cause early dehydration during composting and that
may hinder the biological process (Makan et al., 2013). Makan et al. (2013)
also stated that increased MC during composting could form water logs and this
could give rise to anaerobic conditions which halts active composting activities.
Petric and Selimbasic (2008) noted 70% initial moisture content as optimal
in composting poultry manure and wheat straw. Ros et al. (2006) in their work
maintained moisture content at about 60e70% of their water holding capacity
throughout the period of composting pig slurry. However, when the moisture
content exceeds 60% movement of oxygen is impeded because the pore spaces
are closed and the process tends towards anaerobiosis (Abdullah and Chin,
2010).
4.5. Electrical conductivity
Johnson et al. (2005) defined electrical conductivity (EC) as a numerical
expression of conduction of electrical current by an aqueous solution. EC
reflects the salinity of an organic amendment (Lazcano et al., 2008). During
composting, concentration of salts increases unavoidably due to the
decomposition of complex organic matter (Chan et al., 2016). The EC indicates
the total salt content of compost reflecting the quality of compost to be used as
a fertilizer (Jiang et al., 2015; Awasthi et al., 2014). According to Huang et al.
(2004), during the composting process, EC could increase owing to the
formation of mineral salts such as ammonium ions and phosphates via
transformation of organic matter. Huang et al. (2004) also pointed out that
volatilization of ammonia and the precipitation of mineral salts could also lead
to a decrease in EC.
In order to support the growth of plants, the EC value of mature compost
must be very low (Yang et al., 2015). To this end, different authors have
adopted different limits for EC. For instance, Awasthi et al. (2014), Zhang and
144 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
Sun (2016a,b) and Chowdhury et al. (2015) adopted 4 ms cm1 as the limit for
EC value for the compost to be applied to the soil. However, Mohee et al.
(2015) disagreed with this limit EC value for safe application of the compost
and stated an EC range of <3.5 dS/m as the limit value for the safe application
of the compost in agriculture. On the other hand, Juarez et al. (2015) stated an
EC maximum level of 3 ms cm 1 as a criterion to be met before the compost is
used for organic soil amendment. In their opinion, Mulec et al. (2016) stated
values lower than 2.5 mS/cm as the limit value for application in agriculture.
Turan (2008) stated values less than 2ms cm1 as ideal values for composts.
Compost with high EC value will cause negative effect to the growth of the
plant (Yang et al., 2015; Awasthi et al., 2014). However, for compost with high
EC value to be used in growing crops, it must be mixed well with soil or other
materials with low EC values before it can be used (Gao et al., 2010). This is
because salinity could have a negative impact effect on germination of seed or
plant growth, especially at the seedling stage (Niccolo and Eugenio, 2013 ).
Chan et al. (2016) reported the use of zeolite, (a natural mineral) to reduce the
salinity during composting. They explained that zeolite can accommodate and
allow free exchange of ions on its surface and adsorb the ions, resulting in a
decrease of the EC.
4.6. Aeration
Aeration is an important factor influencing composting (Chen et al.,
2015). Fundamentally, composting is an aerobic process, in which O2 is
consumed, and gaseous H2O and CO2 are released (Awasthi et al., 2014).
Efficiency of the composting process is strongly affected by O 2 level,
because the composting process is directly associated with microbial
population dynamics (Nakasaki et al., 2009). Aeration rate affects the
quality of the compost and microbial activity in the composting process
(Gao et al., 2010). Raut et al. (2008) also pointed out that aeration helps in
maintaining compost temperature for the thermophilic decomposition of
organic wastes. Bari and Koeing (2012) statedthat the effectof airflow rate
on organic matter decomposition rate, distribution of temperature and other
parameters in the composting mass depends largely with time, ambient
condition and location within the composting mass.
According to Petric and Selimbasic (2008), aeration provides sufficient
O2 needed for the oxidation of organic material and evaporates excess
moisture from the substrate. Guo et al. (2012) reported aeration as the main
factor influencing compost stability. It greatly influences on the
physicochemical attributes (MC, organic matter content, temperature and
pH) of the compost (Rich and Bharti, 2015). Gao et al. (2010) explained that
too little aeration can lead to anaerobic conditions, and as well excessive
aeration can result in excessive cooling, thus preventing thermophilic
conditions required for optimal rates of decomposition. According to
Sundberg and Jonsson (2008), increased aeration usually results in higher
evaporation rate and quicker drying of the compost and cooling of large
compost.
To ensure adequate aeration of the compost feedstock, different turning
regimes have been used by different authors. Li et al. (2015) used a once a
day turning regime during the composting of swine manure to ensure an
oxygen supply and also to maintain aerobic conditions in the compost
materials. Bialobrzewski et al. (2015) noted that in forced aeration, there is
oxidation of carbon to CO2 upon heat release. They further noted that there is
also an uptake of nitrogen (N) and other biogenic elements as nutrients
necessary for microbial growth, reproduction and metabolic reactions. In
forcedaeration windrow composting, perforated pipe situated under the
compost pile is used to activate air flow into the material and supply O 2 to
the microorganisms (Tiquia and Tam, 2000). Lazcano et al. (2008) reported
the use forced air (through a blower) to deliver oxygen to microorganisms in
their compost trenches. They also pointed out that temperature influences the
functioning of the air-blower. Natural aeration has been successfully used in
composting. For instance, Oudart et al. (2015) reported that the use of static
piles in composting of animal excreta under natural aeration is cost-effective
and less-energy intensive process than forced aeration. Tatano et al. (2015)
used natural aeration in home composting of biowaste. They achieved this
by using a composter having a cylindrical-shaped bottom with channels,
slits, and an internal vertical cone with non-clogging holes, and additional
slits were positioned on the upper rim and under the lid. Using a controlled
supply rate of air in composting municipal solid waste and poultry manure,
Petric et al. (2015) supplied air to the composting organic matter by
connecting the reactor to an air compressor that functioned as air channel
into the reactor at a controlled rate of 0.9 l min _1 kg1OM. Petric et al. (2015)
also indicated that the rate of air flow was measured using an airflow meter.
Sun et al. (2011) connected an air inlet to the bottom of the reactor for
aeration using vacuum pump. According to Xiu-lan et al. (2016) bulking
agents can be used to improve gaseous exchange.
In correlating the relationship between aeration and pH levels, higher O 2
concentration results in lower concentrations of organic acids in the compost
and a rapid decomposition of the acids, thus giving rise to high pH levels
(Sundberg and Jonsson, 2008). The optimal range of aeration rate varies due
to the dissimilarity of the composting material in the different composting
process (Gao et al., 2010). Table 1 summarizes the aeration rates
recommended by some authors in available literature.
4.7. pH
The pH level is an important parameter in the composting process (Chen
et al., 2015; Chan et al., 2016). It affects microbial activities during
composting (Chan et al., 2016). Generally, pH follows a pattern in
composting; decline in pH levels in the early stages of composting and also
elevation in pH levels in the later stages of composting (Turan, 2008).
DeLaune et al. (2004) noted that increase in pH caused an increase in
NH3/NHþ4 ratio resulting in increased volatilization rates. Kalemelawa et al.
(2012) reported that aerobic composting showed slightly higher pH than
anaerobic process, likely due to higher potassium release. Chan et al. (2016)
demonstrated that under optimal conditions, pH, after an initial decline, rises
from acidic to neutral range if the organic acids were completely
decomposed. Chan et al. (2016) further pointed out that a range of 7e8 is
optimum for composting.
According to Turan (2008), changes in pH may be indicative of
biological activity. Sundberg et al. (2004) observed a decline in microbial
activities during composting at very low pH levels of 5. pH drops during the
early stages of composting process and increases in the later stages (Turan et
al., 2008). Decrease in pH can be caused by volatilization of NH þ4 eN, Hþ
released as a result of microbial nitrification process by nitrifying bacteria,
large quantities of CO2 given off during composting, microbial
decomposition of organic matter and production of organic and inorganic
acids
Table 1
(Huang et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2016). Lazcano et al. (2008) agreed with the
above causes of decrease in pH. However, they also added that mineralization
of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds can also cause a decrease in pH.
Very low pH could pose a challenge when composting is carried out at an
industrial level, as the transition from the mesophilic to the thermophilic phase
could be negatively affected (Paradelo et al., 2013). pH increase can result from
the accumulation of ammonia resulting from the degradation of proteins
(Hachicha et al., 2009). The alkalinization of the organic matter may hinder the
survival of microorganisms sensitive to pH contributing to sanitation (Hachicha
et al., 2009).
Zhang and Sun (2016a,b) pointed out that studies have shown that a pH
range of 7.5e8.5 during composting supports microbial decomposition of
organic materials. Although Rich and Bharti (2015) noted that a pH of 6.7e9
supports good microbial activity during composting. Chen et al. (2015) opined
that optimum pH values range from 5.5 to 8. Zhang and Sun (2016a,b) made it
known that microbial activities become limited when the pH is outside the
optimal range. However, Rich and Bharti (2015) noted that pH is not a key
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
factor in the deciding the stability of the compost. According to Hachicha et al.
(2009), the pH of mature compost should be in the range of 6.0e8.5. This pH
value of a mature compost contradicts the pH range (8.0e8.5) noted by Juarez
et al. (2015) .
As an alternative to the well-known method of adding alkaline such as
CaCO3 substances to raise the pH, composting process can be accelerated if the
compost is cooled to <40 C until the organic acids would have been utilized and
the pH level increased (Paradelo et al., 2013; Chan et al., 2016). Sundberg et al.
(2004) points out that the reason for the choice of pH control is that alkaline
amendments have other disadvantage such as risks of increased ammonia
emissions. Juarez et al. (2015) reported the use of wood ash to raise pH during
composting of biowaste. Although, Chan et al. (2016) in their work observed
that zeolite amendment can be used to raise pH during composting, they
however noted that use of zeolite amendment depends on the availability of
different soluble ions such as ammonium in the system which may slightly
reduce the ammonium-based buffering in the composting mass.
Furthermore, it has been noted that pH as a factor that influences
composting sometimes is not independent of temperature (Sundberg et al.,
2004). This may be attributed to the existence of different microbial groups at
different combinations of temperature and pH.
4.8. Particle size
The particle-size distribution of the final compost is important because it
determines gas and water exchange, and especially water-holding capacity
Summary of the recommended aeration rates by different authors for different compost feedstocks. a
Compost feedstock Aeration rate Impact on the overall composting process
(L min1 kg1 OM)
145
managed and sustained during composting (Bernal et al., 2009). According to
Neves et al. (2007), composting is influenced by operational factors constituting
a very heterogeneous system. Vasiliadou et al. (2015) identified these
operational factors as C/N ratio, the addition of chemicals, bulking material and
aeration strategy. Adequate understanding of the relationship between
parameters affecting the composting process is invaluable in optimization of the
composting process (Bernal et al., 2009), the desired quality of the final
compost (Vasiliadou et al., 2015), and proper system design (Neves et al.,
2007) since they determine the best conditions for microbial growth and
organic matter degradation (Bernal et al., 2009). In recent times, models
representing the interactions between biochemical and physical characteristics
were deployed for composting process (Oudart et al., 2015). According to
Oudart et al. (2015), modeling could help understand the causes of poor
performance during composting and reduces the cost of experiments. However,
since composting models rely heavily on estimated values, it is needful to
validate assumptions used in the models with data generated from experiments
(Korner et al., 2003).
5.1. Statistical approach
Statistical procedures are organized set of techniques or protocols through
which the extent at which certain variables known to affect a particular
operation is ascertained. By alteration of such variables, the overall impact on
References

