Journal of Services Marketing

Service employees' fit, work-family conflict, and work engagement

Osman Karatepe Georgiana Karadas
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 Service employees’ fit, work-family conflict, and work engagement

1. Introduction

In today’s competitive milieu, many service companies are discovering the critical role of

frontline employees (FLEs) in service delivery process. However, FLEs often experience

work-family conflict (WFC) and family-work conflict (FWC) which are the two stressors
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in the work-family nexus (e.g., Choi and Kim, 2012; Karatepe, 2013a). WFC refers to “a

form of interrole conflict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain

created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities” and FWC

refers to “a form of interrole conflict in which the general demands of, time devoted to,

and strain created by the family interfere with performing work-related responsibilities”

(Netemeyer et al., 1996, p. 401). If FLEs are unable to balance work (family) and family

(work) responsibilities, they cannot be engaged in their work and display dissatisfaction

with life in general. It appears that management has to consider the importance of fit

between employees’ abilities and demands of a job (Edwards, 1991).

Against this backdrop, our study develops and tests a research model where we

posit that WFC and FWC function as mediators of the impact of person-job fit on work

engagement (WE). We also contend that WE has a mediating role in the association

between two directions of conflict and life satisfaction.

In so doing, our study contributes to the literature in at least four ways. First,

FLEs are the main actors in service delivery process and play an important role in

customer satisfaction (e.g., Bettencourt and Brown, 2003; Garg and Dhar, 2014; Hur et

al., 2015). Despite this recognition, such employees are still beset with problems arising

1
 from conflicts in the work-family interface (e.g., Karatepe, 2013a; Zhao et al., 2014).

Under these circumstances, management has to acquire individuals who can meet the

demands of frontline service jobs. To do this, management is supposed to grasp a full

understanding of the relationship between employee characteristics and job

characteristics (Chen et al., 2014). Person-job fit plays an important role in the selection

process. Sekiguchi and Huber (2011) argue that decision makers place an emphasis on

knowledge, skills, and abilities of individuals during the selection process. Retention of
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such employees also gives rise to customer-oriented boundary-spanning behaviors at

elevated levels (Yoo, 2013). Therefore, our study tests the influence of person-job fit on

both WFC and FWC.

Congruence theory is used to develop the abovementioned relationships.

Congruence refers to “similarity between work and family, owing to a third variable that

acts as a common cause…” (Edwards and Rothbard, 2000, p. 192). The third variable

stated above is treated as a common cause that includes personality variables, genetic

factors, general behavioral styles, and social and cultural forces (Edwards and Rothbard,

2000). Based on congruence theory, we surmise that person-job fit can also function as a

third variable. This is because of the fact that knowledge, skills, and resources gained in

the workplace can be transferred to the family domain and can be used to manage family-

related problems or issues.

Second, research has shown that job resources foster WE that refers to “a positive,

fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and

absorption” (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 74). That is, employees working in a resourceful

environment feel vigorous, are enthusiastic, and are absorbed by their work (e.g., Bakker

2
 and Demerouti, 2014; Suan and Nasurdin, 2014). However, stressful and demanding

situations can erode employees’ WE (Coetzee and De Villiers, 2010). Therefore, unlike

past and recent research, our study gauges the effects of WFC and FWC simultaneously

on WE. This is due to the fact that there is a paucity of empirical research about the

association between stressors and WE (Burke et al., 2013; Karatepe 2013b) and between

conflicts in the work-family interface and WE (De Simone et al., 2014). This is also

evident in Crawford et al.’s (2010) meta-analytic investigation that the preponderance of

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empirical studies has not linked demands/stressors to WE, although there are true

relationships between them.

Third, there appears to be a convincing body of empirical research demonstrating

that WE reduces quitting intentions and results in job satisfaction, affective

organizational commitment, and job performance among FLEs (e.g., Burke et al., 2013;

Karatepe, 2013c; Xanthopoulou et al., 2008). However, there is a lack of empirical

research about the influence of WE on nonwork variables such as life satisfaction (Mache

et al., 2014). Accordingly, our study gauges the influence of WE on life satisfaction that

refers to “an affective state resulting from one’s evaluation of his or her life in general”

(Karatepe and Baddar, 2006, p. 1018).

Fourth, Barnes et al. (2014) convincingly discuss that WE is a significant

motivational construct that should be considered in the bottom line success. Lee and Ok

(2015) also state, “…10% improvement in engagement can decrease an employee’s

probability of withdrawal by 9%; engaged employees are 87% less likely to leave a

company” (p. 84). Given that WE is a crucial motivational construct that results in

positive outcomes, it is important to ascertain its antecedents and outcomes (Barnes and

3
 Collier, 2013). This is especially important for hospitality companies in Romania

because such companies are beset with problems emerging from lack of qualified human

resources, high turnover, and human resource expertise (Ineson and Berechet, 2011).

However, it should be noted that high levels of WE can sometimes engender negative

consequences (Bakker et al., 2011). In any case, investigating the antecedents and

consequences of WE among FLEs is significant (Karatepe, 2013c; Lee and Ok, 2015).

Therefore, our study assesses the previously stated relationships based on data obtained
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from FLEs two weeks apart in three waves in the Romanian hotel industry. More

importantly, to the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical study in the relevant

literature testing these relationships simultaneously among FLEs.

