THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Rini Rachmawarni Bachtiar

Physiology Departement
Medical Faculty, Hasanuddin University
Student Objectives

• Describe the general functions of the digestive system,

and name its major divisions.
1

• Explain the difference between mechanical and

chemical digestion, and name the end products of
2 digestion.

• Describe the structure and functions of the teeth and

tongue.
3
Student Objectives

• Explain the functions of saliva.

4

• Describe the location and function of the

5 pharynx and esophagus.

• Describe the structure and function of each of

6 the four layers of the alimentary tube.
Student Objectives
• Describe the location, structure, and function of the
stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, and
7 pancreas.

• Describe absorption in the small intestine.

8

• Describe the location and functions of the large

intestine.
9
Student Objectives

• Explain the functions of the normal flora of

the colon.
10

• Describe the functions of the liver.

11
Function of the Digestive System

 Break down food into simple chemicals that can

 be absorbed into the blood and lymph and
 utilized by cells
Divisions of the Digestive System

 1. Alimentary tube—oral cavity, pharynx,

esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine.
Digestion takes place in the oral cavity, stomach,
and small intestine.

 2. Accessory organs—salivary glands, teeth, tongue,

liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
 Each contributes to digestion.
Types of Digestion
 1. Mechanical—breaks food into smaller pieces to
 increase the surface area for the action of enzymes.

 2. Chemical—enzymes break down complex

organics into simpler organics and inorganics; each
enzyme is specific for the food it will digest.
 End Products of Digestion
 1. Carbohydrates are digested to monosaccharides.

 2. Fats are digested to fatty acids and glycerol.

 3. Proteins are digested to amino acids.

 4. Other end products are vitamins, minerals, and

 water.
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
Functions of the gastrointestinal organs. Transit times shown are the length of time it takes
food to reach each indicated point after ingestion.
Oral Cavity
 Food enters by way of the mouth
 1. Teeth and tongue break up food and mix it with
saliva.

 2. Tooth structure—enamel covers the crown and

provides a hard chewing surface; dentin is within the
enamel and forms the roots; the pulp cavity contains
blood vessels and endings of the trigeminal nerve; the
periodontal membrane produces cement to anchor the
tooth in the jawbone.
Tooth structure.
Longitudinal section of
a tooth showing
internal structure.
Oral Cavity
 3. The tongue is skeletal muscle innervated by the
 hypoglossal nerves. Papillae on the upper surface
 contain taste buds (facial and glossopharyngeal
nerves).
Functions: taste, keeps food between the teeth when
chewing, elevates to push food backward for
swallowing.

 4. Salivary glands—parotid, submandibular, and

sublingual; ducts take saliva to the oral cavity.
The salivary glands
shown in left lateral
view.
 Oral Cavity
5. Saliva:
 Amylase digests starch to maltose;

 Water dissolves food for tasting and moistens food for

swallowing;
 Lysozyme inhibits the growth of bacteria
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
Pharynx
 Food passageway from the oral cavity to the
esophagus

 1. No digestion takes place.

 2. Contraction of pharyngeal muscles is part of
swallowing reflex, regulated by the medulla.
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
Esophagus
 Food passageway from pharynx to stomach

 1. No digestion takes place.

 2. Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) at junction with
stomach prevents backup of stomach contents.
Structural Layers of the Alimentary
Tube
 1. Mucosa (lining)—made of epithelial tissue

 2. Submucosa—areolar connective tissue with blood

vessels and lymphatic vessels

 3. External muscle layer—smooth muscle

 4. Serosa—outermost layer
Structural Layers of the Alimentary
Tube
1. Mucosa (lining)—made of epithelial tissue that
 Produces the digestive secretions;

 Lymph nodules contain macrophages to phagocytize

pathogens that penetrate the mucosa;

 Thin layer of smooth muscle to ripple the epithelium.
Structural Layers of the Alimentary
Tube
2. Submucosa—areolar connective tissue with
 Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels;

 Meissner’s plexus is a nerve network that innervates

the mucosa, part of the enteric nervous system that

extends the entire length of the alimentary tube.
Structural Layers of the Alimentary
Tube
3. External muscle layer—typically an inner circular
layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth
muscle;
 Function is mechanical digestion and peristalsis;

 Innervated by Auerbach’s plexus, part of the enteric

nervous system;
 Sympathetic impulses decrease motility;

parasympathetic impulses increase motility.

Structural Layers of the Alimentary
Tube
4. Serosa—outermost layer;
 Above the diaphragm is fibrous connective tissue;

below the diaphragm is the mesentery (serous).

 The peritoneum (serous) lines the abdominal cavity;

 Serous fluid prevents friction between the serous

layers.
The four layers of
the wall of the
alimentary tube.

A small part of the

wall of the small
intestine has been
magnified to show
the four layers
typical of the
alimentary tube.
Stomach
 In upper left abdominal quadrant;
 a muscular sac that extends from the esophagus
to the small intestine
The stomach
in anterior
view.
 Stomach
 1. Reservoir for food; begins the digestion of protein.
 2. Gastric juice is secreted by gastric pits (see Tables)
 3. The pyloric sphincter at the junction with the
duodenum prevents backup of intestinal contents.
Gastric pits (glands) showing the types of cells present.
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
Liver
 Consists of two lobes in the upper right and
center of the abdominal cavity
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
Liver
1. Functional unit is the hexagonal liver lobule: liver
 cells, sinusoids, branches of the hepatic artery and
portal vein, and bile ducts.

