©2017 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 112, pp. 275–294

The Nuevo Chaquiro Cu-Au-(Mo) Porphyry Deposit, Middle Cauca Belt, Colombia:
Geology, Alteration, Mineralization
Paul J. Bartos,1,† Cesar Garcia, 2 and Javier Gil 2
1 AngloGold Ashanti, 6300 South Syracuse Way, Suite 500 Centennial, Colorado 80111, USA
2 AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Avenida Calle 116, #7-15, Bogotá, Cundinamarca 110111, Colombia

Abstract
Nuevo Chaquiro is a newly discovered blind porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) deposit located in the Middle Cauca belt,
Colombia, approximately 60 km south-southeast of Medellin. The most recent resource estimate was stated as
566 M tonnes (t) averaging 0.64% Cu, 0.31 g/t Au, 4.34 g/t Ag, and 127 ppm Mo.
The geology of Nuevo Chaquiro consists of a Miocene volcanic sequence of andesitic tuffs, agglomerates, and
flows (Combia Formation) intruded by small stocks and dikes of diorite and quartz diorite also of Miocene age.
Sparsely occurring outcrops at Nuevo Chaquiro consist of a 1.2 × 0.8 km zone of pervasive sericitic alteration
with locally well developed quartz-Fe oxide stockworks. The sericitic alteration grades downward into sericite-
chlorite alteration and then predominantly potassic (biotite-magnetite) alteration at depths of 250 to 400 m.
Calcic-potassic alteration, containing actinolite and epidote, occurs at greater depths. A high-grade sheeted vein
complex occurs immediately adjacent to the upper contact of an Early quartz diorite intrusion. Quartz veinlet
density in this area reaches up to 80% quartz by volume, accompanied by up to 5 vol % chalcopyrite. Later
Intermineral porphyries created a second orebody slightly to the west but contiguous with the Early orebody.
Here Cu-Au-Mo mineralization in an inverted bowl shape is associated with potassic alteration that manifests
itself as secondary flooding of the tuff wall rock matrix by hydrothermal biotite, accompanied by disseminations
and hair veinlets of chalcopyrite, magnetite, pyrite, and molybdenite. The porphyry system is also accompanied
by intermediate-sulfidation carbonate–quartz-base metal veins, typically with sericitic alteration selvages, which
occur on the upper western flank of the deposit.
At Nuevo Chaquiro, multiple intrusions of Early and Intermineral porphyry contain calcic-potassic and potas-
sic alteration, with a later overprint by sericite-chlorite alteration centered on intrusion apexes. The amount
of sericite-chlorite overprinting varies with each intrusion. Collectively, these intrusions are all overprinted by
a single, later sercitic (phyllic) alteration event that is superimposed as a broad cap upon the entire system.
There is a consistent paragenesis for the alteration/mineralization associated with each intrusion, suggesting
a relatively stable underlying shallow magma chamber that fluxed geochemically similar pulses of magmatic/
hydrothermal fluid with each porphyry.
In many aspects, Nuevo Chaquiro is a “typical” Au-rich porphyry copper system. However, the contrast
between the mineralization styles between the Early and Intermineral orebodies as well the timing differences
in copper deposition suggest that differences in porphyry mineralization styles also occur at Nuevo Chaquiro.

Introduction and Exploration History
Nuevo Chaquiro is a newly discovered blind porphyry Cu-
Au-Mo deposit in the rapidly developing Middle Cauca belt
of Colombia, about which published information remains
scarce. This report is the first detailed description of the geol-
ogy, alteration, and mineralization of the deposit. Of particu-
lar interest is a high-grade zone associated with a sheeted vein
complex that occurs at the cupola of an Early quartz diorite
intrusion. Copper mineralization consisting of up to 5 vol %
chalcopyrite is found here in association with sheeted quartz
veins with sericite-chorite selvages. Later Intermineral por-
phyries created a second orebody slightly to the west but
contiguous with the Early orebody. Here mineralization in
an inverted bowl shape is associated with potassic alteration
(principally as hydrothermal biotite disseminated throughout
the groundmass) accompanied by disseminations and hair
veinlets of chalcopyrite, magnetite, pyrite, and molybdenite.
Thus, Nuevo Chaquiro comprises two contiguous but tempo-
rally distinct orebodies, each with a different overall alteration
style (potassic vs. sericite-chlorite).
† Corresponding author: e-mail, pbartos@anglogoldashanti.com
0361-0128/17/4469/275-20 275
The Nuevo Chaquiro deposit is located approximately
60 km south-southeast of Medellin, Colombia, in the depart-
ment of Antioquia (Fig. 1) at the approximate coordinates
of 75°43'28' W, 5°45'21' N, in heavily vegetated terrain with
minimal outcrop. Initial entry into the area was in 2004 as part
of a regional stream sediment survey by AngloGold Ashanti.
This generated a modest –200 mesh stream sediment gold
anomaly, which was followed up by detailed grid sampling that
generated additional gold soil anomalies. These were drilled
and proved to be associated with a zone of quartz-carbonate–
base metal intermediate sulfidation (IS) veins, located to the
west of the then-undiscovered porphyry mineralization. Deep
drilling beneath a 0.8 × 1.2 km barren cap of strong sericitic
alteration containing locally intense stockworks of quartz-
iron oxide veinlets discovered the porphyry-style mineraliza-
tion. At first, only low-grade copper-gold mineralization was
encountered. Vectoring east toward the presumed core of the
system using a multidisciplinary geological/geophysical/min-
eralogical approach led to the discovery of a high-grade zone
of copper and gold mineralization in an Early quartz diorite
porphyry stock. Current resources are estimated at 566 mil-
lion tonnes (Mt) averaging 0.64% Cu, 0.31 g/t Au, 4.34  g/t
Ag, and 127 ppm Mo, with a higher grade core of 104 Mt
Submitted: January 14, 2016
Accepted: August 16, 2016
276 BARTOS ET AL.

