The Quest for Empire, 1885-1914

1. Examine the late-nineteenth-century sources of American expansionism and imperialism.

Expansionism was favored by most Americans, as they supported the movement of goods,
ships, dollars, people, and ideas outside of the US. However, they were uneasy whether this would
give way to imperialism (forcing control over other people and usurping their freedom to make their
own decisions). Henry Cabot Lodge, for example supported expanding the United States beyond the
land attained through Manifest Destiny because all of the other powerful countries were doing it and if
they did not want to engage in it, civilization and the advancement of the Anglo-Saxons were at risk.
Before the Civil War, Americans spent most of their time trying to achieve Manifest Destiny but also
developed their relations in the foreign trade market which helped spread American culture.
Engineering advances changed the political geography of the world while specific products facilitated
imperialism. Later on, the United States began to use their power outside of the United States in
order to attain more land, space, markets, cultural penetration, and power, due to this, eventually the
US began to be seen as a power after the Spanish-American War and from acquiring Hawaii, Samoa,
and the Philippines. Economic ties built political influence and permitted the spread of American
culture which was desired because foreign economic expansion symbolized a nation’s status at the
time. Hence, In the 1890s, farms and factories overproduced products which had to be exported. The
“foreign policy elite” believed that US prosperity and security depended on the US spreading their
influence abroad after the Civil War and supported both formal and informal imperialism. They would
meet in Washington, DC to discuss building a better navy or digging a canal across Panama.
Exceptionalism, nationalism, capitalism, and Social Darwinism influenced imperialism in the United
States.

2. Discuss the role of ideology and culture in American expansionism and imperialism during
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
In order to promote expansion overseas, leaders supported notions of American supremacy.
They found justification through racist theories and the idea of spreading western thought and belief
to other nations. Previously, the western scientific establishment classified humans by race which
students of physical anthropology supported, resulting in a production of a hierarchy of superior to
inferior races. One French researcher said that blacks were like women and are therefore deprived of
any political or social knowledge but both engage in activities such as singing, dancing, and adorning
themselves in jewelry. US leaders would commonly use manliness and the term weakling as
propaganda targeting males. For example, Augustus Gardner, a Spanish-American war veteran,
praised the war as someplace where “true men” are found while Teddy Roosevelt saw people of color
as weaklings who were incapable of governing themselves. Race thinking was popularized through
aspects of popular culture such as magazines, photos, textbooks, etc. and reinforced American
supremacy and influenced how US leaders dealt with others. Social Darwinists also believed
Americans were superior and had the ability to surpass all the competition. Many Americans felt as
though imperialism and expansion were some of their obligations as “superiors”. Expansionists
believed that an American empire would benefit both Americans and those who were under their
control. Americans claimed they were remaking foreign societies which extended liberty and
prosperity to less fortunate people when they intervened with other countries. For instance, William
Howard Taft believed the US was lifting Filipinos up to civilization which would make them be grateful
to the United States. Missionaries also traveled to Africa and Asia to help, and they would
americanize the people there and to transfer American power abroad. The Student Volunteers for
Foreign Missions began in the 1880s and had thousands of missionaries working overseas especially
in China where female missionaries would preach the gospel, teach school, and administer medical
care.

3. Describe the expansionist vision of William H. Seward, and indicate the extent to which this
vision was realized by the late 1880’s.
The US empire grew as American leaders defined guiding principles and built institutions to
support overseas ambitions. William Seward wanted to expand the American frontier to encompass
half of the Western World through a natural process of gravitation, not war. However, certain
advancements allowed for this natural process to occur faster such as commerce, the Panama Canal,
transcontinental American railroad, and a telegraph system. Most of William Seward’s plans did not
take place during his life, such as his attempt to buy the Danish West Indies which were foiled by
members in the Senate and a hurricane that destroyed St. Thomas. However in 1917, the Virgin
Islands annexed themselves and were accepted by the United States. Seward also wanted to attain a
naval base in the Caribbean at Samana Bay but this was later foiled as well due to the Senate
rejecting annexation. Although anti-imperialists were against imperialism due to the annexation of
territory containing dark-skinned people, Seward was able to demand French troops leave Mexico in
1866 because of the Monroe Doctrine and purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867. In
1867, he also claimed Midway Islands for the US.