2. The only digestive secretion is bile; the hepatic

 duct takes bile out of the liver and unites with the

 cystic duct of the gallbladder to form the common

 bile duct to the duodenum.

Liver
 3. Bile salts emulsify fats, a type of mechanical
digestion (see Table).

 4. Excess cholesterol and bilirubin are excreted by

the liver into bile.
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
Gallbladder
 On undersurface of right lobe of liver
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
 The liver and
gallbladder with
blood vessels and
bile ducts.

(B) Magnified view of one liver lobule.

Gallbladder
 1. Stores and concentrates bile until needed in the
duodenum (see Table).

 2. The cystic duct joins the hepatic duct to form the

common bile duct.
REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
Pancreas
 In upper left abdominal quadrant
 between the duodenum and the spleen
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
Pancreas
1. Pancreatic juice
is secreted by acini,
carried by pancreatic duct to the common bile
duct to the duodenum (see Fig).
The pancreas,

sectioned to
show the
pancreatic ducts.
The main
pancreatic
duct joins the
common bile
duct.
Microscopic
section showing
acini with their
ducts and several
islets of
Langerhans.
Pancreas
2. Enzyme pancreatic juice contains enzymes for the
digestion of all three food types (see Tables).

3. Bicarbonate pancreatic juice neutralizes HCl from

the stomach in the duodenum.
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
Small Intestine
Coiled within the center of the abdominal cavity;
extends from stomach to colon
 Digestive
System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of the
trunk and left lateral view of the
head. (The spleen is not a
digestive organ)
 Small Intestine
1. Duodenum—first 10 inches;
1. the common bile ductbrings in bile and pancreatic juice.
2. Jejunum (8 feet)
3. ileum (11 feet).

2. Enzymes secreted by the intestinal glands complete

digestion (see Tables).
Surface area for absorption is increased by plica
circulares, villi, and microvilli (see Fig);
Microvilli are the brush border.
THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION
REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
 (A) Section through the
small intestine showing
plica circulares.

(B) Microscopic view of a

villus showing the internal
structure.

The enteroendocrine
cells secrete the intestinal
hormones.

The small intestine

Small Intestine
 3. The villi contain capillary networks for the absorption of water-
soluble nutrients: monosaccharides, amino acids, vitamin C and the B
vitamins, minerals, and water. Blood from the small intestine goes to
the liver first by way of portal circulation.

 4. The villi contain lacteals (lymph capillaries) for the

 absorption of fat-soluble nutrients: vitamins A, D,
 E, and K, fatty acids, and glycerol, which are combined
 to form chylomicrons. Lymph from the small
 intestine is carried back to the blood in the left subclavian
 vein.
Large Intestine (colon)
 Extends from the small intestine to the anus
The large
intestine shown in
anterior view.

The term flexure

means a turn or
bend.
Large Intestine (colon)
 1. Colon—parts: cecum, ascending colon, transverse
colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal
canal.

 2. Ileocecal valve—at the junction of the cecum and

 ileum; prevents backup of fecal material into the
 small intestine.

 3. Colon—functions: absorption of water, minerals,

 vitamins; elimination of undigestible material.
Large Intestine (colon)
 4. Normal flora—the bacteria of the colon;
produce vitamins, especially vitamin K, and inhibit
the growth of pathogens.
Large Intestine (colon)
 5. Defecation reflex—stimulus: stretching of the rectum
 when peristalsis propels feces into it. Sensory
 impulses go to the sacral spinal cord, and motor
 impulses return to the smooth muscle of the rectum,
 which contracts. The internal anal sphincter
 relaxes to permit defecation. Voluntary control is
 provided by the external anal sphincter, made of
 skeletal muscle (see Fig).
 (A) Internal and external anal sphincters shown in a frontal section
through the lower rectum and anal canal. (B) Position of rectum and anal canal relative to
pelvic bone.
Liver—other functions
 1. Carbohydrate metabolism—excess glucose is
 stored in the form of glycogen and converted back
 to glucose during hypoglycemia; fructose and
 galactose are changed to glucose.

 2. Amino acid metabolism—the non-essential amino

 acids are synthesized by transamination; excess
 amino acids are changed to carbohydrates or fats by
 deamination; the amino groups are converted to
 urea and excreted by the kidneys.
Liver—other functions
 3. Lipid metabolism—formation of lipoproteins for
transport of fats in the blood; synthesis of cholesterol;
excretion of excess cholesterol into bile; betaoxidation
of fatty acids to form two-carbon acetyl groups for
energy use.

 4. Synthesis of plasma proteins—albumin to help

 maintain blood volume; clotting factors for blood
 clotting; alpha and beta globulins as carrier molecules.
Liver—other functions
 5. Formation of bilirubin—old RBCs are
phagocytized, and bilirubin is formed from the
heme and put into bile to be eliminated in feces.

 6. Phagocytosis by Kupffer cells—fixed

macrophages; phagocytize old RBCs and bacteria,
especially bacteria absorbed by the colon.
Liver—other functions
 7. Storage—vitamins: B12, A, D, E, and K, and the
minerals iron and copper.

 8. Detoxification—liver enzymes change potential

 poisons to less harmful substances; examples of
 toxic substances are alcohol, medications, and
 ammonia absorbed by the colon.