In the following section we present the research model and hypotheses. The

foundation on which we have built the hypothesized relationships is person-job fit

(Edwards, 1991; Kristof, 1996), congruence (Edwards and Rothbard, 2000), and

conservation of resources (COR) theories (Hobfoll, 1989). Then, we discuss the method

and results of the empirical study. Our study concludes with both theoretical and

management implications.

2. Research model and hypotheses

2.1. Research model

Figure 1 presents the research model that includes the relationships to be tested in our

study. Specifically, we propose that two directions of conflict partially mediate the

impact of person-job fit on WE. That is, person-job fit influences WE directly and

indirectly through two directions of conflict. We also contend that WE plays a partial

4
 mediating role in the association between two directions of conflict and life satisfaction.

In other words, two directions of conflict affect life satisfaction directly and indirectly via

WE. In short, employees experiencing higher conflict between work (family) and family

(work) roles are less engaged in their work and therefore have lower life satisfaction.

(Insert Figure 1 about here)

2.2. Hypotheses

Frontline hotel employees often experience conflict between work (family) and family
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(work) roles due to incompatible time and emotional demands in the work-family nexus

(Zhao et al., 2014). By highlighting the critical role of person-job fit, Babakus et al.

(2011) convincingly discuss that individuals who are interested in becoming one of the

members of frontline service jobs should have the personality, knowledge, skills, and

abilities to carry out the relevant tasks in the workplace. In short, they emphasize the role

of person-job fit.

There is evidence that person-job fit alleviates stress and strain/burnout. For

instance, Babakus et al.’s (2011) study found that person-job fit diminished frontline

bank employees’ burnout in New Zealand. Iplik et al. (2011) reported that person-job fit

mitigated managerial employees’ stress in the Turkish hotel industry. However, it seems

that person-job fit has not been treated as an antecedent to both WFC and FWC. This is

also observed in meta-analytic studies (Byron, 2005; Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran,

2005).

Person-job fit and congruence theories present guidance to develop the

association between person-job fit and two directions of conflict. Broadly speaking,

Edwards (1991) conceptualizes person-job fit as demands-abilities fit and needs-supplies

5
 fit. The demands-abilities fit refers to the congruence between the abilities of employees

and the demands of a job, while the needs-supplies fit refers to the congruence between

the desires of employees and the attributes of a job (Edwards, 1991; Kristof, 1996).

According to the demands-abilities fit, there should be fit between an individual’s skills,

knowledge, time, and energy and demands (Edwards, 1996). Such abilities can be used

to meet demands in the workplace. However, when an individual takes advantage of his

or her excess skills, knowledge, time, and energy to meet other demands such as FWC,
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carryover occurs (cf. Edwards, 1996). That is, individuals can use these excess abilities

to manage family responsibilities so that they minimize the possibility of interference

between family and work roles. Kristof-Brown et al.’s (2005) meta-analytic inquiry also

provides support for the effects of the demand-abilities fit and the needs-supplies fit on

employee strain, attitudes (e.g., intent to quit, job satisfaction), and behaviors (e.g.,

overall performance).

Congruence theory posits that work and family are similar constructs and a third

variable is considered as a common cause of WFC and FWC (Edwards and Rothbard,

2000). Accordingly, we surmise that person-job fit is a third variable that alleviates two

directions of conflict. That is, such individuals appear to know how to cope with

difficulties in frontline service jobs. They also gain knowledge and skills and obtain

various resources that can be transferred to the family domain (cf. Siu et al., 2010).

Specifically, what they do and learn in the workplace can be used to handle problems or

issues in the family domain.

In addition, the general assumption is that job resources are related to WFC, while

family resources are related to FWC. However, there are empirical findings reporting

6
 that certain resources can be used to mitigate both WFC and FWC. For example,

supervisor support has been reported to be a potential remedy for lessening two directions

of conflict (e.g., Frye and Breaugh, 2004; Karatepe and Uludag, 2008). According to

Frye and Breaugh (2004), when employees receive support from supervisors to balance

work and family demands, they can take advantage of such family-supportive supervision

to manage conflicts between family and work domains. Recognizing the void in existing

knowledge, we hypothesize that person-job fit weakens FLEs’ WFC and FWC. The
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following hypothesis is thus proposed:

H1. Person-job fit will be negatively related to FLEs’ (a) WFC and (b) FWC.

Person-job fit theory also delineates guidelines to develop the association between

person-job fit and WE. Specifically, good fit makes employees get involved in

meaningful work that fosters their motivation (Shuck et al., 2011). Warr and Inceoglu’s

(2012) study shows that person-job fit is important for employees’ WE. Therefore, the

demands of frontline service jobs should allow employees to work with comfort and

enthusiasm. Such employees in turn make significant contribution to the organizational

success (Popli and Rizvi, 2015). In short, employees are motivated to work hard when

there is a good fit between their abilities and the demands of the job.

The current literature indicates that only a handful of empirical studies have

investigated the association between person-job fit and WE. For instance, Maslach and

Leiter’s (2008) study conducted with employees of business and administrative services

division of a university found that perceived workplace congruity in the area of fairness

led to WE. In a study of employees in different industries (e.g., manufacturing, services),

Shuck et al. (2011) reported that person-job fit boosted employees’ WE. Chen et al.

7
 (2014) indicated that person-job fit fostered FLEs’ WE in the Taiwanese hotel industry.

Despite the abovementioned findings, there is still a need for examining whether person-

job fit boosts WE among FLEs. Hence, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H2. Person-job fit will be positively related to FLEs’ WE.