4. Examine and evaluate relations between the United States and the following nations in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries:
A. Great Britain B. Canada
British officials shared the same concern as Wilson (regarding the US not having enough
power to block the imperialism of Japan) but their attention was focused on the rising tension in
Europe. The US and Great Britain developed a growing cooperation due toAnglo-Saxons kinship, a
common language, respect for representative government and private-property owning rights.
Americans appreciated British support in the Spanish-American war and through the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty of 1901. Americans also appreciated the endorsement of the Roosevelt Corollary and
withdrawal of British warships from the Caribbean. US investment in Britain and British-American
trade strengthened their bond but many Britons criticized the Americanization of British culture.
However, the US still joined the British side during WW1. In Britain, during the Civil War, several ships
were built for the confederacy. Senator Charles Sumber asked Britain to pay $2 billion in damages to
the United States or to hand Canada over to it. However Fish preferred negotiations.Britain and
America signed the Washington Treaty in 1871 under which the British excused the establishment of
a tribunal granting 15.5 million dollars to the US
5. Discuss the modernization of the United States Navy in the late nineteenth century.
After the Civil War, foreign trade proliferated (due to economic growth) which stimulated the
construction of a larger navy. During the era, Expansionists embraced navalism, the campaign to
build an imperial navy, because of their desire on colonizing all parts of the world. They looked up the
navies of European Nations and said that adding “blue water” command of the seas to “brown water”
protection of coastlines would allow for a bigger and more modern navy. Alfred Mahan, a US naval
officer, argued that the US required an efficient navy to protect its shipping because foreign trade was
a vital aspect of the United States. His lecture at the Naval War College was published as The
Influence of Sea Power Upon History of 1890 which foreign leaders and expansionists praised. Prior
to this, Congress authorized construction of steel warships in 1883 which caused a shift from sail
power to steam and from wood to steel. The topic of the navy continued to remain relevant when
McKinley entered the presidency as an imperialist who supported capturing foreign bases for the New
Navy.

6. Discuss the causes and consequences of the Hawaiian and Venezuelan crisises.
Crises in islands allowed expansionist Americans to act on “large policy”. The expansionists
believed the American frontier had been conquered (due to them realizing Manifest Destiny) and that
they must find a new frontier to expand across. Hawaii emerged as a new frontier for Americans to
conquer. They attracted American attention for commercial, missionary, religious, naval, and
diplomatic reasons. Expansionists envisioned ships sailing through a canal in Central America to
Hawaii and then to the Chinese market. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 created economic problems in
Hawaii by eliminating the status which prevented Hawaiian sugar exports from paying taxes in the
United States. The Americans on the island pushed for its annexation and admittance to the US so
that their sugar would be domestic trade and not foreign. A new queen assumed the throne in 1891
who did not like the political power held by the Americans on the island. The elite Americans formed
the Annexation Club and were able to get John Stevens to dispatch troops from the USS Boston to
occupy Honolulu. The queen was arrested and surrendered and gave up her authority to the US
government. Benjamin Harrison sent the annexation treaty to the Senate but Grover Cleveland
thought there was foul play and ordered an investigation. He was able to confirm a conspiracy by the
economic elite in league with Stevens and noted that Hawaii opposed annexation, so Cleveland gave
it up. However, McKinley realized Hawaii could station supplies that could be sent to Asia so he was
able to annex it by Congress through the Newlands Resolution, instead of through a treaty.
Eventually, the Organic Act of 1900 made the people of Hawaii US citizens and gave them the right to
vote and send delegates to Congress but Hawaii did not become a state until 1959. On the other
hand, Venezuela and Great Britain had quarreled over a border between Venezuela and British
Guiana because the disputed territory contained gold deposits and a commercial gateway to northern
South America. Venezuela asked the US for help so Grover Cleveland sent Richard Olney to lecture
the British about the Monroe Doctrine in 1895. The British retreated because they needed
international allies to counter the competition between them and Germany. In 1896, the disputed land
was divided between both nations but Venezuelans were not consulted. This showed that the US had
a disregard for smaller nations which was a common trait in imperialist nations. The Cubans battled
Spain for independence from 1868-1878 but their independence was denied.