Dairy manure and rice straw 0.25 Germination indexes indicated stable compost Gao et al. (2010)
Poultry manure and wheat straw 0.54 OM conversion was enhanced Petric and Selimbasic (2008)
Poultry manure and wheat straw 0.43 Maximized OM degradation Petric and Mustafic (2015)
Sewage sludge 0.2 Moderated the emission of NH3, N2O and CH4 Yuan et al. (2016)
Penicillin mycelia dreg 0.5 Thermophilic phase occurred early, NO3-N content increased Chen et al. (2015)
Kitchen waste 0.2 Reduced volatile sulphur and NH3emissions Zhang et al. (2016a,b,c)
Pig manure 4.0 Minimized the sulphur (odour) emission Zhang et al. (2016a,b,c)
Maize stalks 0.44 Stability of the final compost was achieved Nada (2015)
Night soil and leaf 0.14 OM degradation was enhanced Sun et al. (2012)
Pig manure and straw 11 Humification process was improved in the final compost Xu et al. (2015)
Sewage sludge 15.37 Aided in reduction of MC Zhou et al. (2014)
Pig faeces and corn stalks 0.48 Stabilized the compost Guo et al. (2012)
MSW 0.4 Reduced the overall energy consumption Rasapoor et al. (2009)
MSW, legume trimmings 0.05e0.175 Enhanced OM degradation and compost stability Cabeza et al. (2013)
Legume trimming residue 0.2e0.4 Improved OM degradation and reduction in N-losses Bueno et al. (2008)
MSW 0.05e0.3 Controlled the emission of volatile organic compounds Delgado-Rodríguez et al. (2012a)
Vegetable efruit waste 0.62 Effectively reduced the C/N ratio and hence compost stability Arslan et al. (2011)
a
MSW municipal solid waste; OM organic matter; DM dry matter; MC moisture content.