Pulido, 2003; Leal-Mejia, 2011). In general, the Romeral fault

Fig. 1. Middle Cauca belt, Colombia, showing known deposits including
Nuevo Chaquiro. Modified from Sillitoe (2008). The red line shows the sepa-
ration of underlying oceanic crust from continental crust and tends to fol-
low the trace of the Romeral fault system. The Dosquebradas and Miraflores
deposits are contained within the greater Quinchia district.
averaging 1.1% Cu, 0.64 g/t Au. The higher grade portion of
the deposit is currently the subject of additional drilling and
study activities. Additional details on the discovery history can
be found in Bartos et al. (2015).
Geologic Setting
Regional geology
The Colombian Andes records a complex geologic history
of collision, accretion, subduction, and arc-magmatism that
has occurred since the meso-Proterozoic (Cediel et al., 2003;
system, with a total length on the order of 700 km (Paris et al.,
2000; Cediel et al., 2003; Pulido, 2003) marks the boundary
between dominantly oceanic rocks to the west and dominantly
continental rocks to the east (Fig. 1). This fault system also
forms the eastern boundary of an inferred pull-apart basin
which was subsequently filled with Miocene volcanic rocks
(Combia Formation) and intruded by Miocene age diorite
and quartz diorite porphyries, one cluster of which comprises
the Nuevo Chaquiro deposit (Fig. 2).
In the general region of Nuevo Chaquiro, the Romeral fault
system changes strike from NNE with a right lateral sense of
movement in the southern part to NNW with a left lateral
sense of movement in the northern part (Ego et al., 1995; Fig.
2). This likely created the open space which was subsequently
filled by the mineralizing intrusive rocks or exploited by them
as a conduit.
Middle Cauca belt
The Middle Cauca belt of Colombia, as defined by Silli-
toe (2008), is a N-S–trending Miocene-aged magmatic arc
approximately 350 km long × 50 km wide (Fig. 1). It is adja-
cent and parallel to the Romeral fault system (Garcia, 2011).
Two principal styles of mineralization have been documented
from the Middle Cauca belt: (1) porphyry Au-Cu-(Mo),
comprising stockwork and disseminated Au-Cu mineraliza-
tion hosted within diorite porphyries, and (2) intermediate
sulfidation (IS) Au-Ag-Zn veins with zoned sericitic/argillic/
propylitic alteration selvages, also typically associated with
porphyry rocks (Shaw et al., 2011). At least 11 porphyry or
porphyry-related IS vein deposits are now known from the
belt (Fig. 1). In addition, numerous prospects are currently
in the early stage of exploration for which resources have not
been announced. Table 1 summarizes the identified resources
associated with each deposit, as well as their associated igne-
ous intrusions and wall rocks.
Nuevo Chaquiro is among the largest of the known por-
phyry deposits in the Middle Cauca belt (Table 1). Through-
out the belt there is a wide variety of wall rocks associated
with these deposits, ranging from carbonaceous black schists
and micaceous metapelites, to andesites flows and tuffs,
basalts, tonalities, and siliciclastic sandstones, conglomerates,
mudstones, and coal beds. In contrast, the composition of the

Table 1. Compilation of Known Resources, Middle Cauca Belt (data from company websites and 43-101 reports)

