ENGLISH SYNTAX I

FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA Y LETRAS

UNT - Año 2020
Modern English has a threefold distinction between FACTUAL, THEORETICAL and
HYPOTHETICAL meanings, corresponding to the Mood distinctions.

FACTUAL MEANING:
Basically used with Indicative mood in dependent clauses.
We assume that what we express is almost certain or a fact.
Eg. It is a fact that oil floats on water.

THEORETICAL MEANING:
Should + Infinitive in dependent clauses (‘putative’ should) – especially in British English.
E.g. It is required that Mary should study harder.
Present Subjunctive – especially in American English
E.g. It is required that Mary study harder.
All these constructions are illustrated now with the same phrase (It)’s an excellent thing:

FACTUAL MEANING:

(1) It’s an excellent thing (that) she learns to sing properly. (Indicative Mood)
(2) Learning to sing properly is an excellent thing. (Verb-ing Construction)

THEORETICAL MEANING:

(3) It’s an excellent thing for her to learn to sing properly. (an idea – not real)
(4) It’s an excellent thing (that) she should learn to sing properly.
(5) It’s an excellent thing that she learn to sing properly. (possibly true)
 HYPOTHETICAL MEANING

When a verbal construction expresses HYPOTHETICAL MEANING, this means that

the happening described is assumed to take place not in the real world, but in an imaginary world.
For example,
someone who says I wish I WERE clever implies ‘… but I am not clever’.
someone who says Just suppose I HADN’T APPLIED for the job suggests ‘… but I have applied for the job’.
• The meaning implied in these examples of hypothetical meaning is NEGATIVE TRUTH-COMMITMENT
that distinguishes it both from
• factual meaning (positive truth-commitment) and from
• theoretical meaning (truth-neutrality).
The difference between the three meanings is registered in a simple way, in the three sentences:
Factual:
It’s laughable that Septimus is in love. (‘Yes, it’s a fact that he is in love’).

Theoretical:
It’s laughable that Septimus should be in love. (‘Whether he is in love or not is a different matter’).

Hypothetical:
It would be laughable if Septimus were in love. (‘But actually, he’s not in love’).

Of the three attitudes to Septimus’ being in love, we can say the first and the third are opposites,
while the second is on neutral territory between them.
Apart from unreal conditions such as: If you were happy, you’d make others happy ,
hypothetical meaning is found in DEPENDENT CLAUSES in a number of other sentence-types
with PAST FORMS:
• It’s time you were in bed (‘… I see you’re not’).
• He behaves as if he owned the place (‘… but he doesn’t’).
• It’s not as though we were poor (‘… we are not’).
• Suppose / imagine you and I were living on a desert island (‘… but of course we aren’t’).
• If only I had listened to my English teacher! (‘… but I didn’t’).
• Even though he were my brother, I would refuse to help him (archaic) (‘… but he is not’).
• I wish I were young (‘… but I’m not’).
• I’d rather you were listening to me (‘… you’re not listening at the moment’).
Of these constructions, those with ‘it’s time’, ‘if only’, and ‘wish’ require hypothetical verb
forms, while those with ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘suppose / imagine’, ‘even though’ and ‘would
rather’ permit a choice between hypothetical and non-hypothetical forms.

Difference in meaning

• He behaves as if he owned the place (‘… but he doesn’t’) expresses supposition-

unreal situation)
• He behaves as if he owns the place, (May be he does) indicates that it is possibly true
The sentence with ‘owns’ leaves the question of whether he owns the place open,
whereas the sentence with ‘owned’ presupposes that he does not.
Examples such as:
I wish it would rain appear to be exceptions to the rule that in dependent clauses, hypothetical
meaning is conveyed by the Past Tense rather than would / should + Infinitive but it is perfectly natural.

In this context, the example above is the hypothetical equivalent of future “it will rain’’ rather than
of present “it rains”. Hence, the difference between:
• I wish this clock worked and;
• I wish this clock would work
is that the former is a wish about the present, and the latter a wish about the future
 to express a wish
We can use ‘wish’ and ‘if only’ to talk about regrets
to describe an imaginary situation which is the opposite of the real situation.

