2.2.

6 Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function

The expression for transfer function can be represented, after factorisation,

as

where , K=ao/bo, called the gain factor of the transfer function.

If we put s equal to Z1, Z2, …, ZN, the transfer function becomes zero. Hence Z 1, Z2, Z3, … are called the
zeros of the transfer function.

On the other hand, if we put s equal to P 1, P2, …, PM, the transfer function assumes infinite value. Hence
P1, P2, P3, … are called the poles of the transfer function. The positions of poles and zeros in the s-plane
are important indicators of the performance of the system.

2.2.7 Procedure for Determining the Transfer Function of a Control System

Step 1: Formulate the mathematical equation for the system.

Step 2: Take the Laplace transform of the system equation assuming all the initial conditions of the
system as zero.
Step 3: Take the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input.

Let us take an example.

Let a system be described by the following differential equation:

where y is the system output and x is the system input.

Step 2:
Take the Laplace transform of equation (By assuming all the initial conditions as zero,
we get
 (5s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1) Y(s) = (4s2 + 2s + 1) X(s)
Step 3:
Take the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input,

 After factorization of the numerator and the denominator of the transfer function, the poles and zeros
can be determined.
2.3 Modeling of Systems
2.3.1 Formulation of equations of physical systems and their transfer functions
A physical system consists of a number of sub-systems connected together
to serve a specific purpose. If we consider a motor car as a mechanical system, it has a number of sub-
systems like ignition sub-system, pneumatic sub-system, power transmission sub-system, and so on.
Similarly, we have electrical systems. In mechanical systems we have rotational systems, translational
systems, and so on. To have an insight and better understanding about the performance of a control
system it is convenient to develop mathematical models of such systems and study and modify them for
giving better performance.

2.3.2 Modeling of Electrical Systems

An electrical system consists of resistors, capacitors and inductors. The
differential equations of electrical systems can be formed by applying Kirchhoff's laws. The transfer
function can be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the integro-differential equations and
rearranging them as a ratio of output to input. The relationship between voltage and current for
different elements in the electrical circuit is given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 ∣ Relationship of voltage and current for R, L and C

For a resistive circuit,

  v =  iR
 Taking Laplace transform,
 V(s) =  RI (s)
 For a capacitive circuit,

Taking Laplace transform,

For an inductive circuit,

Taking Laplace transform,

When these basic elements form an electrical circuit, mathematical formulation is made by using
Kirchhoff’s laws.
The RLC circuit of Fig. 2.3.2 is analysed by Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied to the closed loop.

Fig. 2.3.2 An RLC circuit

The system equation is

Now taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get

(Assuming all initial conditions to be zero)

Let the output voltage vo(t) be taken across the capacitor, C. Then,

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of equation we get,

(assuming all initial conditions to be zero)

Therefore, the transfer function is given by
The block diagram representation shown in Fig.2.3.3 Below

Fig.2.3.3  Block diagram of the RLC network

This is a second order system since the highest power of s in the denominator is 2.

2.3.3 Modeling of Mechanical Systems

The dimensions in which the movement of a mechanical system can be described are translational,
rotational or a combination of both. For modeling of mechanical system, it is necessary to have the
equations governing the movement of mechanical systems. The laws that are used directly or indirectly
to formulate those equations are obtained from Newton's laws of motion.

The general classification of mechanical system is of two types: (i) translational and (ii) rotational as
shown in Fig. 2.3.4.

Fig. 2.3.4 ∣ Classification of mechanical system

The basic elements of any translatory mechanical system are the mass, the spring and the damper as
shown in the Fig. 2.3.5
 Fig. 2.3.5 Basic elements (mass, spring, damper) of a mechanical system

The mass that is concentrated at the center of a system is used to represent the weight of a given
mechanical system, whereas the spring is used to represent the elastic deformation of the body and the
damper is used to represent the friction existing in a mechanical system. 
An example of such linear passive translational mechanical system is the suspension system existing in
the automobiles (such as car, van, etc.). For the analysis of linear passive translational mechanical
system, it is assumed that the elements are purely linear.
The opposing forces due to mass, friction and spring act on a system when the system is subjected to a
force. Using D'Alembert's principle, for a linear passive translational mechanical system, the sum of
forces acting on a body is zero (i.e., the sum of applied forces is equal to the sum of the opposing forces
on a body). Displacement, velocity and acceleration are the variables used to describe the linear passive
translation mechanical system.
In translational mechanical systems, the energy storage elements are mass and spring and the element
that dissipates energy is viscous damper. The analogous elements for energy storage in an electrical
circuit are inductors and capacitors, whereas those of the energy dissipating element are resistors.

Inertia Force 
When a force f(t) is applied to a mass M, it experiences an acceleration and it is shown in below

According to Newton's second law, the force experienced by the mass is proportional to the
acceleration.
Where M is the mass (kg), α is the acceleration (m/s 2), u(t) is the velocity (m/s) and x(t) is the
displacement (m).

fB(t)this frictional force is proportional to the velocity of the movement of a system.

This frictional force that is more common in a mechanical system is represented by a dashpot or a
damper system. When a force is applied to a damping element B, it experiences a velocity and it is
shown in Fig. Below

where B is the viscous friction coefficient (N-s/m), u(t) is the velocity (m/s) and  is the x(t) displacement
(m).
Spring Force

When a force f(t) is applied to a spring element K, it experiences a displacement and it is shown in Fig

According to Hooke's law, the spring force is directly proportional to the displacement:

The spring stores the potential energy. Therefore,

2.3.5 A Simple Translational Mechanical System

The algebraic sum of the externally applied forces to anybody is equal to the algebraic sum of the
opposing forces restraining motion produced by the elements present in the body.”
A simple translational mechanical system with all the basic elements and its free body diagram are
shown in Figs (a) and (b) respectively.