Deposit Owner Mt Category % Cu Au g/t Ag g/t Moz Au Mlb Cu Mineralizer Wall rock

Nuevo Chaquiro AGA/B2Gold 565.7 i+inf 0.64 0.31 4.34 5.66 7,968 Diorite, quartz diorite Combia Fm tuffs
Buritica Continental Gold 8.4 m+i+inf 10.4 31 2.8 Andesite porphyry Andesite porphyry
Titiribi (Cerro Vetas) Sunward Res. 184 m+i 0.16* 0.48 4.63 0.654 Diorite porphyry Amaga, Combia Fm
  siliciclastic rocks
La Mina Bellhaven 79.9 inf 0.24 0.62 1.62 0.4 Andesite porphyry Combia Frm tuffs
Marmato Gran Colombia 410 m+i 0.90 6.1 Dacite porphyry Dacite porphyry
Quinchia Batero Res. 131.8 m+i+inf 0.11 0.59 1.8 2.5 319 Diorite Combia Fm,
  Amaga Fm
  Mafic volcanic rocks
Dosquebradas Seafield Res. 57.8 inf 0.04 0.50 0.92   56.8 Diorite Basalt
Miraflores Seafield Res. 72.6 m+i 0.78 1.5 1.82 Hydrothermal bx Basalt
La Colosa AGA 904.9 inf 0.92 26.8 Diorite porphyry Cajamarca Fm schist

Notes: * = portion of total resource; Titiribi also contains Au-only resources (not shown); information from company websites and 43-101 reports
Abbreviations: Fm = Formation, i = indicated, inf = inferred, m = measured
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 277

75°45’W 75°30’W

6°0’N

Late Miocene
Intrusive bodies
(Diorite-Qz Diorite)
Late Miocene
Volcaniclastic
sequence
5°45’N Combia Formation

Middle Oligocene
Sediments with
coal seams
Amaga Formation

Early Cretaceous
Igneous and
sedimentary rocks

Early Cretaceous
5°30’N Igneous and
sedimentary rocks

Cretaceous
Metamorphic
sequence, schists

Fig. 2. Regional geology, Nuevo Chaquiro deposit.

intrusive rocks associated with mineralization in the districts
within the belt, including Nuevo Chaquiro, is remarkably con-
sistent, comprising diorites and quartz diorites (Table 1).
In terms of gross metal distribution of the various por-
phyry prospects, the Middle Cauca belt contains three types:
gold-dominant with no copper such as La Colosa; gold-cop-
per (where Au expressed as g/t is typically greater than Cu
expressed as %), such as Titiribi, La Mina, Quinchia, and
Dosquebradas; and copper-dominant (where Au expressed as
g/t is typically is less than Cu expressed as %) such as Nuevo
Chaquiro (Table 1). The IS vein deposits such as Buritica
and Marmato (as well as the Miraflores breccia pipe) are all
gold-dominant (with by-product silver) but with no significant
resource values coming from copper. Nuevo Chaquiro is the
only known porphyry deposit in the Middle Cauca belt that is
copper dominant, although early drill results from San Matias
(101 m of 1% Cu, 0.65 g/t Au; 200 m averaging 0.4%  Cu,
0.33 g/t Au; Northern Miner, May 14, 2015, p. 1) at the far
north end of the belt, suggest that it, too, may be copper dom-
inant. Even the other prospects near Nuevo Chaquiro, such
as Aurora or Tenedor, appear to be of the gold-copper type.
Nuevo Chaquiro also contains significant molybdenum as a
potential by-product, which also sets it apart from the other
known deposits in the Middle Cauca belt.
District geology
Wall rocks-Combia Formation: The Nuevo Chaquiro deposit
is hosted within the Miocene Combia Formation, which is a
relatively poorly defined sequence of pyroclastic and volcani-
clastic rocks and flows, with a total thickness up to 600 m, and
278 BARTOS ET AL.