COR theory is used as the theoretical underpinning to develop the association

between two directions of conflict and WE. Specifically, COR theory posits that object,

conditions, personal characteristics, and energies are the resources individuals strive to
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acquire, maintain, and protect (Hobfoll, 1989). Based on COR theory Shaffer et al.

(2001) state, “…excessive demands and/or insufficient resources within a particular role

domain or between domains can result in negative affective and dysfunctional behaviors”

(p. 100). Accordingly, we argue that frontline hotel employees are highly stressed (e.g.,

Karatepe, 2013a; Min et al., 2015) and work in an environment where job resources such

as rewards, autonomy, and career opportunities are scarce (e.g., Karatepe, 2013b;

Kusluvan et al., 2010). Under these conditions, they are unable to manage their

responsibilities and deal with conflict between work (family) and family (work) domains.

Consequently, such employees are unlikely to be energetic and enthusiastic and absorbed

by their work.

There are limited studies concerning the influences of job demands or two

directions of conflict on WE. However, the results across these studies are mixed.

Specifically, Montgomery et al.’s (2003) study documented that WFC reduced WE

among Dutch newspaper managers, while FWC had no bearing on WE. One empirical

study among employees of a small manufacturing firm in South Africa demonstrated that

job demands did not contribute to WE (Coetzer and Rothmann, 2007). Coetzee and De

8
 Villiers’s (2010) investigation among employees of a South African financial institution

showed that role ambiguity alleviated WE. In a study conducted with employees of an

Italian public service organization, De Simone et al. (2014) found that FWC was

negatively associated with WE, while WFC was not.

An immediate observation that can be made from the empirical studies presented

above is that there are mixed findings appertaining to the effects of WFC and FWC

simultaneously on WE. In addition, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) argue that job resources
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are strongly related to WE, while job demands are strongly predicted by

exhaustion/burnout. However, there are empirical studies reporting that job demands are

significantly associated with WE (e.g., Coetzee and De Villiers, 2010; Karatepe, 2013b).

This is also underscored in Crawford et al.’s (2010) meta-analytic study that there are

true relationships between demands/stressors and WE, though the overwhelming majority

of researchers have supposed there are none. In other words, their meta-analytic

investigation has found job demands to be significantly related to WE, whereas the

preponderance of empirical studies do not link job demands to WE. In light of COR

theory and limited findings, it is postulated that:

H3a. WFC will be negatively related to FLEs’ WE.

H3b. FWC will be negatively related to FLEs’ WE.

The previously mentioned relationships implicitly refer to WFC and FWC as

mediators between person-job fit and WE. FLEs whose knowledge, skills, and abilities

fit the demands of the job experience low levels of conflicts in the work-family interface

because they know how to manage both work (family) and family (work) roles

effectively in a resource-depleted environment. Under these circumstances, vigorous,

9
 dedicated, and absorbed employees whose knowledge, skills, and abilities fit the demands

of the job are unlikely to be confronted with heightened conflicts in the work-family

nexus. In short, it is postulated that:

H4a. WFC will partially mediate the effect of person-job fit on WE.

H4b. FWC will partially mediate the effect of person-job fit on WE.

Balancing work and family lives is a challenge for frontline hotel employees.

These employees often experience WFC and FWC because they are unable to balance
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work (family) and family (work) responsibilities. As a result, they are dissatisfied with

life in general. These relationships are also underpinned by COR theory. Specifically,

employees who have excessive job demands and inadequate resources arising from work

and family lives exhibit negative affective outcomes (Shaffer et al., 2001). The empirical

studies that have considered the effects of WFC and FWC simultaneously on life

satisfaction have produced mixed findings. For example, in a study of FLEs in the hotel

industry in Jordan, Karatepe and Baddar (2006) indicated that neither WFC nor FWC was

significantly associated with life satisfaction. Qiu and Fan’s (2015) recent study

conducted with full-time employees in China reported that WFC was a significant

determinant of life satisfaction, while FWC was not. On the contrary, Aryee et al.’s

(1999) past study among Hong Kong Chinese employed parents found that FWC reduced

life satisfaction, while WFC had no bearing on life satisfaction. Karatepe and Bekteshi’s

(2008) study among FLEs in Albania and De Simone et al.’s (2014) study also reported a

similar finding. However, Amstad et al.’s (2011) meta-analytic inquiry documented that

both WFC and FWC were negatively associated with life satisfaction. There is still a

10
 need for empirical research among FLEs that examines the effects of WFC and FWC

simultaneously on life satisfaction (Yavas et al., 2013). We therefore hypothesize that:

H5a. WFC will be negatively related to FLEs’ life satisfaction.

H5b. FWC will be negatively related to FLEs’ life satisfaction.

Vigorous, dedicated, and absorbed employees are also likely to be satisfied with

life in general. This is due to the fact that FLEs who are highly engaged in their work

have the knowledge, skills, and abilities to do the job and are intrinsically motivated to
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fulfill their work objectives. They are active actors in the work environment and can

significantly contribute to any changes in the workplace (Bakker et al., 2011). Under

these circumstances, they report higher life satisfaction. However, empirical research

appertaining to the association between WE and life satisfaction is not abundant. Broadly

speaking, the results of Korner et al.’s (2012) study illustrated that WE was positively

associated with life satisfaction in the case of employment. De Simone et al. (2014)

showed that WE boosted employees’ life satisfaction. Mache et al. (2014) also reported a

similar result regarding the abovementioned relationship among clinicians in Germany.

Accordingly, we hypothesize that:

H6. WE will be positively related to FLEs’ life satisfaction.