(Zhang and Sun, 2014). Particle size has a great
influence on the maintenance of adequate porosity for proper aeration. Particle
size of substrates for composting should not be too large as they will
decompose slowly. The particle size should also not be too small as they can
form a compact mass and reduce the porosity of the compost substrate (Bernal
et al., 2009). As pointed out by Ge et al. (2015a), the principal method for
determining particle size distribution is sieving.
5. Optimization strategies for effective composting operations
In order to realize the objectives of composting, it would be needful to
optimize the composting procedures. This can be achieved through effectively
designing and controlling the various composting processes (Nielsen and
Berthelsen, 2002). Control conditions and environmental parameters
significantly affect composting processes, and simulation approaches help
researchers better understand them. Different mathematical modeling
procedures have been substantially used to simulate, forecast, and enhance
understanding of composting processes (Mason, 2006). Thus, they help provide
new theoretical basis and proffer solutions to various problems arising from
composting design (Li et al., 2013; Ge et al., 2015b). Composting optimization
involves the clarification of adequate initial substrate conditions that must be
the output of a given process could be understood (Nath and Das, 2011). This is
often accompanied by experimental/empirical data collection to ensure
effective prediction of the essential parameters (Wang and Wan, 2009). Thus, a
reliable relationship between the model and the prediction of significant
parameters (variables) is established. In general, upon full analysis with
different kinds of experimental model, there is an improved performance or
operation. Several procedures are reportedly used in the optimization of process
parameters. These include one-variable-at- a- time approach and the factorial
designs.
5.1.1. One variable-at-a-time (OVAT)
OVAT is a conventional approach which studies a particular variable at a
time, while the level of other factors is kept constant. The level of the
variables under study is usually altered over the desired range to understand
its impact on the response or output (Wang and Wan, 2009). Herein, it is
noteworthy that the investigator chooses the variables by discretion or
through adequate information from previous works on the parameters. In
order to illustrate the effects of the tested factors on the response, charts
(graphs or tables) are constructed using the data generated from experiment
(Wang and Wan, 2009). Although, this approach is known to be easy to
apply, it has also been associated with some shortcomings-(1), lack of
interactive effects on the various tested variables, (2) it is tasking and time
146 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
Table 2
Factorial designs reportedly utilized in the optimization of composting process. a
Substrate Statistical State variables considered Factors optimized/comments References
design

Barley dregs (BD)/Sewage CCD Total VS, CO2 evolution The optimal mix ratio for BD/SS and MC was achieved. Lu et al. (2008)
sludge (SS)
Trimming residues CCD NH4/NO3, self heating Germination MC and particle size affected the composting but moderately to Bueno et al. (2009)
index, cation exchange capacity. low aeration did not affect the composting process.

Kitchen waste CCD C/N, MC The selection of MC and C/N as response variables was statistical Iqbal et al. (2015)
significant under multiple regression analysis.
Legume trimming residue CCD OM degradation, N-losses, Optimal values for compost maturity were: longer composting Bueno et al. (2008)
C/N ratio time, low particle size, medium MC, medium to low aeration

Solid waste CCD OM evolution (xylan, cellulose, Lower lignin and higher humic substances were achieved under Yanez et al. (2010)
acetyl group) medium to low particle size and low MC
Wastewater sludge, Green CCD OM degradation, OUR Optimal wastewater sludge stabilization was achieved at lower particle Tremier et al. (2009)
waste residue size for green waste residue and average MC.
Pulp industry waste: (Sludge, CCD C/N ratio, MC, pH Optimal dreg/bark ratio was determined. The higher dreg content Zambrano et al. (2007)
dreg and back) exhibits a quadratic effect on C/N ratio.
MSW, Legume trimming BBD OM degradation, N-losses, COD, Mix ratio of MSW/LTR at equal proportion, low MC and moderate Cabeza et al. (2013)
residue. Nitrate. to low aeration were recommended for enhanced composting.

Kitchen waste BBD C/N, MC Bulking agent to fly ash ratio significantly affected the MC Iqbal et al. (2015)
optimization. Also, low lime, moderate inoculum size and mesophilic
temperature were the best conditions for C/N ratio optimization and
compost maturity.
Solid waste ANN Heat evolution during composting Temperature inside the bioreactor and OUR had the greatest influence Boniecki et al. (2013)
while CO2 evolution and composting time have the least effects on
composting.
Wastewater sludge Mixture C/N ratio, MC, OM degradation Adjustment of compost structure should be maintained below average Komilis et al. (2011a)
to reach thermophilic temperature.
Municipal raw sludge FFD OM degradation Bulking agent/sludge ratio (equal mix) and high compost volume Leiva et al. (2003)
enhanced composting performance.
Pulp/paper mill sludge FFD NH3 removal Contact time, MC and amendment ratios affected composting Aycan et al. (2014)
a
OM organic matter; MC moisture content; VS volatile solids; OUR oxygen uptake rate; COD chemical oxygen demand; CCD central composite design; ANN artificial neural