with ages between 6 and 10 Ma (H. Gonzalez, 1976, 2001;
Ramirez et al., 2006; Vinasco et al., 2011). Gonzalez (1976)
divided the Combia Formation into two members: a Lower
volcanic member characterized by agglomerates, tuffs, basalt
flows, and andesite dikes; and an Upper sedimentary member
characterized by conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of vol-
canic origin. Surface exposures of Combia Formation within
the district are dominated by various types of andesitic tuff
(Fig. 3). As seen in drill core at Nuevo Chaquiro, the Com-
bia Formation is composed of a series of tuffaceous volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks, dominantly andesitic in composition,
comprising in relative order of abundance: ash tuff, lapilli tuff,
and crystal tuff, with much lesser agglomerates, and andesite
flows. These have been grouped by district geologists into a
single wall-rock unit labeled “tuff.” Individual lithofacies are
discontinuous and extremely variable in distribution later-
ally and vertically; it has proved impossible to correlate them
laterally over any distance or to construct a comprehensive
stratigraphy for the district.
Nuevo Chaquiro intrusive complex: The Nuevo Chaquiro
intrusive complex comprises multiple intrusions of quartz
diorite to diorite, all highly similar in appearance, grain size,
and gross petrography. All are fine to medium grained, equi-
granular to weakly porphyritic rocks with a phenocryst to
groundmass ratio on the order of 80:20. Phenocrysts are com-
prised of plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, and in the case of
the quartz diorites, quartz; locally, there can be some minor
primary K-feldspar. The intrusive morphology is a combina-
tion of small, (75–400 m diam) composite stocks and subverti-
cal dikes radiating from these stocks; this is well constrained
by the presence of septae of wall-rock tuff separating them.
The intrusive rocks have been placed into four main groups
based on crosscutting relationships (utilizing the terminology
of Sillitoe, 2010): Early, Intermineral, Late, and Postmineral.
There are changes in the primary hornblende to biotite ratio
with time, as Early porphyry phases tend to have greater
abundances of hornblende compared to the Intermineral
porphyries, which tend to contain more and somewhat larger
euhedral biotite and lesser hornblende. However, these dis-
tinctions are quite subtle and variable. Ten different intrusive
bodies have been differentiated: one Early quartz diorite, one
Early diorite, two Intermineral diorites, three Intermineral
quartz diorites, one Late diorite, one Postmineral diorite, and
one Postmineral quartz diorite. Crosscutting relationships
between the various intrusive rocks are scarce in spite of their
close juxtaposition. Nonetheless, the crosscutting relation-
ships are sufficiently present to establish the timing relation-
ships between the intrusions.
With the exception of some of the Late and Postmineral
dikes, igneous intrusions did not reach the present-day sur-
face. Cupolas for both the Early and Intermineral porphy-
ries are well defined at depth, with the best copper grades
being spatially associated with them. The Late diorite consists
of two thin dikes, both pervasively sericitized with minimal
disseminated pyrite and no veining. The Postmineral diorite
and quartz diorite are likewise volumetrically minor and are
typically observed on the periphery of the deposit, principally
in outcrops to the west and southwest (Fig. 3a). Postmineral
intrusive rocks are minimally altered, either being fresh or
weakly propylitically altered (Fig. 3b).
Other nearby intrusive centers (Aurora, Tenedor): The
Aurora and Tenedor prospects (Fig. 3), represent separate,
nearby intrusive centers, distinct from Nuevo Chaquiro. Both
prospects have been drilled to a limited extent. The Aurora
prospect covers an 800 × 700 m area and contains multiple
mineralized hornblende-biotite-diorite intrusions within basal-
tic andesite flows of the Combia Formation. The inner portion
of the prospect is cored by a late, barren andesite porphyry.
Au-Cu mineralization occurs as disseminated chalcopyrite with
lesser bornite and pyrite, and abundant magnetite, quartz-mag-
netite, magnetite-actinolite veins in potassic and calcic-potassic
altered rocks. There is a minor overprint by carbonate-pyrite,
sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite veins. A single zircon U-Pb
date from an Aurora diorite porphyry suggests that it is slightly
older than the igneous rocks at Nuevo Chaquiro (8.0 +0 .9
–0 .4 Ma vs.
7.47 ± 0.09 Ma (Leal-Mejia, 2011; Table 2). Tenedor features
multiple diorite and quartz diorite intrusions, with moderate
potassic alteration containing quartz-magnetite-chalcopyrite
veins.
These other prospects appear to be gold dominant relative
to copper (gold in mineralized intervals [as g/t Au] typically
two to five times copper [as % Cu]). In contrast, Nuevo Cha-
quiro typically has Cu values (as % Cu) that are two to three
times those of Au (as g/t Au) for a given mineralized interval.
Structural geology
Mineralization at Nuevo Chaquiro has a distinct E-W ori-
entation. In spite of this, intrusive contacts where measured
in orientated core tend to be NW, with subvertical SW dips.
Regional map configurations suggest a general flat-lying

Table 2. Nuevo Chaquiro Age Dates (data from Leal-Mejia, 2011, 2014; G. Gonzalez, 2012; Valencia, 2012)

Method1 Mineral Age (Ma) Error (Ma) Sample Lab Re (ppm) Re187 (ppm) Os187 (ppb) Reference2

U-Pb Zircon 10.9 0.5/0.6 Andesite–Combia Formation VUGC 1

U-Pb Zircon 7.6 0.2 Mineralized quartz diorite (Early?) VUGC 1
Re-Os Molybdenite 7.53 0.04 Distal (ISS) mineralization VUGC 295.73 185 23.1 1
Re-Os Molybdenite 7.51 0.04 Mineralized Early diorite VUGC 32.97 20 4.1 1
Re-Os Molybdenite 7.437 0.097 Mineralized Early quartz diorite CCIM 157.4 98.95 12.26 2
Re-Os Molybdenite 7.397 0.043 Mineralized Early quartz diorite CCIM 171.4 107.7 13.27 2
U-Pb Zircon 8.0 0.9/0.4 Aurora diorite porphyry ALC 3