Wish / If only + Past simple / Past Progressive to talk about present or future situations

I wish / If only I had more free time. (But I don’t have much free time.)
I wish / If only the computer were working. (But it is not working.)

Wish / If only + Past Perfect / Past Perfect Progressive to talk about past situations

I wish / If only you had told me about your plans earlier. (But you didn’t.)
I wish / If only John hadn’t been driving so fast! (Unfortunately he was driving very fast.)
 Wish / If only + would

• to express a wish for someone to change their deliberate behaviour in the present or future.
• We often use this form to criticize or complain about something.
I wish / if only David would stop smoking.
I wish / If you wouldn’t do that.
• We can also use the form with inanimate subjects because although we know they have no conscious
control over their actions, we give them human characteristics for emphatic effect.
I wish / If only the sun would come out so we could go to the park.

Wish / If only + could to talk about abilities and possibilities

I wish / If only I could speak French. (But I can’t.)

I wish / If only we could save money. (But we can’t.)
 ENGLISH SYNTAX I
FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA Y LETRAS
UNT - Año 2020
 The Subjunctive Mood

There are two forms of the subjunctive: the present subjunctive and the past subjunctive, although the
distinction relates more to mood than to tense.
I demand that he do something to make up for this.
The manager was eager that his visitor see the new building.
If I were you, I would apply right now. So be it!

The Present Subjunctive

• The Present Subjunctive has theoretical meaning.

• The two main uses of the Present Subjunctive are the Mandative and the Formulaic Subjunctive.
• The Mandative and the Formulaic Subjunctive are realized by the base form of the verb.
The director asked that everyone be on time. Heaven help us!
• Negation of the present subjunctive does not require an operator to form the negative,
place 'not' before the base form of the verb:
The board of directors recommended that he not be dismissed.
I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

The Mandative Subjunctive

• This, the most common use of the subjunctive, consists of the base of the verb only.
• It occurs in subordinate that-clauses introduced by an expression of demand, recommendation,
proposal, require, intention, resolution, etc. This expression takes the form of a verb, and adjective,
or a noun.
Common verbs and expressions followed by the subjunctive in nominal that-clauses:
• Verbs: advise, ask (= request), beg, decide, decree, demand, desire, dictate, insist, intend,
move, order, petition, propose, prefer, request, require, recommend, resolve, suggest,
urge, vote (that).
• Adjectives: It is advisable / critical / desirable / fitting / imperative / necessary / vital /
important / urgent / essential / crucial (that).
• Nouns: condition, demand, directive, decision, decree, intention, order, requirement,
resolution, insistence, recommendation, request, suggestion, advice, proposal.

They insist that he leave immediately.

The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours.
It is vital that everybody get there before the examination begins.
It is important that our lawyer attend the meeting.
We have made a request that we not be disturbed.
Have you seen my suggestion that work hours be reduced?
 Alternatives to the Subjunctive
The use of the subjunctive is more common in American English than in British English, where other
structures are often used:
1. There is an optional construction, 'putative should’, which in BrE is more common than the subjunctive:
She suggested that we should meet in the lobby of the hotel at 8:00 a.m.
It is advisable that you should submit your application as soon as possible.
2. In BrE there is another option, the indicative, which is rarer in AmE:
The doctor insisted that she goes to the hospital for tests.
It is vital that they are stopped at once.
3. To avoid the somewhat <formal> subjunctive there is the further possibility of a construction with
for + infinitive:
It is important for you to protect your password and computer from unauthorized access.
It is necessary for you to register in order to be able to participate in the event.
 The Formulaic or Optative Subjunctive

• The Formulaic subjunctive consists of the base form of the verb.

• It is used in certain set of expressions to express a wish or hope.
• The formulaic subjunctive tends to be formal and rather old-fashioned in style.
So be it. Peace be with you.
Long live the King! Lord have mercy upon us!
Till death do us part. (God) bless you!
Come what may, we'll stand by you! (whatever happens)
I see what you mean. Be that as it may, I can't agree with you. (even so, still)
I do not want to bore you; suffice it to say, we finally got a full refund. (it is sufficient to say)