consuming because it could involve many sets of experiments (Nath and
Das, 2011). A number of literatures on composting of waste streams that
utilized OVAT have been reported. For instance, Zhang et al. (2016a,b,c)
reported that biochar obtained from wheat straw was mixed with pig manure
in amounts corresponding to 5%, 10%, or 15% (w/w). The outcome of
OVAT investigation showed that compost with 10e15% biochar stimulated
early compost maturity and improved humification, compared to the
corresponding levels in the control (Zhang et al., 2016a,b,c). A total of 15
compost recipes consisting of different proportions of deoiled cake-rice
straw mixture and animal dung (hen droppings, horse dung, buffalo dung,
goat dung and cow dung) were formulated during a co-composting study
(Das et al., 2011). Overall, compost from horse dung supported better
germination than other additives. While studying the effects of lime (1%,
2% and 3%) on bioavailability and leachability of heavy metals composting
of water hyacinth, Singh and Kalamdhad (2013), noted that the greatest
reduction in the toxicity of the heavy metals in course of composting of
water hyacinth was observed in treatment with 2% lime. Thus, it indicated
optimum percentage of lime enhanced degradation of organic matter and
humification process (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2013). During composting of
pig manure, the influence of housefly maggot inoculum weight ratios has
been described (Zhu et al., 2015). They observed the content nutrient content
(NPK) in organic fertilizer from maggot treatment (0.5% maggot inoculum)
was 10.72% (dry wt.), which was much greater than that of organic manure
produced by traditional composting with bulking agents (about 8.0%). On
the same note, inoculation of pig manure with nitrogen turnover bacterial
(NTB) agent (bacterial consortium of ammonifiers, nitrobacteria and
Azotobacter at varying cell concentrations (1e3%)) has been studied (Jiang
et al., 2015). The investigators found out that inoculation with 1% NTB
agent at the beginning of composting effectively promoted maturity and
reduced nitrogen loss.
5.1.2. Factorial designs
One of the commonly reported factorial designs is full factorial design.
This is a statistical method showing the relationship between responses of all
experimental variables that are changed simultaneously). Herein, the number
of runs increases geometrically as the number of variables increases.
However, there is inability of this design to accurately simulate all the
positions of the variable space which are equidistant from the centre
(rotatability). The second form of factorial method is the fractional factorial
designs (central composite design (CCD) (five level factorial), BoxBehnken
(BB) design (three level factorial), Plackett Burman (PB) design, Taguchi
experimental design (orthogonal array with two or more levels on a
particular response), and artificial neural network (ANN) with genetic
algorithm (A computer based statistical modeling process aided by the
connectivity of biological neurons. It is nonlinear and adaptive) (Nath and
Das, 2011). For instance, with a fractional factorial design, the effects of
certain variables on a
network; FFD full factorial design.
particular response can be studied under practical and economical conditions.
Table 2 summarizes some of the studies available in literature on the use of
various fractional factorial designs in optimization of composting process.
5.1.3. Fuzzy logic estimation model
The vast number of state variables or factors (moisture content,
temperature, pH, aeration, etc) affecting composting process coupled with
their complex interactions has led to uncertainties (Qin et al., 2007). It is
often demanding to gain full knowledge of such ambiguous process. Several
dynamic mathematical models (analytical, numerical and deterministic
simulations) have been extensively used in management of such
incompleteness or vagueness (Seng et al., 2012; Sole-Mauri et al., 2007).
However, it is difficult to generate a complete result from these modeling
techniques because of possible random or systematic errors. Nevertheless,
these inherent shortcomings caused by the uncertainties could be tackled
using the fuzzy modeling technique (Qin et al., 2007). Remarkable
successes have been made using fuzzy set theories in unraveling or
simulating the complexities such as found in composting procedures (Zhang
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
et al., 2008). For instance, Neugebauer et al. (2014) demonstrated that fuzzy
logic effectively simulated the temperature variation in a compost heap
during composting of cabbage and freshly mown grass. Fuzzy vertex has
been used alongside factorial-analysis approach for systematic
determination of the impact of uncertainties on composting process (Xi et
al., 2008). Zhang et al. (2008) reported that fuzzy latent component analysis
(FLCA) method could be used for evaluation of composting product quality
under uncertainty.
Further to composting processes, uncertainties associated with the choice
of municipal solid waste management approach have also been addressed
using different forms of fuzzy logic model (Zhang and Huang, 2014;
Srivastava and Nema, 2012).
5.1.4. Markov chain approximation
The prediction of heterogeneous composting process has also been achieved
using the Markov process (Isobaev et al., 2014; Fernandez et al., 2016).
Markov chain approximation model is a stochastic process which conforms to
the Markov property (Chen et al., 2016). This property predicts the future of a
given process based only on the current condition. Thus it is dependent on the
current state of the system while the past and future are unconditional to the
prediction. Isobaev et al. (2014) demonstrated that Markov chain model aided
in the estimation of effect of turning frequency on heat/temperature distribution
during a composting technology evaluation. They stated that the percentage
accuracy of the model would have up to 98% accuracy when the model was
handled properly. While relying on Markovian principles/approach, Seki (2000)
established a stochastic system for composting. He further stated that at the end
of initial stage of the composting, the developed model was suitable for
prediction of the expected outcome. In order to achieve a long term forecast of
composting processes under industrial/pilot scale, a novel approach based on
Markov process has been developed (Fernandez et al., 2016). The proposed
model was found to be appropriate when insufficient data hampers the
application of other designs.
5.2. Kinetic modeling techniques
Mathematical composting models are useful to predict how control
measures affect different conditions during the process such as composting
time, temperature, emissions, and the properties of compost itself (Korner et al.,
2003). The equations shown in these models are mainly empirical estimations
and thus there is a lack of uniformity among different models (Petric and
Mustafic, 2015). It is imperative to estimate thermal balance during composting
in order to understand bioreactor dynamics and thus provide proper temperature
control (Khater et al., 2014). Predicting the amount of oxygen that will be
consumed by the biomass could lead to the selection of the proper aeration
strategy to improve the composting process (Vasiliadou et al., 2015).
According to Neves et al. (2007), composting kinetics describes the control
of degradation rate of wastes by environmental factors, such as temperature,
oxygen availability, moisture, substrate particle size, porosity, etc.
Several kinds of kinetic models so far reported on biomass degradation
from composting technology have been based on physical and biochemical
properties of the composting materials (Li et al., 2013). These models have
been successfully utilized in the evaluation of the parameters that affect mass
and heat balances of composting and these include the following
characteristics: volatile solid degradation or carbon mineralization (Manu et al.,
2016; Petric et al., 2015; Wang and Witarsa, 2016; Villasenor et al., 2012;
Kulikowska, 2016); oxygen uptake rate and free air space (de Guardia et al.,
2008; Ge et al., 2015b, 2016); heat transfer (Wang et al., 2016; de Guardia et
al., 2008; Sadef et al., 2014); metabolite accumulation, eg. humic acid
formation (Kulikowska, 2016); moisture variation (Wang et al., 2013, 2015;
Vasiliadou et al., 2015); carbon dioxide evolution (Vasiliadou et al., 2015) and
N transformation and volatilization (Oudart et al., 2015).
Thus, the progress made currently on simulation and prediction of
composting process were based on mathematical models such as zero, first,
second and even the nth order kinetics. Also use of Monod model has been
147
reported although to a lesser extent when compared to other models (first order
model). For instance, Manu et al. (2016) reported that food waste degradation
followed a first order rate of 0.0105 d 1 was achieved by regular turning of the
food waste during the composting process. Benito et al. (2005) while studying
the rate of pruning waste composting compared the first order with zero order
on simulation of C mineralization and CO 2 evolution. They established that C
mineralization occurred in dual phases: a first rapid phase was described by first
order while second slower stage followed a zero order. First order, Contois and
Tessier (Monod-type) equations were used to study OM degradation during
composting of solid waste. The degradation (first order) rate (0.4 h 1) of soluble
substrate was faster than lignin (0.04 h1) whose hydrolysis was rate limiting.
The model also aided in separation of the composting material into different
components (Wang and Witarsa, 2016).
Monod or Monod-type models, on the other hand, have also been deployed
to a substantial, but lesser, extent, and these are actually more difficult to work
with because they require microbial growth parameters and an estimate of the
initial microbial mass (Mason, 2006). Moreover, Mason (2006) reviewed and
analyzed extensively the composting models available in the literature up to the
end of 2003, and concluded that the first-order models are more successful in
predicting temperature profiles than Monodetype expressions. The Monod-type
expressions have synthesized from cell growth (first-order) and/or substrate
utilization evaluations, and have been used to estimate temperature variation,
solids production or oxygen uptake rates (Mason, 2006). For instance, during
composting of waste activated sludge, Monod kinetics was applied in the
prediction of oxygen uptake rate. The model could adequately predict the
experimental data for average maximum oxygen uptake rate (Yamada and
Kawase, 2006).
Other models such as Gompertz, numerical and empirical models have also
been used in monitoring composting (Table 3).
5.3. Use of bulking agents
For effective composting to obtain high quality compost, the selection of
the bulking agent is essential (Bernal et al., 2009). Amending materials rich
in available C can reduce N losses in the form of ammonia during the
composting of wastes with high N content (Bernal et al., 2009). Bulking
agents such as the widely used sawdust can be added during composting to
provide the lignin useful in the formation of humic substances during
composting (Zhou et al., 2014). Table 4 presents some of the bulking agents
used in co-composting of both solid and liquid wastes.
Zhou et al. (2015) co-composted dairy manure with rice-straw in order to
ensure balanced nutrients for the microorganisms during composting. They
further explained that rice-straw makes up for the high density and moisture
content but lower carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) of dairy manure. Similarly,
Maulini-Duran et al. (2013) co-composted sewage sludge with dry materials
in order to absorb excess moisture and provide an appropriate degree of
porosity for aeration in the composting mass. Vanotti et al. (2006) co-
composted swine manure with cotton gin waste and wood chips. Their
findings indicated that wood chips and cotton gin waste helped to reduce gas
emission during composting, reduce the bulk density of the pile, and the
moisture content thus increasing the porosity and C/N ratio.
In order to enhance the composting of rice straw, Hosseini and Azziz,
(2013) applied thermochemical pretreatment and continuous thermophilic
condition during composting. Nakhshiniev et al. (2014) applied
hydrothermal treatment (HTT) technology with mild reaction conditions
(180 C, 1.0 MPa, 30 min) as a pretreatment step for solubilization of
hemicellulose before subsequent composting of rice straw.
Despite the importance of lignin in the formation of humic substances
during composting, Zhou et al. (2014, 2015) remarked that lignin is
recalcitrant and thus slows the composting process. While addressing this
issue, Zhou et al. (2015) posited that lignin should be modified or degraded
during the composting of substances of plant origin by the use of
microorganisms that excrete extracellular peroxidases such as lignin
peroxidase. Abdel-Rahman (2016) investigated the potentiality of cellulase
producers, Bacillus sonorensis 7-1v and Bacillus licheniformis 1-1v, as
148 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
microbial additives while composting rice straw. He reported that
introduction of activated microorganisms shortened the composting period
by 40e43%. Additionally, he stated that it also resulted in decrease in the
total organic C and C/N ratio, as well as improvement in the compost quality
due to rise in total N, P, and K content.