Lab Abbreviations: ALC = Arizona LaserChron Center (University of Arizona), CCIM = Canadian Center for Isotopic Microanalysis (University of Alberta),
VUGC = VU Geoservices Corporation (Tucson, Arizona)
1 See Appendix Figure A1, A2 for Corcordia plot of zircon U-Pb analyses
2 References: 1 = G. Gonzalez, 2012, Valencia, 2012; 2 = Leal-Mejia, 2014; 3 = Leal-Mejia, 2011
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 279

Fig. 3. a. District scale geologic map, Nuevo Chaquiro deposit. Outcrops are sparse and usually only seen intermittently in
creek beds. b. District scale surface alteration map, Nuevo Chaquiro deposit.
280 BARTOS ET AL.
sequence of volcaniclastic rocks (Fig. 2). Surface data from
detailed mapping within the greater Nuevo Chaquiro area
indicate that the bedding has an ENE to WNW strike and a
low-angle dip to the north, averaging 17°. The minor tilt pres-
ent in the deposit is interpreted to be postmineral, although
a component of pre-mineral/intrusive tilt in the Combia For-
mation volcanic rocks cannot be ruled out.
Faulting in the greater Nuevo Chaquiro area has a gridlike
configuration with the main orebody cut by a series of sub-
parallel ESE-trending (100°–115°) faults cut and in places
offset by later NNE (10°–15°) faults (Fig. 3). The ESE fault
set typically has strike lengths of 375 to 850 m, although the
northernmost of these (Fea Creek 2) connects with another
similar fault segment (Fea Creek 1) to create a continuous
strike length of 1,400 m (Figs. 3, 4). Faults typically align with
pronounced surface lineaments. Dips on these structures are
vertical to steeply dipping to the north. Systematic review of
these faults in section indicates no offset (or at best, minimal
offset) on these structures. The physical expression of these
structures as seen in drill core is typically a thin (0.5 m) zone
of gouge within an approximate 2-m zone of breccia. Where
these structures are exposed on surface, the breccia zone
tends to be wider, on the order of 2 to 5 m, but with similar
a
Fig. 4. Nuevo Chaquiro cross section. Section location is shown as A-A' line on Figures 3a, b. a. Lithology and alteration cross
section. Neither the Late nor Post-mineral dikes occur within the plane of the section. b. Lithology cross section showing
copper grades. c. Lithology cross section showing quartz A and B vein density.
widths of gouge (5–50 cm), as seen in drill core. Slickensides
associated with this fault set only occur rarely and are not
definitive with respect to assessing possible lateral movement.
Some of these faults can be marked within the drill core by
zones of intermediate argillic alteration, which consist of nar-
row, vertical plunging pipes with widths up to 80 m across
(20–50 m is more typical) and vertical extensions to depths up
to 350 m (Fig. 4).
Cutting the ESE fault set with apparently limited left lat-
eral displacement (on the order of 25 m) is the N-S fault set
(Fig. 3). Faults of this orientation occur in the western por-
tion of the mineralization area. The IS and D veins (described
below), which are also concentrated in this area and which
also have N-S strikes, are believed to be part of this general
structure set. These faults also correspond to surface linea-
ments. Significant offsets associated with this fault set could
not be determined. Surface expressions consist of 0.5- to 5-m
zones of gouge, in some cases with slickensides, suggesting
dips of 70° to 80° to the west. Field evidence suggests this was
the latest faulting event seen at Nuevo Chaquiro.
Farther to the west, beyond the zone of IS-Au mineraliza-
tion, field mapping indicates a third set of faults orientated
N 40°–45° E (Fig. 3). Field relations are indeterminate as
INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Intrusive contact
Early Diorites,
Qtz Diorites
Intermineral Diorites,
Qtz Diorites
ALTERATION
Argillic
Sericitic (Phyllic)
Chlorite-Sericite
Potassic
Calcic-Potassic
Propylitic
Cupola Zone
Chlorite-Sericite
Overprint
Drill trace
150m
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 281

150 m
150 m

Early Diorites,
Qtz Diorites
Intermineral Diorites,
Qtz Diorites

TUFF (Combia Fm)

> 0.6% Cu

> 0.45% Cu

> 0.3% Cu

c
150 m

150 m

Early Diorites,
Qtz Diorites
Intermineral Diorites,
Qtz Diorites

TUFF (Combia Fm)

