Volume 54, Number 6, November 13, 2003

Pelleting for Profit - Part 1

By David A. Fairfield
Director of Feed Services
National Grain and Feed Association

[Note: This is the fourth in a series of articles on various aspects of feed manufacturing and operations. This edition is the
first of a two articles on aspects of feed pelleting operations, and focuses on pelleting quality-assurance procedures and improving
pellet quality. The second article will address pellet system equipment operations and pelleting operation efficiency. Feed mill
managers may wish to circulate this publication as an education/training tool to appropriate mill employees involved in
manufacturing operations.]
E E E
Pelleting – the most capital- and energy-intensive feed impurities to levels that minimize problems of equipment
manufacturing operation – is a key driver of feed mill profit- failure and wasted energy. Typically, a combination of
ability. mechanical and chemical options is used to remove impu-
rities throughout the boiler system [Dozier, 2001]. Regu-
Currently, more than 80 percent of feed for non-ruminant
lations require that boiler water additives used in the
animals in the United States is pelleted. The improved perfor-
production of steam that comes into contact with food/feed
mance of swine and broilers when fed pelleted feed is well
contain approved chemicals and chemical concentrations
documented [Behnke; 1994] and can be attributed to: De-
[21 CFR 173.310].
creased feed wastage; reduced selective feeding; decreased
ingredient segregation; less energy spent for prehension; de- ±Use Appropriate Pellet Mill Roll Grease: Use lubricants
struction of pathogenic organisms; increased digestibility; and formulated to meet Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
improved palatability. requirements in applications where incidental food/feed
contact occurs [21 CFR 178.3570].
Pelleting of feed also provides the benefits of: 1) increasing
the bulk density of feed; 2) improving feed flowability; and 3) ±Develop Appropriate Feed-Conditioning Parameters:
providing opportunities to reduce feed formula costs through Different feeds require different conditioning; these pa-
the use of alternative feed ingredients. rameters need to be determined for all types of pelleted
feeds. Document these parameters and ensure that mill
Although these benefits are significant, pelleting must be
operators follow the established guidelines.
cost-effective. For commercial feed manufacturers, this means
that the additional margin for pelleted feed must exceed the ±Verify Liquid-Addition Systems: Verify, during initial
operation’s costs. For integrated manufacturers, improved installation and at least annually thereafter, the accuracy of
feed conversion must pay for the cost of pelleting. all scales or meters used to add molasses, fat, flavorings,
enzymes and other liquids to pellets. If the accuracy of
Pelleting Q/A Procedures liquid addition also depends upon a known dry-flow rate,
also verify the accuracy of that rate at least annually.
Here are some important quality-assurance procedures that Document all scale, meter and dry-flow checks.
apply to pelleting:
±Develop Adequate Clean-Out Procedures: FDA’s cur-
±Use Appropriate Boiler Water Treatment Chemicals: rent good manufacturing practice (CGMP) regulations
Feed mills use boiler water treatment to reduce water require that mills producing medicated feeds develop and
© Copyright 2003 by National Grain and Feed Association. All rights reserved. Federal copyright law prohibits unauthorized reproduction or transmis-
sion by any means, electronic or mechanical, without prior written permission from the publisher.
 use adequate procedures to avoid the unsafe cross-contami-
nation of feeds with drug carryover [21 CFR225.65 and
FDA Compliance Policy Guide 7165.35]. Further, FDA’s
regulations designed to prevent the establishment or spread
through feed of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
also require mills to establish procedures to avoid the unsafe
contamination of ruminant feeds with restricted-use mam-
malian protein products [21 CFR 589.2000]. These clean-
out requirements apply to all feed mill processing equip-
ment, including the pelleting system. FDA recognizes three
types of clean-out procedures for medicated feeds and
restricted use mammalian proteins:

Physical Clean-out: Vacuuming, sweeping and wash-
ing are acceptable physical clean-out methods. De-
velop written cleaning procedures for pelleting equip-
ment where unsafe contamination could occur (such as
conditioner, feed chute, pellet die, pellet mill door,
cooler inlet chute and liquid application equipment.
Train employees on their equipment clean-out respon-
sibilities. Document all equipment cleaning and peri-
odically verify that the procedures are adequate.

