Definition:

A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one

voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage level through
the action of a magnetic field
# Transformer winding connected to the power source is called
the primary winding or input winding.

# Winding connected to the loads is called the secondary

winding or output winding.

# If there is a third winding on the transformer, it is called the

tertiary winding.

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 WHY TRANSFORMERS ARE IMPORTANT
# For Transmission of power:

• Power is generated at 12 to 25 kV
• Transmitted at 100kv to 1000kV
• Local distribution at 12 to 34kV
• Supplied to home or offices at 120V or 220V
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and
an output winding. Np turns of wire on its primary side and Ns
turns of wire on its secondary side.
Dot Convention
Power in Ideal Transformer
Operation of a real transformer

Here, ϕ is
average flux per
turn
 Operation of a real transformer

Not all the flux produced in primary coil

passes through the secondary coil
 Operation of a real transformer
Not all the flux produced in primary coil passes through
the secondary coil
Operation of a real transformer

The ratio of the primary voltage

caused by the mutual flux to the
secondary voltage caused by the
mutual flux is equal to the turns
ratio of the transformer.
 Input current in Transformer

Current can flow in its primary

circuit, even when the
secondary circuit is open-
circuited.

(This current is called

‘excitation current’)

This current has two components

1. The magnetization current iM, which is the current required to

produce the flux in the transformer core.

2. The core-loss current ih+e " which is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses
What is Eddy Current Loss ?

Laminated Sheets are used to decrease eddy current loss

What is Eddy Current Loss ?
An eddy current is the current is induced in little swirls ("eddies") on a large conductor
(picture a sheet of copper).

Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer; may also link with other conducting parts
like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As alternating flux links with these parts
of transformer, there would be a locally induced emf. Due to these emfs, there would be
currents which will circulate locally at that parts of the transformer. These circulating
current will not contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as heat.

𝑑𝜑
Eddy current ∝ 𝑑𝑡
Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of

magnetization in the transformer core. This
loss depends upon the volume and grade of the
iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and
value of flux density
 Flux in the Core

From Faraday’s law,

For primary side, we can write

Magnetization current, iM produces this sinusoidal flux.

But magnetization current itself is non-sinusoidal

Finding iM from ϕ

ℱ ∝ magnetizing current

First, we find ℱ from ϕ

Then find iM from ℱ
 Finding iM from ϕ

ℱ ∝ magnetizing current
 Few points about iM

• The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal. The higher

frequency components in the magnetization current are due to magnetic
saturation in the transformer core.

• Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core, a small
increase in peak flux requires a very large increase in the peak
magnetization current.

• The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the voltage

applied to the core by 90°.
Other component of excitation current
Core-loss current ih+e
: The current required to make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses

𝑑𝜑
• Eddy current ∝ 𝑑𝑡
So, it will be in phase with
applied voltage

• Core loss current is non-linear due

to hysteresis
 Total excitation current, iex

𝑖𝑒𝑥 = 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑖ℎ + 𝑒
𝑖𝑚

𝑖𝑒𝑥

+ =
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Items to be considered:
Equivalent circuit of a transformer
Modeling copper loss
 Modeling Leakage flux

Voltage produced by leakage flux in

Primary and secondary winding ->
Modeling Leakage flux
 Modeling excitation current

• Magnetization current (im) is proportional to applied voltage and lags the voltage
by 90o
[in the unsaturated region]
 So im can be modeled by a reactance (Xm) across the primary voltage

• Core loss current (ih+e) is proportional to applied voltage and in-phase with it.
 So, ih+e can be modeled with a Resistor (Rc)

** Both these currents are non-linear. Linear elements are used for
approximation
Modeling excitation current
Exact equivalent circuit of a transformer

Referred to
Primary voltage
level

Referred to
secondary
voltage
level
Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
In normal condition, current through excitation branch is so small that it
causes very low voltage drop across it. So we can move the excitation
branch without incurring significant error.
Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
Excitation branch can be completely ignored in some cases.
Determining values of components in equivalent
circuit of the transformer

1.Open circuit test

2.Short circuit test

 Open Circuit Test

1. Secondary is open circuited

2. Full rated line voltage is applied to primary
3. RP and Xp are too small compared to Rc And XM
4. All the input voltage is dropped across excitation branch
 Open Circuit Test
Measured Quantites:

1. Input voltage
2. Input current
3. Input power

From these input power factor is determined

Excitation Admittance

Rc and XM can be obtained from

the real and imaginary part of YE
 Short Circuit Test

1. Secondary is short circuited.

2. Primary terminal are connected to low voltage
3. Input voltage is adjusted until the current in the
primary winding is equal to its rated value
4. Input voltage , current and power are measured
 Short Circuit Test
Since Input voltage is LOW , negligible current flows in the
excitation branch which can be ignored. So all the voltage drop
Can be attributed to series impedance
 Per Unit system of Measurement

This system automatically handles the process of imepdence transformation

It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per-unit system.

The ones usually selected are voltage and power (or apparent power).

Once these base quantities have been selected, all the other base values can be
computed by following equation.
• In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are
selected at a specific point in the system.

• A transformer has no effect on the base apparent power of

the system, since the apparent power into a transformer
equals the apparent power out of the transformer.

• On the other hand, voltage changes when it goes through a

transformer, so the value of Vbase changes at every
transformer in the system according to its turns ratio.

• Because the base quantities change in passing through a

transformer, the process of referring quantities to a common
voltage level is automatically taken care of during per-unit
conversion.
 Voltage regulation of a transformer
Secondary voltage of a transformer varies with load current due to its series
impedance.
The measure of how well a power transformer maintains constant secondary
voltage over a range of load currents is called the transformer’s voltage
regulation.
In the phasor diagram for voltage regulation calculation, the phasor
voltage Vs is assumed to be at an angle of 0°, and all other voltages
and currents are compared to that reference.
 Unity PF

When Is is leading, the secondary

voltage can be larger than the
referred primary voltage

Leading PF
 Transformer Efficiency

Ploss includes Copper loss (PCu), Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss (Pcore)

Output power, Pout = VsIscos(𝜃)