6. Challenges in composting

There are three major challenges associated with the composting process.
These include emission of odorous gases (Lou and Nair, 2009; Nasini et al.,
2016; Blazy et al., 2014), difficulty in defining a parameter for assessing
compost maturity (Lazcano et al., 2008) and leachate production (Chatterjee
et al., 2013). However, Bernal et al. (2009) pointed out some other
challenges associated with composting to include choice of a suitable
bulking agent and large space required for operation.

6.1. Lack of uniformity of compost maturity index

Compost maturity could be referred to as the degree of completion of the

composting process. This is usually quantified by the extent of humification
(i.e., humus formation) in the compost material (Butler et al., 2001).
Hachicha et al. (2009) defined compost stability as the resistance of
composted organic matter to further rapid degradation. It can be directly
measured by
Table 3
Summary of literature reports on different kinetic models successfully used in monitoring composting processes. a
Substrate Model type(s) State variable (s) studied Comments References

Organic waste/FW/yard trimmings
Compost amended soil
Solid waste
First and second order Mineralization of C and N, First order model described C/N mineralization. Second order model predicted the solid state Kabbashi et al. (2014)
OM degradation bioconversion.
First, second orders, C mineralization, temperature. Mineralizable C estimated using first order model was significantly correlated to the Aslam et al. (2008)
Monod probability of phytotoxicity of the soil.
First order C mineralization, temperature The 2C model (consideration of fractions of C) would be valid for shorter experimental Villasenor et al. (2012)
periods while 3C model reproduce the matura- tion stage closely.

Sewage sludge First order OM degradation, humification. (i.e. OM degradation and HS/HA formation followed first order rate. Kulikowska (2016)
Humic substance (HS) and humic acid
(HA) formation).
Sewage sludge First order OM degradation, temperature The model predicted the TM and VS very well. It also gave the temporal trend of O 2 Zhang et al. (2016a,b,c)
concentration and H2O removal and spatial/temporal change in temperature.

C.O.Onwosietal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement190(2017)140
Trimming residues First order Heat evolution The model shows that both the MC and particle size affected the composting process and Bueno et al. (2008)
aeration had low effect.
Olive mill wastewater First order zero order OM mineralization, humification. Degradation of OM followed a first order when OMW was mixed with CW. Paredes et al. (2002)
CW, MS However, the rate was faster at the beginning there- after remained constant. Composting
OMW with MS resulted in zero order rate. The OM degradation was continuous but at
slower rate.
Baggase substrate First order Temperature, OUR, OM degradation Maximum substrate degradation rate occurred at moderate air flow and at thermophilic Mohee et al. (1998)
temperature.
Caged layer manure First order Solid, H2O and energy balances The model simulated the cyclic temperature profiles and predicted the measured temperature Ndegwa et al. (2000)
profiles fairly accurately.
Solid waste First order OM degradation, OUR The model allowed the comparison of organic waste, in terms of their content, as easily and de Guardia et al. (2008)
slowly biodegradable fractions.
Sewage sludge First order Temperature, OM degradation At early stages, degradation rate was about three times faster than the later periods of the Sadef et al. (2014)
composting.
Sewage sludge First order diff. equations OM degradation, temperature, microbial In the model the significant parameters for microbial growth control were temperature and the Bialobrzewski et al. (2015)
growth rates content of easily hydrolysable substrates.
Olive mill waste First order, Monod. Heat transfer, OM degradation, OUR, The first order model described the hydrolysis of insoluble OM. The Monod kinetics modeled Vasiliadou et al. (2015)
CO2 evolution, MC. the microbial biomass growth with a double substrate limitation by hydrolyzed available OM

e157
and O2.
Wheat straw, PM Monod type OM degradation, aeration, temperature The model indicated that mmax was the most influencing factor while initial microbial biomass Petric and Mustafic (2015)
was the least factor.
Pig manure, wheat straw Monod OUR, OM degradation, temperature. The model suggested an enhanced aeration in the thermophilic phase for a soluble rich Ge et al. (2015b)
substrate. Smaller particle size resulted in faster composting rate.
Poultry manure, wheat 2.89 order OM conversions, temperature, The model adequately estimated the optimal values for initial MC and air flow. Petric and Selimbasic (2008)
straw CO2 evolution, OUR
Vegetable residues nth order thermally induced degradation The procedure allowed the obtaining of an approximate composition of samples Barneto et al. (2010)

OFMSW, poultry manure nth order OM degradation The model was more suitable for data obtained during composting higher volume OFMSW Petric et al. (2012)
and PM.
Food waste, night soil nth order OM degradation, heat evolution A good prediction of process performance was obtained using the proposed kinetics. Briski et al. (2007)

OFMSW nth order OM degradation, temperature OM conversion was the most accurately predicted dynamic state variable. The optimal MC Petric et al. (2015)
(moderate) was predicted by the model
Synthetic food waste Gompertz equation OUR, CO2 evolution The model varied under different experimental conditions. It can be applied for the Chang et al. (2005)
(Dog food) optimization of large scale compost facilities.
Solid waste Gompertz equation OM degradation, temperature The lag phase was adequately modeled by the equation. Mason (2008a)
Solid waste Gompertz equation OM degradation, temperature The profiles obtained from the model were found to be mainly sigmoidal and also exhibited Mason (2008b)
multiphase behaviour.

149
Wood chips Empirical model MC variation MC at the compost top reduced at the end of the composting. At the deeper layer and bottom, Seng et al. (2012)
the MC was comparative and higher than the initial MC, respectively.