Sequencing: Sequencing refers to the process of
pelleting feeds in a pre-determined order to prevent
unsafe contamination with illegal drug residues and
restricted-use mammalian proteins. If used, sequenc-
ing procedures apply to the entire pellet system, start-
ing with the mash holding bins and ending at the
finished-feed bin. Follow the same written sequencing
procedures used during mixing operations when de-
termining the proper order to pellet feeds.

Flushing: The pelleting system may be flushed with a
predetermined quantity of non-medicated material to
remove drug carryover remaining from the manufac-
ture of previous feeds. Use the following principles
when developing flushing procedures for medicated
pelleted feeds: 1) Use a predetermined quantity of an
ingredient, such as ground corn, soybean meal or
wheat midds. The flush quantity should be no less than
the quantity used to flush the mixing system (minimum
5 percent of mixer capacity, such as 300 pounds for a
3-ton mixer); 2) starting with the material in the mash
holding bin, run the flush through the entire pelleting
system (i.e. pellet mill feeder, conditioner, pellet mill,
cooler, etc.); 3) document the flush procedure on the
pellet production report; and 4) appropriately label
and store the flush material for reuse into an acceptable
feed.
Use the following principles when developing flush-
ing procedures for restricted-use mammalian proteins:
1) Flush the entire pelleting system with at least one
full mixer batch of a feed that is approved to contain
restricted-use mammalian proteins, such as a swine or
layer feed; 2) periodically verify that the flush proce-
dure is effective by visually inspecting the pellet
2 Feed and Feeding Digest
system equipment; and 3) document the flush proce-
dure on the pellet production report.
±Establish Pellet Quality Standards: To track pellet qual-
ity, set up a formal schedule that specifies feeds to check,
and their testing frequency. The “tumbling-can” method
developed at Kansas State University and adopted by the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) is the
method most commonly used to determine pellet durability
[ASAE, 1997]. Follow the method closely, paying special
attention to the time interval between pelleting and durabil-
ity testing. Keep this interval as constant as possible so that
the testing provides consistent results.
±Verify Proper Pellet Cooling: Inadequate pellet cooling
can create several problems: 1) pellets that are susceptible
to mold growth; 2) pellet flowability problems; and 3) poor
pellet durability. The temperature of cooled pellets with a
diameter of 3/16th inch or less should be within 10 to 15
degrees of ambient air temperature. Cooled temperatures of
larger pellets, such as cubes, should be within 20 degrees of
ambient air temperature. Check cool pellet temperature
regularly to ensure proper cooling.
Improving Pellet Quality
Pellet quality and durability are important if the benefits
associated with pelleting are to be realized. Research shows
that feed conversion of swine and poultry decreases as pellet
fines increase [Schell, van Heugten, 1998; Zatari, Ferket,
Scheideler, 1990]. The improved feed-handling characteris-
tics of pelleted feed also are diminished if pellets contain
excessive fines.
Pellet quality is dependent upon several factors, such as: 1)
feed formulation; 2) feed particle size; 3) mash moisture
content; 4) conditioning; 5) die specifications; and 6) cooling.
The following are some considerations for each of these
factors.
±Feed Formulation: Typically, least-cost formulation is
used to minimize feed cost based upon the nutritional needs
of the animal. However, least-cost formulation may result
in a feed that produces a poor-quality pellet. Although
formulating for pellet quality may not be entirely possible,
the following basic guidelines can help:

Generally, the addition of fat to feed mash before
pelleting causes lower pellet quality. Adding more
than 2 percent fat at the mixer into corn-soy diets can
cause excess fines and low pellet durability
[Richardson, Day; 1976]. If higher levels are needed,
add the fat through post-pellet application systems.