The previously mentioned relationships pertaining to hypotheses 5a, 5b, and 6

implicitly refer to WE as a partial mediator between two directions of conflict and life

satisfaction. Specifically, involvement in work and family roles at the same time gives

rise to WFC and FWC. If employees are incapable of establishing a healthy balance

between their work and family roles, they are likely to be less engaged in their work (De

Simone et al., 2014) and display dissatisfaction with life in general (Karatepe and

11
 Bekteshi, 2008; Qiu and Fan, 2015). It appears that the impacts of both WFC and FWC

on life satisfaction are mediated by WE. In this case, WE can be a potential remedy to

the mixed results regarding the impacts of both WFC and FWC on life satisfaction. To

the best of our knowledge, there is only one study that has gauged WE as a mediator of

the effects of WFC and FWC on life satisfaction (De Simone et al., 2014). However, the

results of this study found no significant mediating effect. In short, it is postulated:

H7. WE will partially mediate the effects of (a) WFC and (b) FWC on life satisfaction.
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3. Method

3.1. Sample and procedure

The sample consisted of FLEs in the international five- and four-star chain hotels in

Romania. These FLEs who worked as front desk agents, reservations agents, waiters or

waitresses, guest relations representatives, bartenders, door attendants, bell attendants,

and concierges had frequent face-to-face or voice-to-voice interactions with customers

and were responsible for managing customer requests and problems.

Information we obtained from the Romanian Ministry of Regional Development

and Tourism’s web page at the time of this study demonstrated that there were 13 four-

star and four five-star international chain hotels in Bucharest and two international four-

star and one international five-star chain hotel in Sibiu. The researcher contacted

management of these hotels via a letter that showed the purpose of our study and

requested permission for data collection. Management of one five-star hotel and one

four-star hotel in Sibiu and four four-star and three five-star hotels in Bucharest gave

permission for data collection. However, management of these hotels did not allow the

12
 researcher to distribute the questionnaires to employees directly. Instead, human

resource managers coordinated the data collection process. To avoid the potential risk of

selection bias (Blair and Zinkhan, 2006), these managers were requested to distribute the

questionnaires across a broad range of FLEs.

Data gathered from FLEs two weeks apart in three waves using three different

questionnaires were utilized to gauge the relationships. To minimize common method

bias, collecting data via a temporal separation is in agreement with the guidelines
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provided by Podsakoff et al. (2003). The Time 1 questionnaire contained the person-job

fit measure and items about respondents’ profile, while the Time 2 questionnaire included

the WFC, FWC, and WE measures. The Time 3 questionnaire was comprised of the life

satisfaction measure.

Management of each hotel prepared a master list that included the name of each

employee with an identification number. This number was written on each questionnaire

and envelope. This procedure was used for the Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3

questionnaires. To ensure anonymity, each employee sealed the questionnaire in an

envelope and gave it back to the manager. Then the researcher received all

questionnaires in sealed envelopes.

The managers personally distributed 285 Time 1 questionnaires to FLEs. Two

hundred and eighty-two questionnaires were returned for a response rate of 99 percent.

This response rate did not change for the Time 2 and Time 3 questionnaires. To reach

such a high response rate, we utilized several response-enhancing techniques (Anseel et

al., 2010). First, we obtained data from FLEs in three waves and used identification

numbers to match the questionnaires with each other. Second, management gave strong

13
 support and provided coordination for data collection. Third, we gave advance notice to

respondents through managers. Fourth, employees were informed that participation was

voluntary but encouraged and that each hotel management fully endorsed participation.

Fifth, each questionnaire consisted of information about issues of anonymity and

confidentiality. Finally, respondents were assured that there were no right or wrong

answers to items in the questionnaires. Similar high response rates are also reported in

extant research (e.g., Gao and Jin, 2015; Liu et al., 2014; Michel et al., 2013).
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Sixty-seven (24 percent) respondents ranged in age between 18 and 27 years and

158 (56 percent) were aged between 28 and 37 years. The rest were older than 37. With

respect to gender, the sample included 142 male and 140 female respondents. The

sample consisted of 10 (4 percent) respondents who had secondary and high school

education. One hundred and fifty-six (55 percent) respondents had four year-college

degrees and 97 (34 percent) had two-year college degrees. The rest had graduate degrees.

In terms of organizational tenure, the vast majority of respondents (78 percent) had

tenures of five years or less. The rest had been with their hotel for more than five years.

Of the 282 respondents, 118 (42 percent) were single or divorced, while 164 (58 percent)

were married. In addition, 127 (45 percent) respondents had children between one and

two, while six (2 percent) respondents had more than two children. The rest had no

children.

3.2. The measuring instruments

The variables were operationalized using well-established scale items obtained from past

studies. Specifically, person-job fit was measured with three items taken from Donavan

et al. (2004). Consistent with the work of Babakus et al. (2011), responses to items in

14
 person-job fit were rated on a five-point scale that ranged from 5 (strongly agree) to 1

(strongly disagree). WFC and FWC were measured via items received from Netemeyer

et al. (1996). WFC and FWC each contained five items. Again congruent with an

empirical study conducted in Romania (Karatepe, 2013a) and various empirical studies

conducted in other countries (e.g., Gao and Jin, 2015; Green et al., 2011; Karatepe and

Baddar, 2006), WFC and FWC were measured by a five-point scale that ranged from 5

(strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree).