> 20 volume % Quartz Veins

> 10–20 volume % Quartz Veins

> 5–10 volume % Quartz Veins

Fig. 4. (Cont.)
282 BARTOS ET AL.

to the relative age of this fault set. Limited outcrops reveal
fault gouge-slickenside zones with widths of 0.5 to 5 m, and
near-vertical dips. Possible displacements on this fault set also
could not be determined.
In summary, although field mapping and drill core exami-
nation reveal the presence of gouge/breccia zones with sig-
nificant strike length and vertical extent, there is no evidence
for significant displacement on any of these inferred faults to
date. Exclusively premineral faults were not observed.
Alteration
Description of the alteration types is based principally on hand
lens examination of drill core (54 drill holes, 48,602 m) sup-
plemented by petrographic examination of 43 thin sections.
Table 3 is a summary of the pertinent petrographic observa-
tions that characterize the mineralogy of the various alteration
zones. At Nuevo Chaquiro, six different alteration types have
been defined: calcic-potassic, potassic, sericite-chlorite, ser-
icitic, argillic, and propylitic. These are listed in general para-
genetic order of occurrence (with the exception of propylitic,
from which timing relations were not determined).
Intensity of alteration is in part influenced by the rock type.
Intrusive rocks are far more intensely altered with respect to
sericite-chlorite alteration than is the tuff. In contrast, the
tuffs appear to allow more intense and widespread potassic
alteration, particularly as fine-grained flooding of the ground-
mass with hydrothermal biotite.
Calcic-potassic alteration
Calcic-potassic alteration typically occurs at depth and within
the core of the deposit. At Nuevo Chaquiro, it is considered
among the earliest alteration events. The rock is commonly
white in color, owing to the absence of hydrothermal biotite
flooding, particularly in the Intermineral porphyries. Plagio-
clase in general appears stable and does not appear altered to
albite, although there is local replacement of plagioclase by
epidote. Mafic sites are typically altered to actinolite. There
are minor actinolite and quartz-magnetite-actinolite veinlets,
lacking alteration selvages and appearing to coexist with sec-
ondary biotite, particularly near the interface with potassic
alteration. In addition, epidote ± calcite trace pyrite veinlets
with actinolite selvages are also seen (Fig. 5f). Calc-potassic
alteration features lower Cu, Mo, and Au grades with sulfides
as pyrite and chalcopyrite in roughly co-equal proportions,
and lesser molybdenite. In general, calcic-potassic alteration
serves to mark the bottom of the ore shells. This alteration

Table 3. Characteristic Petrology of Alteration Types

Alteration Plagioclase Mafics Groundmass Assemblage Minor phases Sulfides

Potassic Plag intact hbl → bio2 bio2 bio2 ± mt K-feld, anhy mt, cp>py, mo
bio → bio2
Potassic-calcic Plag intact ± epid act + epid intact plag act + epid mt, cp = py, (mo)
Sericite-chlorite ser ± (chlor) ser + chlor + ti + py chlor + ser ser + chlor qtz cp<py
Sericitic ser ± cal ser + py + ti qtz + py qz + ser + py tour py>>>cp
Argillic ill + smec ± cal ser + py + ti ill + smec ill + smec + py + ser py
Propylitic plag intact ± cal chlor intact plag cal + chlor epid (py)

Abbreviations: act = actinolite, anhy = anhydrite, bio = magmatic biotite, bio2 = hydrothermal biotite, cal = calcite, chlor = chlorite, cp = chalcopyrite, epid
= epidote, ill = illite, hbl = hornblende, K- feld = K- feldspar, mo = molybdenite, mt = magnetite, plag = plagioclase (magmatic), py = pyrite, ser= sericite,
smec = smectite, ti = titanite, tour = tourmaline, → = replaced by, ( ) = minor