Increasing protein and fiber content in feeds tends to
improve pellet quality. For example, increasing the
level of wheat midds in swine feeds enhances pellet
durability [Fahrenholtz; 1989].
November 13, 2003

I.D. = Inside Diameter of the Die: The inside diameter

Certain feed ingredients contain “natural” binding is the most common identifying dimension of a die and
properties that help improve pellet quality. Examples is always specified during die selection.
include wheat, barley, canola, whey and blood plasma.

O = Overall Width of the Die: The overall width of a
±Feed Particle Size: Generally, smaller mash particle size die may vary. Often, there is more than one width
enhances pellet quality since the material has a larger available for each die diameter.
surface area that allows heat and moisture from steam to
more quickly and thoroughly penetrate the particle. Smaller
W = Working Width: Die working width is measured
particles also have more surface area to adhere and bind to between the two inside edges of the die grooves.
other particles in the pellet. However, the cost of grinding
to obtain smaller particle sizes needs to be weighed against
the benefits of improved pellet quality. From a cost-benefit
standpoint, the optimal particle size for corn-soy poultry
diets may be in the 650 to 700 micron range [Dozier, 2001].
±Conditioning: The conditioning process influences pellet
quality more than die specifications [Behnke; 2001]. In
contrast, thicker dies that lower production rates often are
used in an attempt to improve pellet quality. Here are some
conditioning guidelines to consider:

Generally, increasing the conditioner retention time
improves pellet quality. The longer retention time
improves heat and moisture absorption in feed.
Lengthen the retention times of an existing condi-
tioner by adjusting pick angles or reducing the condi-
tioner shaft speed.

Steam pressure does not influence pellet quality
[Briggs, Maier, Watkins, Behnke; 1999]. The ther-
modynamic properties of low- and high-pressure steam Die working area is defined as the area between the two
are very similar. To optimize energy costs, maintain inside die grooves. This working area increases as die width
steam pressures only high enough to provide the steam and diameter increase. Die working area is important because
quantity necessary to reach desired conditioning tem- different feeds and ingredients require specific amounts of
peratures and for adequate condensation removal/ time in the die hole – die retention time – to be able to bind
return. together to form a pellet. Larger die working areas provide
more retention time to form pellets, reduce power consump-

Typically, steam cannot provide more than 6 percent tion per ton of feed pelleted and improve production efficien-
moisture to feed during the conditioning process cies.
[Leaver, 1988]. Each percent of moisture added to
feed through steam raises the mash temperature about Figure 2 illustrates the terminology used to describe the
23 degrees, F. characteristics and dimensions of die holes. The most impor-
tant terms to understand when selecting a pellet die are:

Steam quality – the percentage of steam in the vapor
phase – is important to pellet durability and produc-
D = Hole Diameter: Typical hole diameters can range
tion rates. Research has shown that conditioning feed from 3/32nd to 3/4th inch.
with 70 to 80 percent steam quality optimizes pellet
durability [Gilpin, Herrman, Behnke, Fairchild;
L = Effective Length: The effective length is the die
2002]. High-quality steam has more energy to raise thickness that actually performs work on the feed.
mash temperature than lower-quality steam that con-
L/d Ratio: The L/d ratio is the effective length divided
tains condensation. Steam quality determines the by the hole diameter. High L/d ratios provide high
maximum mash temperature that can be reached dur- pellet die resistance as feed moves through the hole.
ing conditioning because of moisture limits [Reimer, Low L/d ratios provide less resistance. Each material
Beggs; 1993]. has an L/d ratio requirement to form the material into
±Pellet Die Material and Specifications: Understanding a pellet.
the terminology used to describe dies is important when
choosing die specifications. Figure 1 illustrates the impor-
T = Total Thickness: Total thickness is the overall
tant dimensions of a pellet-mill die. thickness of the die. Overall thickness provides the
necessary die material to avoid die breakage.