Solid waste Numerical modeling OM decomposition Drying phenomenon should be considered while composting is modeled. Pujol et al. (2011)
a
FW food waste; CW cotton waste; MS maize straw; PM poultry manure; OFMSW organic fraction of municipal waste; OM organic matter; OUR oxygen uptake rate.
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
Table 4
Summary of substrates co-composted with various bulking agents.
Substrate Bulking agent References
Goat manure Rice straw Hariz et al. (2013)
Dairy manure Rice straw Zhou et al. (2015)
Activated sludge Palm tree waste El Fels et al. (2014)
Swine manure Rice straw Qian et al. (2014)
Sewage sludge Grass clippings Scoton et al. (2016)
Swine manure Straw and sawdust Chiumenti (2015)
Cow dung and crop residues Termite mounds Karak et al. (2014)
Poultry manure Wheat straw Petric and Mustafic (2015)
Food waste Mushroom bran Wu et al. (2015)
Physic nut Rice straw Das et al. (2011)
Pig manure Sawdust Huang et al. (2004)
respiration rates. On the other hand, maturity refers to the extent of
transformation organic substances that are phytotoxic and it is generally
measured by the germination indexes or plant bioassays (Guo et al., 2012).
Compost stability typically refers to microbial activity and can be defined by
the respiration index or the degradation of different chemical species in the
compost organic matter. Rich and Bharti (2015) also pointed out that stability
is not only an important compost quality characteristic but it can also be used
for regulation process performance monitoring and management of various
composting systems.
According to Luo et al. (2014), some attributes of mature compost such as
permeable pore space and large surface area could provide suitable
environment for methanotrophs growth, thus enhancing CH4 oxidation.
However, there have been discrepancies in the indices and parameters
used by many authors in evaluating compost maturity (Raut et al., 2008).
Lazcano et al. (2008) also supported this view by stating that the stability of
an organic amendment cannot be evaluated based on just one parameter. They
also spelled out that the threshold values of organic amendment may not be
suitable for all composts, due to the differences in the parent wastes and
feedstock as well as the composting procedures where they originated.
These parameters include various physico-chemical parameters like C/N
ratio, NH4/NH3, CO2 evolution, pH, electrical conductivity, moisture content,
water soluble C, cation exchange capacity, selfheating capacity, oxygen
uptake rate, total organic C, volatile organic C, production of humic and fulvic
acids, germination index to measure the phytotoxicity, plant growth index etc
(Rashad et al., 2010; Oviedo-Ocana et al., 2015; Qian et al., 2014; Zeng et al.,
2009; El Ouaqoudi et al., 2015; Tian et al., 2012; Komilis and Kletsa, 2012;
Swarnam et al., 2016). Some on-site parameters are also used in predicting the
maturity of compost. These parameters include temperature, colour, odour,
humidity etc (Oviedo-Ocana et al., 2015).
The nitrification index (NH4eN/NO3 eN ratio) has been used to evaluate
compost maturity (Zhang and Sun, 2014; Cunha-Queda et al., 2007). While
Juarez et al. (2015) adopted 0.16 as the threshold value for the nitrification
index of stable compost, Singh and Kalamdhad (2013) proposed the absence
or decrease of NH4eN as a suitable indicator for assessing the quality of a
composting process. The nitrification index of mature compost must have a
value as low as possible (Paradelo et al., 2013). Furthermore, Zhang et al.
(2016a,b,c) stated that a nitrification index value can be used to classify
compost as fully mature (nitrification index of 0.5); mature (above 0.5 up to
3.0) and immature (above 3.0). Gao et al. (2010) and Huang et al. (2004)
noted that 400 mg kg_1 is the maximum recommended NHþ4 eNO-3‘content in
mature compost. High NHþ4 eNO-3 content in compost indicates instability
(Chen et al., 2015). Since composting is a microbiological process,
Mohammad et al. (2012) noted that compost stability and maturity depend on
the results of microbial activity. Guo et al. (2012) opined that germination
index can be used as a sensitive indicator of compost maturity and
phytotoxicity. According to Awasthi et al. (2014), the C/N ratio is an
important parameter indicating the compost maturity (Chen et al., 2015),
which may generally be affected by variations of the organic matter and its
characteristics. A decline in the C/N ratio can be used as an indicator of
compost stability and maturity (Iqbal et al., 2015). From their works, Awasthi
151
et al. (2014) recommended a C/N less or equal to 25 as an index value for
mature compost. Iqbal et al. (2015) further points out that a C/N ratio below
20 is an indicator of acceptable maturity and ratio of 15 or less is preferable.
However, Raut et al. (2008) argued that the C/N ratio cannot be used as an
absolute indicator of compost maturity since the values for well-composted
materials is a function of the characteristics of the waste used in the
composting process. Chowdhury et al. (2015) also adds that the total Kjeldahl
nitrogen content can also be used as an index for compost maturity.
Butler et al. (2001) indicated the use of cation exchange capacity (CEC) as
a potential indicator of compost maturity. They further explained that CEC in
an organic material increases as a function of humification due to the
formation of carboxyl functional group (formed by the oxidation of lateral
chains of the aromatic rings or the hydrolysis of esters or lactones) and
phenolic functional groups.
Yuan et al. (2012) proposed the use of dissolved organic matter (DOM)
and electron transfer capacity (ETC) as maturity indices to predict the status
of given compost. This proposal was based on the fact that the degree of
decomposition is tightly associated with the compositions of DOM. As the
composting was ongoing, it was observed that the ETC, electron acceptor
capacity (EAC) and electron recycle rate (ERR) increased. Thus, this showed
a close correlated relationship with the germination index. The measurements
of these ETC parameters did not require any preparation of chemical reagents
before analyses were done and were obtained rapidly. From the results
obtained, ETC parameters were indicated to be potential measure of maturity.
Using particle size as an index of compost maturity, Zhang and Sun
(2016a,b) reported the optimal particle size range of a mature compost as
0.25e2.00 mm. Another parameter that has been used to assess compost
maturity is the amount of volatile solids (VS) in the compost. Yadav et al.
(2012) used reduction in the volatile solids (VS) as a parameter for assessing
compost maturity. They further pointed out that higher decrease in volatile
solids means a more stable product.
The degree of polymerization has also been proposed to be an important
indicator of compost maturity and reflects the use of simple molecules to form
complex ones and reduction in the nonhumic components of compost that are
the readily degraded by microorganisms (Zhang and Sun, 2016a,b).
El Ouaqoudi et al. (2015) combined the traditional physicochemical
parameters, the infrared spectroscopy and the thermogravimetric and
differential thermal analysis to determine the maturity of lignocelluloses
compost. Yang et al. (2013) investigated the effect of bulking agents on the
maturity of composting kitchen waste. In the study, three different bulking
agents were utilized and the results of the physicochemical parameters
determined, showed that all the composts containing the bulking agents
reached the required maturity standard. Komilis et al. (2011b) implemented
the use of fluorescein diacetate (FDA) enzymatic assay, arising from soil
studies, to serve as potential new compost stability test and was compared to
microbial respiration and phytotoxicity indices. Tian et al. (2012) applied the
combination of fluorescence regional integration (FRI) and excitation-
emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy as sensitive and efficient tool for
assessing compost maturity and biological parameters.
Recently, the utilization of phytotoxicity indices (GIC 80% and RGIC0.8) in
assessment of maturity of compost has also been proposed (Young et al.,
2016). GIC80% estimates the lowest concentration of extract to results in
germination index (GI) of 80% while RGIC 0.8 is used in the estimation of the
least concentration of extract that would inhibit root elongation (Young et al.,
2016). They further stated that GIC80% and RGIC0.8 be used as threshold values
to show the minimum concentration of extract causing inhibitory effects.
Therefore, they suggested that values 100% should indicate immaturity of the
compost or any toxicity degree from a sample, whereas values greater than
100% should show maturity of the compost or no toxicity from a sample.
According to Juarez et al. (2015) , the application of immature composts to
soil can have deleterious effects on plants and on ecosystem functioning. Guo
et al. (2012) further explained that the application of unstable and immature
compost would fix N in the soil and hinder the growth of plant by releasing