Fig. 5. Drill core photos. a. Ribbon quartz veining and strong biotite (black), chlorite-sericite alteration (dark brown), cut
by later chalcopyrite veining. High-grade sample from cupola zone. CHA-048 505 m. b. Strongly quartz, chalcopyrite veined
core from Early diorite cupola zone. CHA-048 518 m. c. Close-up of high-grade chalcopyrite-quartz-(magnetite)-(pyrite)
crenulite pegmatite (UST). Note chalcopyrite filling around previously formed quartz crystals. The magnetite is bladed (after
specular hematite?) CHA-042 1240 m. d. Reopened pyrite veinlet with sericitic selvage cutting chlorite-sericite altered tuff.
Veinlet is subsequently filled by later sphalerite-carbonate. CHA-032 911.3 m. e. Hydrothermal biotite flooded tuff cut by
quartz A veinlets (white, subvertical); these are cut by chalcopyrite hair veinlets (yellow), with no alteration selvages. f. Potas-
sically altered andesite tuff showing overprint of calcic-potassic alteration. Suparallel veinlets are epidote ± calcite, minor
pyrite, with actinolite selvages. There is also fairly extensive actinolite flooding of the wall rock. CHA-074 696n m. g. Xenolith
of biotized tuff containing truncated quartz-(pyrite, epidote, actinolite, biotite) veinlets within Intermineral diorite. The
diorite and the xenoliths are cut by later chalcopyrite-pyrite and quartz-pyrite veinlets. The Intermineral diorite appears rela-
tively unaltered, with traces of disseminated pyrite and epidote. The interpretation is that xenolith with the truncated veinlets
was derived from a deeper, earlier stage of mineralization than that associated with the diorite. Coin is approximately 1.5 cm
in diameter. CHA-054 1159 m. h. Intermineral diorite containing chlorite-(sericite) veinlets with sericite selvages overprint-
ing weak potassic alteration (dark-brown blotches). CHA-016 555.2 m. i. Strong biotite (dark-brown–black) flooding (potassic
alteration) of Combia Formation tuff with accompanying quartz veining. CHA-049 470 m. j. Typical D vein stockwork (pyrite
± minor quartz veinlets with serictic selvages) cutting biotite-flooded (potassically altered) tuff. k. Unidirectional solidifica-
tion texture (UST) from Intramineral quartz diorite. Note dark-brown–black biotite flooding (potassic alteration). The black
spots are unaltered magmatic phenocrystic biotites. CHA-042 1043 m. l. Sheeted subvertical quartz-magnetite veins, from
cupola zone. Sheeted veins with magnetite tend to occur at somewhat deeper depths than quartz sheeted veins without mag-
netite. CHA-042 911 m. m. Intermineral quartz diorite porphyry breccia. Breccia matrix dominated by hydrothermal biotite.
Overprinted by pyrite veinlets with sericite-chlorite selvages. CHA 039-981.3 m. n. Distal potassic alteration in andesite tuff.
o. Andesite tuff showing typical pervasive sercitic (phyllic) alteration. Note large abundance of pyrite.
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 283