November 13, 2003 Feed and Feeding Digest 3


X = Counterbore Depth: Counterbore depth measures
the “relief” provided in the die as the pellet exits the die
hole. Enlarged holes are counterbored into the die to
reduce its effective thickness and provide the proper L/
d ratio while maintaining the total thickness needed to
prevent die breakage. Specific rows of die holes, such
as the two inner and outside rows, also sometimes are
counterbored to greater depths to encourage feed flow
through these outer rows of holes to help dies wear
more evenly.
Holes in dies typically are drilled in three different patterns.
Figure 2
good wear resistance for moderately abrasive materials.
Stainless steel often is chosen for “all-purpose” dies.

High chrome dies provide the most corrosion resistance
of the different die materials. Because of the chrome
content, they usually start up very easily and allow high
pelleting production rates. However, high chrome dies
typically provide less resistance as feed moves through the
die holes and the effective thickness of the die may need
to be increased to achieve desired pellet quality.
Table 1 shows general die specification and material guide-
lines for the major feed groups. Specific L/d ratio requirements
will depend upon particular feed formulations and their fat con-
tent.

Table 1
Die Specification and Material Guidelines by Feed Group

Die Hole
Feed Category Die Material L/d Ratio
Pattern
Stainless / Close-Hole
High Grain 10-12
High Chrome Spacing
Figures Courtesy of Sprout-Matador

Low Protein, Stainless / Medium-Hole

12-14
High Roughage Alloy Spacing

High Natural Close- / Medium-

Stainless 10-12
Protein Hole Spacing
Low Protein, Medium-Hole
Stainless 9-11
Heat Sensitive Spacing

High Protein, Wide-Hole

Alloy 8-9
Urea / High Mineral Spacing

Close-hole pattern spacing provides more open die area and

more retention time. The open area of dies with close-hole
patterns is about 43 percent. Wide-hole pattern spacing pro-
vides less open die area and greater die strength. Wide-hole
pattern spacing provides about 32 percent open die area.
Standard- or medium-hole pattern spacing provides a compro-
mise between die open area and die strength.
Choosing the right die material is important. Pellet dies are
made from steel that has been selected for certain carbon and
chromium contents and heat-treated for desired properties. The
steel’s carbon content affects the corrosion resistance and the
wear resistance of the die. Dies usually are classified as alloy,
stainless or high chrome. Steel with a free chromium content
exceeding 12 percent is classified as stainless.
Each of these types of die materials has characteristics that
make it more desirable for certain applications:

Alloy dies are made of medium-grade carbon steel.
They are designed for heavily abrasive applications
and typically are the most breakage-resistant dies avail-
able. Generally, alloy dies are less expensive than
stainless steel or high chromium dies.

Stainless steel dies provide corrosion resistance and
±Mash Moisture Content: The moisture in feed mash affects
pellet quality and production rates. Moisture in feed mash
comes from two sources: bound moisture present in the feed’s
ingredients and added moisture from water and steam addi-
tion. The moisture of cold feed entering the conditioner limits
the amount of steam that can be added to the mash during
conditioning. Varying cold mash moisture affects the condi-
tioning process and pellet mill operation. Research has shown
that there is a high correlation between cold mash moisture and
pellet durability [Greer, Fairchild; 1999]. Adjusting cold
mash moisture to 14 percent through mixer water addition
optimized pellet mill operation and pellet durability [Muirhead,
1999].
±Cooling: Poor cooling reduces pellet durability. Proper pellet
cooling depends upon adequate airflow and cooler retention
time. Poor pellet cooling in vertical and horizontal coolers
often is attributable to airflow restrictions caused by plugged
cooler screens, trays or air inlets. Product build-up in cooler
ductwork also can cause problems in all types of coolers.
Increasing feed bed depth can increase retention time in
horizontal coolers. Typically, if greater retention time is
needed, adding additional height to cooler walls or horizontal
sections is done to increase the cooler’s surface area.

4 Feed and Feeding Digest November 13, 2003

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Feed and Feeding Digest 5