7. Examine the causes (both underlying and immediate) and discuss the conduct of the
Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War, and indicate the provisions of the Treaty of Paris.
Compromise between Spain and the US was slim because Cuban insurgents would not settle
for anything less than independence which no Spanish government official could give while remaining
in office. The US did not want a truly independent Cuban government because they might attempt to
reduce US interests. McKinley’s declaration of war expressed a humanitarian impulse to stop the
bloodshed, a concern with commerce and property, and the psychological need to end the fighting.
Republicans warned McKinley that he would not be re-elected if he did not solve the Cuban crisis.
Businesspeople and farmers saw that by getting rid of Spain from Cuba, new markets would where
they could sell their surplus of goods.Imperialists saw the war as an opportunity to fulfill their
expansionist dreams while conservatives thought war could be a national unifier due to the labor
strikes and rise in Populism. The Yellow Press exaggerated stories of Spanish wrongdoings to attract
more customers. People who were too young to remember the Civil War thought that the new war
would be a good opportunity for adventure. Most of the volunteers and regulars who wanted to fight in
the war never left the United States. Most were young, white, unmarried, from the working class, and
mainly from the south. Most deaths from the war were due to the typhoid and yellow fever outbreaks
and not from actual combat. African American troops were assigned to segregated units but were still
discriminated against. Food, sanitary conditions, and medical care were all bad for those fighting.
Additionally, Teddy Roosevelt received lots of press coverage due to his Rough Riders who were
mainly ineffective in actual combat. In the Spanish colony in the Philippine Islands, Spain was faced
with a rebellion from Filipinos who were seeking independence. George Dewey led the New Navy
ship Olympia into ManilaBay and destroyed the Spanish fleet. Dewey and his men had been
stationed in Hong Kong and were told to attack the islands if war broke out. Spanish resistance
collapsed quickly due to Americans and insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines. US ships blockaded
Cuban ports to prevent the Spanish from resupplying their army (which suffered from disease and
hunger) due to the Cubans cutting off supplies to the Spanish. Eventually, on August 12, an armistice
between Spain and the US was signed to end the war. The Treaty of Paris in 1898 agreed for
independence of Cuba from Spain; cession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico,and Guam; and for the US
to pay $20 million to Spain for the cessions. Both Wake Island and Hawaii also annexed themselves
to the US in 1898, followed by the annexation of Samoa in the following year. Anti-imperialists argued
against the annexation of the Philippines because they were disturbed that a war for Cuban
independence led to the growth of the US empire.

8. Outline the arguments presented by both the anti-imperialists and the imperialists in the
debate over acquisition of an empire, and explain why the imperialists prevailed.
Anti-imperialist anger focused on annexation, colonialism, and military occupation involving the
Philippines. People cited the Declaration of Independence and how the conquest of people against
their will violates self-determination. Others warned that Americans would be corrupted by the
imperialist zeal. Prominent women advocated peace and an end to imperial conquests. Others
thought that these were double standards by offering liberty to Cubans while forcing it upon Filipinos.
Others thought that annexing people of color would weaken the supremacy and purity of
Anglo-Saxons. Leaders in labor, such as Samuel Gompers, worried that the annexed people would
take job opportunities away from Americans. The Anti-Imperialists formed the Anti-Imperialist League
in 1898 but could not launch an effective campaign because they all had different goals and
viewpoints leading them to be very inconsistent. On the other hand, The imperialists thought that their
new empire was ideal for patriotism, destiny, and commerce. They thought it was America’s duty to
“take up the white man’s burden”. Filipino insurgents began to resist US rule and it would appear
cowardly if the US gave up immediately. Germany and Japan were ready to seize the Philippines if
the US lost its power over it. National honor also said that Americans have the right to keep what they
shed their blood for. The Treaty of Paris was passed in 1899 narrowly hitting the majority because
most Democrats had voted no. A proposed amendment that would grant Filipino independence after
establishing a stable government did not get passed because of the vote from the vice president. In
the election of 1900, Bryan’s platform said that rejecting self-government in the Philippines would
weaken it at home but McKinley refused to apologize for imperialism.