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WE was operationalized using the shortened version of the Utrecht WE scale

(Schaufeli et al., 2006). This scale included nine items. WE was measured by a seven-

point frequency rating scale ranging from 6 (always) to 0 (never). Using this rating scale

is also in line with other studies (Karatepe, 2013b, c; Seppälä et al., 2009). A five-item

scale taken from Diener et al. (1985) was used to assess life satisfaction. Life satisfaction

was measured by a seven-point scale which was anchored by 7 (strongly agree) to 1

(strongly disagree). Assessing life satisfaction though a seven-point scale is in

agreement with the works of Gao and Jin (2015) and Karatepe and Bekteshi (2008).

Scale items are given in the Appendix I.

We controlled for gender, marital status, and the number of children in the

assessment of the relationships in the hypothesized model. This is because of the fact

that they may significantly affect the variables and may result in statistical confounds.

Therefore, consistent with other empirical studies, the control variables used in our study

are gender, marital status, and the number of children (e.g., Karatepe, 2013a; Suan and

Nasurdin, 2014; Tromp and Blomme, 2014). Gender (0 = male and 1 = female) and

marital status (0 = single and 1 = married) were coded as binary variables. The number

15
 of children was measured in four categories. Specifically, the number of children was

measured with a single, close-ended item (i.e., 0, 1-2, 3-4, 5-6).

The Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3 questionnaires were prepared according to the

guidelines of the back-translation method. These questionnaires were also subjected to

three pilot studies. Specifically, each questionnaire was tested with a different pilot

sample of 10 FLEs. FLEs did not have any difficulty understanding items in the

questionnaires.
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3.3. Data analysis

The measurement and structural models were assessed using Anderson and Gerbing’s

(1988) two-step approach. In the first step, measurement properties of all variables were

tested with confirmatory factor analysis to provide evidence of convergent and

discriminant validity as well as composite reliability (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988;

Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The second step included the

assessment of structural (hypothesized) model with structural equation modeling. The

hypothesized model was compared with an alternative model shown in the Appendix II.

Bias-corrected bootstrapping method was also employed to test the significance of the

mediating effects (Hayes, 2013; Zhao et al., 2010).

Model fit was assessed via the overall χ2 measure, Comparative fit index (CFI),

Incremental fit index (IFI), Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and

Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Covariance matrix was used as input to

LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996).

16
 4. Results

4.1. Assessment of psychometric properties of the measures

Several items were discarded as a result of confirmatory factor analysis due to

standardized loadings below 0.50 and correlation measurement errors. Specifically, two

items each from the WE and life satisfaction were dropped. There are empirical studies
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which have at least discarded one item from the shortened version of the WE scale. For

example, in a study conducted with FLEs in South Korea, Paek et al. (2015) deleted one

item from the absorption dimension. In a study of FLEs in Romania, Karatepe (2013c)

discarded one item each from the vigor and absorption dimensions. In their study

conducted with nurses in Belgium, Van Bogaert et al. (2014) deleted one item each from

the vigor, dedication, and absorption dimensions. A study conducted among FLEs in

Northern Cyprus, Karatepe and Aga (2012) also discarded one item from the vigor

dimension and two items from the absorption dimension.

The five-factor measurement model fit the data adequately (χ2 = 674.43, df = 220;

χ2 / df = 3.07; CFI = 0.93; IFI = 0.93; RMSEA = 0.086; SRMR = 0.049). All loadings

were greater than 0.70 and were significant. The average variance extracted by each

latent variable was above 0.50. That is, the average variance extracted by person-job fit,

WFC, FWC, WE, and life satisfaction was 0.75, 0.74, 0.83, 0.73, and 0.74, respectively.

In short, the measures possessed convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988;

Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

17
 The measures also possessed discriminant validity because the average variance

extracted by each latent construct was greater than the shared variance between pairs of

constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Composite reliability for each latent variable was

above the threshold 0.60. Composite reliability for person-job fit, WFC, FWC, WE, and

life satisfaction was 0.90, 0.93, 0.96, 0.95, and 0.90, respectively. These findings

demonstrated that the measures were reliable (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Summary statistics

and correlations are presented in Table I. Means, standard deviations, and correlations of
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vigor, dedication, and absorption are also reported in Table II. The findings in Table II

indicate that the correlations among the dimensions of WE are high.

(Insert Table I about here)

(Insert Table II about here)

4.2. Test of the relationships in the structural model

The results from structural equation modeling in Figure 2 show that the hypothesized

model fits the data well (χ2 = 726.56, df = 275; χ2 / df = 2.64; CFI = 0.94; IFI = 0.94;

RMSEA = 0.076; SRMR = 0.045). According to the findings, person-job fit negatively

influences WFC (β21 = -0.16, t = -2.61) and FWC (β31 = -0.22, t = -3.45). Hence, the

empirical data support hypotheses 1a and 1b. Person-job fit is positively related to WE

(β41 = 0.10, t = 1.76). Therefore, hypothesis 2 is supported. Figure 2 presents that both

WFC (β42 = -0.26, t = -2.89) and FWC (β43 = -0.24, t = -2.69) are negatively related to

WE. Thus, data support hypotheses 3a and 3b.

(Insert Figure 2 about here)

The results reveal that WE is positively related to life satisfaction (β54 = 0.58, t =

9.05), while FWC negatively influences life satisfaction (β53 = -0.14, t = -1.73). Hence,

18
 hypotheses 5b and 6 are supported. However, there is no empirical support for

hypothesis 5a, because WFC is not significantly associated with life satisfaction (β52 = -

0.03, t = -0.30).