152 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
toxic substances or by competing for O 2 in the rhizosphere. Mulec et al.
(2016) also attributed the phytotoxicity of immature compost to high
concentrations of NHþ4 and the presence of heavy metals such as copper and
zinc. Application of immature compost can lead to a competition for O2
between plant roots and microbial biomass, resulting in the production of NO2
and H2S (Juarez et al., 2015 ). Immature compost continuously decomposes
(Huang et al., 2004) and this can induce anaerobic conditions in the soil as the
microbial biomass utilizes oxygen in the soil pores to decompose the
immature compost (Butler et al., 2001). Immature composts can contain high
levels of organic acids, high C/N ratios, extreme pH values, or high salt
contents, all of which makes the compost unsuitable for application on plants
(Chen et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2004). But stable and mature compost can be
applied to soil as an organic amendment to enhance soil fertility and plant
growth, as well as improving the function of soil for carbon sequestration
(Guo et al., 2012).
6.2. Odour or gas emission
Gas emissions as a problem of composting has been reviewed in most
studies on composting, aimed to enhance the process or determine the quality
of compost, but few studies have considered the environmental impact of
composting (Lou and Nair, 2009; Nasini et al., 2016). Composting of solid
waste could yield some odourous by-products such as CH 4, N2O and NH3 that
are detrimental to the environment and can cause secondary environmental
pollution (Jiang et al., 2015). According to Muller et al. (2004), emission of
odour from composting plants could cause discomfort to the public especially
those residing around composting facilities. This makes odourous emissions a
matter of serious concern to biowaste treatment facilities/plants. According to
Witherspoon et al. (2004), these emissions might not directly cause health
problems, but Schlegelmilch et al. (2005) reported that they could be
associated with negative health effects which may thus lead to defensive
reactions of people due to psychological effects.
In general, composting not only emits CO 2 and aqueous vapour but also
trace amounts of other gases such as CO, NH3, CH4, N2O, H2S, NOx and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), that have varying impact on air quality
(Lou and Nair, 2009; Peigne and Girardin, 2004; Adhikari et al., 2013; Nasini
et al., 2016). NH3, H2S and VOCs are responsible for bad odours, and N 2O
and CH4 possess an atmosphere-warming potential 310 and 20 times greater
than CO2, respectively, whereas VOCs and NO x have a warming potential
approximately 2000 times higher than CO2 (Peigne and Girardin, 2004;
Berntsen et al., 2005; Andersen et al., 2010; Nasini et al., 2016). Reports from
some authors indicated that the maximum VOC emissions occur at the early
stages of composting of municipal solid waste (Turan et al., 2007; Nasini et
al., 2016; Eitzer, 1995).
Schlegelmilch et al. (2005) reported that the major sources of odourous
emissions usually occur when the biomass are delivered, preprocessed and
during the composting process itself, especially when turning and conducting
the final screening. DelgadoRodríguez et al. (2012b) also reported that from
the point of reception of the waste materials and during the turning over of the
compost piles during composting process, the major odour emissions which
includes volatile organic compounds (VOCs), usually occurs. As a result,
optimization of composting conditions has been suggested as a method of
avoiding a large portion of odourous emissions (Schlegelmilch et al., 2005).
The emission of a range of small and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
high concentrations during the composting process has been identified as the
cause of odour (Cadena et al., 2009). These emissions compose mainly of
CO2, with trace amounts of methane and non-methane organic compounds
(NMOC) such as aromatic compounds, sulphide, ketones, nitride,
hydrocarbons, alcohols and esters (Gutierrez et al., 2015). So far, the
characterization of these VOCs have been the main focus of research works
(Delgado-Rodriguez et al., 2011; Maeda et al., 2009; Pagans et al., 2006a;
Akdeniz et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2011; Staley et al., 2006; Turan et al.,
2007; Wu et al., 2010). Each of these compost gases possessed a characteristic
odour signature (Rosenfeld et al., 2007). These gaseous emissions and their
odour vary with the composition of the biomass used, process conditions and
the progress of composting (Delgado-Rodriguez et al., 2011).
According to Coker (2012), emission of odourous gases depends on 3
main parameters: (i) substrate composition such as nutrient availability for
microorganisms in the feedstock which depends on mixing level and other
physical factors such as particle size and moisture; (ii), availability and
distribution of oxygen within the composting material; (iii), initial
temperature rise, directly affected by the microbial metabolism and the
biodegradability of waste, and indirectly by water vapour pressure and
moisture loss.
Sundberg et al. (2013) noted that it is general known that there is variation
in the quantity and quality of odour from composting and these are dependent
on the process conditions and substrate/ biomass composition. But in spite of
this knowledge, the relationship between the variation on process conditions
and variations in odour is poorly known. Delgado-Rodriguez et al. (2011) also
reported that only a few researches dealt with the influence of process
condition on VOC emission.
Blazy et al. (2014) reported that the release of gaseous compounds has
been found to be influenced by high temperature which is coupled with an
increased rate of pyrolysis, auto-oxidation and the Maillard reaction. It thus
appeared that gaseous emissions are dependent on biodegradation process.
During municipal solid waste (MSW) composting, emissions of VOCs and
odour were correlated with the biodegradation progress which was measured
by the Dynamic Respiration Index (DRI) (D'imporzano et al., 2008; Scaglia et
al., 2011). Pagans et al. (2006a) reported that correlation was not observed
during the composting of several wastes including MSW.
Even though many researches dealt with the influence of aeration on
compost, there are few investigations on emission of gas which is frequently
presented in terms of concentration rather considering their total mass (Shen
et al., 2011; Turan et al., 2007; Pagans et al., 2006a; Gao et al., 2010; Scaglia
et al., 2011). Nevertheless, aeration rate during composting appears as the
main factor affecting gaseous emissions (Blazy et al., 2014). Coker (2012)
and Gao et al. (2010) remarked that aeration provides a wide range of
functions during composting process such as: removing water, CO 2 and
volatile compounds, replenishing O2, temperature control and moisture
variations. Delgado-Rodriguez et al. (2011) suggested that aeration rate rather
than moisture or C/N ratio, is the major factor affecting the emissions of
VOCs. Wu et al. (2010) demonstrated that the emissions NH3 and volatile
VOCs vary with rate of aeration (Bueno et al., 2008; Pagans et al., 2006b). As
a result of these facts and more, Blazy et al. (2014) established that there is
relationship between bulking agents' particle size and incorporation ratio and
the aeration rate on the emission of odourous gases during the composting of
pig slaughterhouse sludge. Organic acids are known to be odourous and have
received relatively little attention in compost odour researches (Sundberg and
Jonsson, 2005). Production of organic acids from mushroom or food waste
composting has also been reported (Gallego et al., 2012; Tsai et al., 2008).
However, none of these authors reported acids to be a major component of
odour. To this end, Sundberg et al. (2013) investigated whether the prolonged
acidic conditions during the composting are a main cause for odour during
food waste composting. They concluded that producing organic acids (lactic
and acetic acid) during composting lower the pH but odour emission could be
as a result of other substances present at lower pH conditions rather than
presence of organic acid.
In an effort to investigate the process of odour formation and identification
of malodourous compost gases with very low odour threshold, Kurola et al.
(2010) conducted a study with the use of Sphagnum peat or wood chips as
bulking agents. The effects of using these bulking agents on the early stages
of biowaste composting processes were determined. Kurola et al. (2010)
reported that earlier studies demonstrated that Sphagnum peat used as bulking
agent improved sorption of ammonium and urine in the composting of manure
and also the single use of peat or mixture of peat and compost has a biocontrol
agent activity. Although, Moldes et al. (2007) reported that when Sphagnum
 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
peat was used as a bulking agent, low composting efficiency related to low pH