9. Examine and evaluate late-nineteenth-century American policy toward Asia in general and
toward the Philippines, China, and Japan, specifically.
McKinley wanted to uplift and civilize the Filipinos but they denied US help. Emilio Aguinaldo,
the leader of the Philippines, believed that Americans had promised them their freedom. However, US
officials ordered Aguinaldo out of Manila and isolated him from making decisions affecting the nation.
During the Philippine insurrection and pacification, US officials began trying to Americanize Filipinos,
so Daniel Burnham was hired as the leader of the City Beautiful movement in an attempt to plan a
more modernized version of Manila. US authorities created a new educational system with English as
the main language, the economy of the Philippines grew while under the US, and critics of US rule
were sent to prison. In 1916, the Jones Act promised independence after the Philippines established
a stable government but it was not until 1946 that the US would end its rule of the Philippines.
Additionally, McKinley hoped to negotiate with China. Major imperial powers took control of the
weakness of the Qing dynasty and allocated regions where they had political control and exclusive
commercial privileges. In 1895, Japan claimed victory over China and gained control of Formosa,
Korea, and Mainland China. American leaders petitioned to the government to stop splitting up China
among countries before they lost their markets. John Hay knew that he could not force imperial
powers to leave China, but he still needed to find a way to protect American commerce. In 1899, Hay
sent a note to each imperial power controlling a sphere in China proposing equal trade
opportunity/Open Door. The replies were ambiguous and most imperial powers believed that the US
was seeking free trade rights in China which the imperial countries had gained by paying costs. In
1900, the Boxers rioted and killed foreigners and laid siege to Beijing. Their goal was to get rid of all
foreigners from China, including the controlling imperial powers.The US joined the other imperial
powers and sent troops to break up the siege. However, Hay sent another note where he instructed
other nations to preserve China’s territorial integrity although Japan still continued to exploit it. Hay
did not help or harm Asian politics but the Open Door Policy had been long supported by the United
States since they are a trade nation. The Open Door policy allowed the US to dominate the world
markets and developed into an ideology: the well being of America's required exports, foreign trade
would suffer interruptions unless the US intervened, and that the refusal to accept American products,
citizens, or ideas by other nations would threaten the survival of the US.

10. Examine and evaluate United States policy toward the countries of Latin America in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth century.
US citizens and corporations dominated the Cuban economy after the war by controlling most
industries and owning most rural lands. Private US investments in Cuba grew after the Revolution
along with US exports to Cuba. Although the Teller Amendment prevented annexation of Cuba,
American troops remained there until 1902 in order to “maintain peace”. US authorities restricted
voting rights to property owning Cuban males and forced them to add the Platt Amendment to their
constitution. The amendment prohibited Cuba from making treaties without the approval of the United
States and another provision allowed the US the right to intervene in order to maintain domestic order
and the independence of Cuba. Cuba also had to leave an open naval base for the US (Guantanamo
Bay). The Platt Amendment governed relations between booth nations until 1934. However, a
rebellion broke out in 1906 which prompted Roosevelt to invade Cuba. The marines routinely
occupied Cuba but US officials helped develop public services and eradicate yellow fever. Puerto
Rico developed under the control of theUnited States and welcomed the US as an improvement from
Spain. However, General Guy Henry regarded Puerto Ricans in a demeaning way causing some to
accept the “Yankee Model” while others warned against the “Yankee Peril”. Additionally, later on after
the Panama Canal, US officials focused on Porfirio Diaz (who began his dictatorship in 1876) who
recruited foreign investors through tax incentives and land grants. American capitalists also invested
largely in the Mexican economy because of this and dominated Mexico’s foreign trade by the 1890s.
However in 1910, Mexican revolutionaries overthrew Diaz and hoped to reclaim the power of Mexico
by ending their economic dependence on the United States. This revolution caused a civil war where
the Mexican government tried to shift the private ownership by Americansinto national ownership by
the Mexican government. The political leaders of the US were against this so Wilson ordered
American troops onto Mexican soil twice. European nations began honoring the dominance of the US
in Latin America as the US prevented European expansion into the Americas.