As reported in Table III, the analysis through the bootstrapped 5000 sample size

provides support for the mediating effects, since the confidence interval does not include

zero (Hayes, 2013; Zhao et al., 2010). These results demonstrate that both WFC and

FWC partly mediate the influence of person-job fit on WE. Therefore, hypotheses 4a and
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4b are supported. WE also partly mediates the impact of FWC on life satisfaction.

Hence, hypothesis 7b is supported. Hypothesis 7a is partially supported because the

influence of WFC on life satisfaction is fully mediated by WE.

(Insert Table III about here)

The results demonstrate that gender and the number of children are significantly

associated with several variables. Specifically, gender positively influences person-job

fit (γ11 = 0.46, t = 3.73). The number of children is significantly related to WFC (γ23 =

0.40, t = 2.96), FWC (γ33 = 0.25, t = 1.83), and life satisfaction (γ53 = 0.21, t = 1.85).

These results suggest that female employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities better fit the

requirements of their current job. The abovementioned results further suggest that

employees with more children are faced with higher WFC and FWC and are more

satisfied with life in general. Despite these significant findings, the control variables do

not result in any confounding effects. The findings collectively explain 5 percent of the

variance in person-job fit, 11 percent in WFC, 6 percent in FWC, 24 percent in WE, and

46 percent in life satisfaction. The results for supplementary analysis are reported in the

Appendix II.

19
 5. Discussion

5.1. Evaluation of findings and contribution to current knowledge

Our study was designed to propose and test a research model that had two main purposes.

First, we gauged WFC and FWC as mediators of the influence of person-job fit on WE.
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Second, we tested WE as a mediator of the effects of WFC and FWC on life satisfaction.

We assessed these relationships based on data gathered from FLEs two weeks apart in

three waves in the Romanian hotel industry. A number of observations can be made

based on the study results.

First, the correlation between WFC and FWC reported in this study is 0.728. This

result is not surprising because work and family are similar variables. This correlation is

also comparable with other studies in the current literature (e.g., Kim et al., 2015).

Second, as expected, the results suggest that person-job fit mitigates WFC and

FWC among FLEs. It appears that when there is a good fit between employees’

knowledge, skills, and abilities and the demands of the job, employees can handle

problems surfacing from two directions of conflict and experience reduced WFC and

FWC. Such fit makes employees feel energetic, become inspired by their job and

engrossed in their work. The findings pertaining to the association between person-job fit

and two directions of conflict are also in line with the tenets of person-job fit/demands-

abilities fit (Edwards, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005) and congruence theories

(Edwards and Rothbard, 2000) and add to current knowledge in this research stream.

20
 Third, other important findings presented in our study are the effects of WFC and

FWC on WE. FLEs are less engaged in their work when they are incapable of

establishing a healthy balance between their work (family) and family (work)

responsibilities. By gauging the effects of WFC and FWC simultaneously on WE, our

study does not only provide support to limited studies in this research stream (Crawford

et al., 2010; De Simone et al., 2014) but also bring additional support to COR theory

(Shaffer et al., 2001). More importantly, our study links person-job fit to WE through
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two directions of conflict, a mediating relationship that has been neglected in extant

research (De Simone et al., 2014). In short, the findings suggest that person-job fit

influences WE directly and indirectly via both WFC and FWC.

Fourth, the findings with respect to the effects of conflicts in the work-family

interface on life satisfaction are mixed. Specifically, FWC is significantly and negatively

related to life satisfaction, while WFC is not. These mixed findings are also observed in

other studies (De Simone et al., 2014; Karatepe and Bekteshi, 2008). One plausible

explanation for these findings is that FLEs in the Romanian hotel industry attach priority

to their work interests and/or responsibilities. Therefore, they seem to view work as a

major source of personal and family well-being. This may also be due to the lack of

alternative employment in the country (Ineson and Berechet, 2011). Under these

circumstances, FWC has a detrimental impact on their life satisfaction, whereas WFC

does not.

Fifth, the finding that WE positively influences life satisfaction is also an

important addition to what is known about the nonwork outcomes of WE (Mache et al.,

2014). FLEs high in WE are more satisfied with life in general because they do the job

21
 they want. Though WFC is not significantly associated with life satisfaction, it

influences life satisfaction only via WE. An observation that can be made based on the

discussion given above is that WE is also a partial mediator between FWC and life

satisfaction.

Lastly, when our results are compared with the ones conducted in the United

States and other countries, a number of similarities and differences are apparent.

Specifically, the result regarding the influence of person-job fit on WE is consistent with
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Chen et al.’s (2014) research in Taiwan and Shuck et al.’s (2011) study in the United

States. The findings concerning the effects of WFC and FWC simultaneously on WE

lend partial support to Montgomery et al.’s (2003) work in the Netherlands and De

Simone et al.’s (2014) study in Italy. The results regarding the effects of WFC and FWC

on life satisfaction are in agreement with Karatepe and Bekteshi’s (2008) research in

Albania. However, these results are not consistent with Amstad et al.’s (2011) study.

Moreover, the finding which pertains to the association between WE and life satisfaction

is in line with De Simone et al.’s (2014) research in Italy and Mache et al.’s (2014) work

in Germany. Although there are similarities across the study findings, there is still a need

for further research about the interrelationships of person-job fit, two directions of

conflict, WE, and life satisfaction.