and subsequent lower process temperature was observed. Kurola et al. (2010)
concluded that use of bulking agent such as during composting of biowaste
could intensify the biological formation of malodourous compost gases in the
early stages of the composting process, though the use of static windrow
composting made this effect more clearly noticeable than the drum
composting.
Several studies have concluded that adding a certain amount of mineral
additives in agricultural waste composting reduces the emission of gas (Hao et
al., 2005; Luo et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2010; Predotova et al., 2010). Hao et al.
(2005) further demonstrated that phosphogypsum, the main by-product of
phosphoric acid production, could be reliable in the reduction of CH 4
emissions during cattle manure composting by increasing SO 24 content of the
compost. Luo et al. (2014) also supported that adding phosphogypsum at a
rate of 10% of total compost mixture remarkably decreased CH 4 and NH3
emissions during pig manure composting. On the other hand, superphosphate,
used commonly as fertilizer, successfully reduced NH3 emissions and N loss
from animal manure composting systems, and compost maturity was not
negatively affected (Predotova et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2010).
6.3. Leachate generation
Compost has been shown to have beneficial aspects; such as providing
nutrients to plants and increasing soil organic C content (Chatterjee et al.,
2013). However, the leachate generated from the compost can be
environmentally problematic (Chatterjee et al., 2013; Tyrrel et al., 2008)
because they present a high organic load and cannot be stored in the
composting plant (Trujillo et al., 2006). Maleki et al. (2009) further added that
other components of leachates that make them environmentally unsafe include
ammonia-nitrogen, heavy metals, chlorinated organic and inorganic salts.
Hence, it is important to determine the nutrient composition and concentration
of compost leachates in order to assess their potential environmental effects
(Eghball et al., 1995).
Compost leachate is yellow to dark-brown in colour, essentially due to the
presence of particulate and dissolved organic matter (Chatterjee et al., 2013).
The concentration and species of organic compounds in landfill leachates has
been shown to differ based on the wastes type, water application, moisture
activity and design of the landfill (Ozkaya, 2005). Seasonal weather
conditions (which may be indicated by different temperature, rainfall patterns
etc) and turning regimes were shown to influence the loss of nitrogen and
phosphorus during the composting of cattle manure
(Parkinson et al., 2004). Other factors that influence leachate generation
include the amount of waste added to the compost, and the temperature under
which the process is carried out (Colon et al., 2010). During a composting
period of over 98e114 days, Martins and Dewes (1992) discussed the loss of
nitrogenous compounds in composting animal wastes. They found out that a
large proportion of leaching occurred within the first 10 days of composting,
with temperature, initial nitrogen content and heap rotation frequency being
found to be factors that influence the gaseous release of the nitrogenous
compounds. A high proportion of nitrogen was released to the atmosphere in
the form of ammonia. This agrees with the work of Eghball et al. (1995) who
noted that the volatilization of ammonia accounts for a high percentage of
nitrogen loss in leachates. Krogmann and Woyczechowski (2000) advocated
for the treatment of compost leachates subsequent to usage. Fenton reaction
has been reportedly used in the treatment of compost leachates (Trujillo et al.,
2006). In this study, Fenton's reagent was used to oxidize the compost
leachates of wastewater sludge and municipal solid wastes, with a significant
reduction in the biodegradable organic portions of the leachates.
The high nutrient content of compost leachate increases their potential
application in agriculture (Jarecki et al., 2005). Thus there is a need to recycle
these leachates into plant nutrition. However, caution should be exercised in
applying compost leachates in agriculture. This is because the quality of
groundwater bodies may be seriously affected by the leaching of trace metals
153
from the compost (Kaschi et al., 2002; Eghball et al., 1995). The leaching of
nitrate (Warman and Termeer,1996) and phosphorus (Sharpley and Moyer,
1999) during the composting process may result to eutrophication or algal
bloom. Because of the high polluting potential of some compost leachates
(Robinson et al., 2005), Compost leachates may also retain microorganisms
which may be used for important environmental remediation processes. This
was highlighted by Zhang et al. (2007) who isolated a bisphenol-degrading
Achromobacter xylosoxidans B-16 strain from the compost leachate of
municipal solid waste.
7. Future prospects
According to Lim et al. (2016), composting is typically a time consuming
process, but technological advancement in composting has shortened the
duration of composting process. They stated that the use of additives, such as
jaggery and polyethylene glycol reduces the composting process time as well
as produces superior quality compost. However, according to their reports, the
additives currently used are not cost effective. However, they stated that the
additives were not cost effective. Therefore, more research should be centred
on finding additives that are cost-effective and efficient.
The use of inexpensive pretreatment processes, for recalcitrant substrates,
use of some genetically modified strains as microbial inoculum to hasten the
bioconversion of the organic matter should be adopted in order to increase the
efficiency of the composting process.
Government has a role to play in supporting composting as an alternative to
landfill by setting up programs and initiatives charged with providing loans
and grants for composting facilities. This will ensure the sustainability of
composting and will in turn create job opportunities in the communities.
Another way government can support composting is by encouraging organic
farming; creating a favourable market to promote the use of composts over
traditional soil amendments and soil fertilizers as pointed out by Platt et al.
(2014).
Biological treatment of air is based on the capacity of microorganisms to
convert inorganic and organic pollutants into non-toxic, odour free
compounds (Girard et al., 2013). Biological air treatment units (bioreactors)
are well known procedures, however research is in progress for new media
and reactor designs, modeling of gas compounds removal and microbial
structure analysis (Girard et al., 2013). Bioreactors can be used for reducing
emission of toxic VOC from industrial sources, however, in agricultural
applications, concentration of pollutant is small and bioreactors must be
simple, easy to manage and must meet investment and operating costs below
those of the industrial sector (Godbout et al., 2010; Girard et al., 2013). The
reference method known for determining the concentration, quality and
intensity of odour is the dynamic olfactometry (Gutierrez et al., 2015). Among
the methods for odour determination, dilution olfactometry has been referred
to as the most common method of odour measurement globally (Tsai et al.,
2012). It has however been reported that the method is time consuming,
costly, subject to error among persons, labour intensive and incurs delays
between sampling and measurement (Tsai et al., 2012). Gutierrez et al. (2015)
also noted that this method does not identify the specific chemicals
responsible for the odour. Thus, different types of odour treatment/control
technologies have been developed and available in the market. Bindra et al.
(2015) reported that some of these technologies have been in use for decades,
namely carbon adsorption and chemical scrubbers etc; while some others like
biofilters have only been recently implemented on a broad scale for
composting facilities. Other technologies that have been suggested include use
of masking agents, (Bindra et al., 2015), electronic nose (Tsai et al., 2012;
Gutierrez et al., 2015; Lopez et al., 2016), dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)
reactor (Park et al., 2011).
The potential utilization of heat from compost as a renewable energy
source has been investigated (Irvine et al., 2010). They noted that heat
harvested from compost provided most reliable amount of energy supply
when compared with Using the heat of the compost was found to provide the
154 C.O. Onwosi et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 190 (2017) 140e157
most reliable level of supply at a similar price to its rivals. Therefore, there is
future research needs on various means of harnessing heat from composting
process towards production of bioenergy.
Research is still ongoing for the generation of globally accepted and
unified indices for determining compost maturity. It is in this light that this
paper is hoped to help researchers in the search for a unified maturity index.
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