5.2. Limitations and future research directions

Our study is not without its limitations. First, our study gauged the effects of WFC and

FWC on WE due to the paucity of empirical evidence in this research stream. However,

participation in multiple roles can also produce a number of benefits that can transcend

the costs associated with work and family roles (Karatepe and Bekteshi, 2008).

22
 Therefore, investigating the effects of two directions of conflict and

facilitation/enrichment simultaneously on WE via data gathered from employees in

frontline service jobs would pay dividends. Second, our study utilized a temporal

separation by introducing a time lag of two weeks between the predictor, mediator, and

criterion variables in order to minimize the potential risk of common method bias. This

also provides some evidence for temporal causality. However, it is not enough.

Therefore, future research should test the relationships in the research model through data
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to be gathered over a longer period of time than it was done in this study.

Third, using cross-national samples in future studies would allow to understand

the relationships posited in the research model. For example, obtaining data from FLEs

in the international five-star chain hotels in Latin American countries and the countries

with Latin culture such as Romania would enhance the current knowledge base about the

antecedents and consequences of WFC and FWC as well as WE. In closing, replications

in other service settings like airlines and banks are needed for cross-validating our results

and broadening the database in this research stream.

5.3. Practical implications for managers

There are several significant implications for business practice. First, person-job fit is a

critical factor alleviating WFC and FWC and fostering WE. Therefore, management

should make sure that there are selective staffing procedures that lead to hiring

individuals whose knowledge, skills, and abilities fit the demands of frontline service

jobs. If not, management is unable to retain talented employees in the workplace.

Shortage in the talent pool will result in a pool of potential managers without the right

caliber (cf. King et al., 2011).

23
 Second, management should create a family-supportive work environment where

there are family-friendly benefits (e.g., financial support for life insurance, subsidized on-

site child care services) and family-supportive supervisors (e.g., Karatepe, 2013a).

However, management has to ensure that when employees take advantage of such

benefits, this will not jeopardize their current career in the organization. Third, it is

important that management organizes specific training programs to teach supervisory

employees about how to be family-supportive supervisors and act as mentors. As a

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result, they can help employees deal with work and family problems. Management can

also organize specific workshops where employees and their family members can attend.

In these workshops management should seek employees’ and their family members’

advice about how to mitigate two directions of conflict. Obtaining feedback from

employees and family members makes feel them more valued.

Lastly, there is a need for a resourceful work environment that consists of

adequate high-performance work practices such as rewards and empowerment. This is

important because such a work environment is likely to motivate employees to display

positive job outcomes (cf. Yavas et al., 2010). This resourceful work environment can

also lead to retention of employees who stay engaged in their work.

24
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Figure 1. Research model

H1a (-) Time II

Work-family H5a (-)
conflict
H3a (-)
Time I
Person-job H2 (+) Time II H6 (+) Time III
fit Work engagement Life satisfaction
H4a-H4b H7a-H7b

Time II
H1b (-) Family-work H3b (-)
conflict H5b (-)

Control variables
Gender, marital status, the
number of children

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 Table I. Summary statistics and correlations of observed variables

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Gender -
2. Marital status -0.049 -
3. The number of children -0.096 0.631** -
4. Person-job fit 0.223** -0.018 -0.006 -
5. Work-family conflict -0.056 0.226** 0.274** -0.136* -
6. Family-work conflict -0.044 0.078 0.128* -0.191** 0.728** -
7. Work engagement 0.059 -0.052 -0.072 0.177** -0.408** -0.421** -
8. Life satisfaction 0.144** -0.008 0.018 0.151** -0.356** -0.399** 0.629** -

Mean 0.50 0.58 1.50 4.44 2.46 1.98 4.75 5.15

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Standard deviation 0.50 0.49 0.56 0.58 0.93 0.91 0.90 1.00

Notes: Composite scores for each construct were calculated by averaging respective item scores.
*
p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (one-tailed test)

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 Table II. Means, standard deviations, and correlations of vigor, dedication, and
absorption

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3

1. Vigor 4.75 0.94 -

2. Dedication 4.69 0.98 0.864 -

3. Absorption 4.84 0.96 0.769 0.794 -

Notes: All correlations are significant (p < 0.01)-one-tailed test. SD = Standard deviation.
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 Table III. Results: bootstrapping for the mediating roles of conflicts in the work-family
interface and work engagement

Hypothesized mediating relationships Indirect LLCI ULCI p<

effect

Person-job fit → Work-family conflict → Work engagement 0.04 0.011 0.186 0.016

Person-job fit → Family-work conflict → Work engagement 0.05 0.012 0.207 0.021

Work-family conflict → Work engagement → Life satisfaction -0.15 -0.285 -0.033 0.016

Family-work conflict → Work engagement → Life satisfaction -0.14 -0.302 -0.013 0.032

Notes: Bootstrapping analysis was employed using the bootstrapped 5000 sample size at 95 percent confidence interval
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while controlling for gender, marital status, and the number of children. LLCI = Lower level confidence interval;
ULCI = Upper level confidence interval.

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Figure 2. Structural model test results

β52 = -0.03, t = -0.30, ns

β21 = -0.16, t = -2.61 Time II
Work-family
conflict β42 = -0.26, t = -2.89

Time I β54 = 0.58, t = 9.05

Person-job β41 = 0.10, t = 1.76 Time II Time III
fit Work engagement Life satisfaction

β31 = -0.22, t = -3.45 Time II

Family-work β43 = -0.24, t = -2.69
conflict
β53 = -0.14, t = -1.73

Control variables
Gender → PJF (γ11) 0.46 3.73
The number of children → WFC (γ23) 0.40 2.96
The number of children → FWC (γ33) 0.25 1.83
The number of children → LSAT (γ53) 0.21 1.85

R2 for person-job fit = 0.05; work-family conflict = 0.11; family-work conflict = 0.06; work engagement = 0.24; life satisfaction = 0.46

Model fit statistics: χ2 = 726.56, df = 275, χ2 / df = 2.64; CFI = 0.94; IFI = 0.94; SRMR = 0.045; RMSEA = 0.076

Notes: ns: not significant. T-values: one-tailed test t > 1.65, p < 0.05; and t > 2.33, p < 0.01. PJF = Person-job fit; WFC = Work-family conflict; FWC = Family-work conflict;
WE = Work engagement; LSAT = Life satisfaction; CFI = Comparative fit index; IFI = Incremental fit index; RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR =
Standardized root mean square residual.

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 Appendix I. Scale items and their sources

Person-job fit (Donavan et al., 2004)

My skills and abilities perfectly match what my job demands.
My personal likes and dislikes match perfectly what my job demands.
There is a good fit between my job and me.

Work-family conflict (Netemeyer et al., 1996)

The demands of my work interfere with my home and family life.
The amount of time my job takes up makes it difficult to fulfill family responsibilities.
Things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands my job puts on me.
My job produces strain that makes it difficult to fulfill family duties.
Due to work-related duties, I have to make changes to my plans for family activities.

Family-work conflict (Netemeyer et al., 1996)

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The demands of my family or spouse/partner interfere with work-related activities.

I have to put off doing things at work because of demands on my time at home.
Things I want to do at work don't get done because of the demands of my family or spouse/partner.
My home life interferes with my responsibilities at work such as getting to work on time, accomplishing daily tasks,
and working overtime.
Family-related strain interferes with my ability to perform job-related duties.

Work engagement (Schaufeli et al., 2006)

At my work, I feel bursting with energy.
At my job, I feel strong and vigorous.
I am enthusiastic about my job.
My job inspires me.
When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work. *
I feel happy when I am working intensely.
I am proud of the work that I do.
I am immersed in my work.
I get carried away when I am working. *

Life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985)

In most ways my life is closer to my ideal.
The conditions of my life are excellent. *
I am satisfied with my life.
So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. *
If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

*
Notes: Dropped during confirmatory factor analysis.

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 Appendix II. Supplementary analysis

We tested an alternative model that treated person-job fit as a resource, WFC and FWC

as demands, WE as a mediator, and life satisfaction as an outcome. The results

demonstrated the following fit: (χ2 = 735.33, df = 276; χ2 / df = 2.66; CFI = 0.93; IFI =

0.94; RMSEA = 0.077; SRMR = 0.063). The alternative model fits the data well.

However, the hypothesized model seems to display a better fit than the alternative model

based on the χ2 difference test (∆χ2 = 8.77, df = 1), number of significant paths in the
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model, and variances explained as measured by squared multiple correlations (cf. Morgan

and Hunt, 1994).

Some of the relationships in the alternative model are not significant.

Specifically, the results show that person-job fit is positively related to WE (β41 = 0.11, t

= 1.85), while it does not significantly and positively influence life satisfaction (β51 = -

0.04, t = -0.73). According to the results, both WFC (β42 = -0.27, t = -2.89) and FWC

(β43 = -0.24, t = -2.73) are significantly associated with WE. However, WFC does not

significantly affect life satisfaction (β52 = -0.02, t = -0.29), while FWC does (β53 = -0.15, t

= -1.82). The results demonstrate that WE has a strong impact on life satisfaction (β54 =

0.59, t = 9.05).

Bootstrapping analysis was conducted via the bootstrapped 5000 sample size at

95 percent confidence interval while controlling for gender, marital status, and the

number of children. The results reveal that the confidence interval does not include zero.

In short, the results provide support for WE as a full mediator between person-job fit and

life satisfaction. The results also indicate that WE is a full mediator in the relationship

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 between WFC and life satisfaction, while it partially mediates the relationship between

FWC and life satisfaction.

Several control variables have significant effects on study constructs. That is,

gender is positively related to person-job fit (γ11 = 0.46, t = 3.75) and life satisfaction (γ51

= 0.18, t = 1.74). The number of children is also positively associated with WFC (γ23 =

0.39, t = 2.88), FWC (γ33 = 0.24, t = 1.73), and life satisfaction (γ53 = 0.22, t = 1.88). The

model explains 5 percent of the variance in person-job fit, 8 percent in WFC, 2 percent in
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FWC, 23 percent in WE, and 46 percent in life satisfaction.

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 About the Authors

Osman M. Karatepe is Professor of Marketing in the Faculty of Tourism at Eastern Mediterranean

University (Gazimagusa, TRNC, via Mersin 10, TURKEY). His research interests are in the areas
of services marketing and management, internal marketing, and strategic management. Professor
Karatepe has authored or co-authored over 100 articles in various journals, including the Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Air Transport
Management, The Service Industries Journal, International Journal of Bank Marketing, and Journal
of Retailing and Consumer Services.

Georgiana Karadas is a Ph.D. candidate in the Faculty of Tourism at Eastern Mediterranean

University (Gazimagusa, TRNC, via Mersin 10, TURKEY). Her research interests focus on services
marketing and management and internal marketing. Her research has been published in the
Journal of Business Economics and Management, International Journal of Hospitality
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Management, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, and Journal of

Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism.

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