a b c

d e

f g

h i

j k

l m

n o
284 BARTOS ET AL.
zone attains thicknesses of at least 700 m in depth (from the
boundary of potassic alteration to the bottom of the drill
holes) and 1,000 m laterally. Albite halos on several quartz-
actinolite-chlorite ± pyrite, chalcopyrite, or quartz-pyrite
veinlets were noted in the deepest drill holes of the system
within the calcic-potassic zone.
Potassic alteration
Potassic alteration features a pervasive flooding of the dikes
and tuff matrix by hydrothermal biotite accompanied by dis-
seminated magnetite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and molybdenite,
giving an overall dark brown rock color (Fig. 5e, i, n). Plagio-
clase phenocrysts in many cases appear unaltered and intact
(Fig. 6b). In other cases, the plagioclase phenocrysts appear
partially absorbed by the groundmass which was then subse-
quently flooded with hydrothermal biotite (Fig. 6c). Magmatic
hornblende phenocrysts are replaced by shreddy biotite; mag-
matitic biotites are partially rimmed by hydrothermal biotite
and there is sparse K-feldspar (Fig. 6b). Anhydrite is locally
seen within quartz-magnetite or biotite veinlets. The thick-
ness of the potassic alteration zone varies from 325 to 775 m
(Fig. 4a). In the distal, upper portions of this alteration type,
secondary biotite is not accompanied by magnetite (Fig. 5n);
associated Cu, Au values here are also low. The main portion
of potassic alteration contains abundant quartz, biotite, chal-
copyrite, and magnetite veinlets, commonly up to 30 veinlets
per meter, and locally up to 50 veinlets per meter. Potassic
alteration grades laterally to propylitic alteration and down-
ward to potassic-calcic alteration, in both cases featuring a
significant decrease in Cu, Mo, and Au content and veinlet
density. Rare early dark micaceous (EDM) veinlets (as per
Meyer et al., 1968), sometimes with chalcopyrite centers,
were observed in some of the deeper drill holes within potas-
sic alteration.
Sericite-chlorite alteration
Overprinting the potassic alteration is sericite-chlorite altera-
tion. The general alteration assemblage is chlorite-sericite-
pyrite with lesser quartz imparting an overall greenish gray
color to the rocks (Fig. 5h). Sericite-chlorite alteration typically
features mafic minerals altered to sericite-chlorite ± titanite,
and plagioclase altered to sericite + (lesser chlorite) ± calcite.
Calcite appears to increase in abundance toward the sericitic
zone. Associated sulfides are pyrite and lesser chalcopyrite.
Magnetite is typically absent. There are very local areas within
the sericite-chlorite portion of the Early quartz diorite where
magnetite is converted to hematite (as per Sillitoe, 2010; how-
ever, in much lesser abundance than suggested there.)
Figure 4a draws a distinction between the sericite-chlorite
alteration overprint superimposed upon the apexes of the
Early and Intermineral intrusive rocks and the broad sericite-
chlorite halo extending outboard beyond potassic alteration,
typically seen within tuffs. Mineralogically, there is little dif-
ference between the two: the mineral assemblage—chlorite-
sericite-pyrite with lesser quartz—is the same in both cases.
The distinction is that at the Intermineral intrusive apexes,
the sericite-chlorite alteration can be clearly seen to overprint
preexisting potassic alteration whereas in the more pervasive
sericite-chlorite zone, the overprinting of preexisting potassic
alteration cannot be discerned (except at the zone boundary
between potassic and sericite-chlorite alteration). The impli-
cation is the broad sericite-chlorite alteration zone marks a
generally outward fluid flow featuring declining chemical con-
ditions of temperature and alkalinity.
In the high-grade cupola associated with the Early quartz
diorite (Fig. 4a), relict potassic alteration was not observed.
Farther at depth within this intrusion, relict potassic altera-
tion overprinted by sericite-chlorite alteration becomes read-
ily observable; this in turn quickly transitions downward to
calcic-potassic alteration (Fig. 4a).
Sericitic alteration
Sericitic alteration is the most common alteration observed
at surface above the orebody. It forms a blanket above all
the intrusive centers and attains thicknesses of about 175
to 300 m, and locally up to 425 m (Fig. 4a). Sercitic altera-
tion is commonly texture-destructive but where textures can
be discerned, mafic minerals are altered to sericite ± pyrite
± titanite; plagioclase is altered to sericite ± calcite, and the
groundmass is composed of fine-grained quartz with a white
gray color (Fig. 6e). Tourmaline can be locally abundant at
the approximate interface between sericitic and chlorite-ser-
icite alteration. D veinlets, composed of pyrite ± quartz with
sericite selvages (as per Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) can be
extremely common in this zone. Veinlets of this sort always
postdate potassic alteration where timing relations can be
observed (Fig. 5j). There is a large amount of sulfide asso-
ciated with this alteration type, on average approximately
6 vol %, the vast majority of which is pyrite (Fig. 5o). Cu, Mo
values in this zone are minimal.
Rare late veinlets of pyrophyllite ± quartz in sericitically
altered rocks are locally observed (Fig. 6f), particularly close
to the present-day surface. Other advanced argillic alteration
indicator minerals such as alunite, dickite, or vuggy silica are
not found at Nuevo Chaquiro.
Argillic alteration
Argillic alteration is associated with structurally controlled
zones at shallower levels within the sericitic alteration zone.
These zones define narrow, steeply dipping pipes from the
surface with widths up to 80 m and vertical lengths up to
400  m (Fig. 4a). They appear to be centered on faults and
fracture zones and narrow with depth within the overlying
sericitic cap. Spectral data suggest that the argillic alteration
is a mixture of illite (+ clay?) in addition to muscovite, pyrite,
and limited amounts of quartz.
Propylitic alteration
Propylitic alteration is observed on surface spatially distal
from the sericitic zone and in postmineral dikes at the fringes
of the mineralization. The typical propylitic mineral assem-
blage is calcite-chlorite-(epidote)-(pyrite), which commonly
occurs as disseminations, selective replacements of pheno-
crysts, or as relatively sparse veinlets. Because the propylitic
zone has been outside the area of drilling, our information to
date has been based on limited surface samples.
Mineralization
The Nuevo Chaquiro intrusive complex can be divided into
an eastern Early intrusive center which contains widespread
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 285

a b

c d

e f
Fig. 6. Thin section photos. a. Chalcopyrite-pyrite vein filling center portion of quartz A vein. Sericite-chlorite at vein mar-
gin. From high-grade sheeted vein cupola zone. CHA-048 505.3 m. b. Potassically altered diorite porphyry. Hornblende
sites altered to hydrothermal biotite. Magmatitic biotite (green) shows slight corrosion or rimming by hydrothermal biotite
(brown). Plagioclase appears unaltered, but slightly resorbed by groundmass which is then flooded with hydrothermal biotite.
Quartz-K-feldspar-pyrite veinlet cutting the biotite alteration. CHA-036 687 m. c. Quartz-actinolite-magnetite-molybdenite
veinlet cutting biotite-flooded (potassically altered) tuff. Plagioclase appears partially resorbed by groundmass, which in turn
is altered to hydrothermal biotite. CHA-016 867 m d. Anhedral quartz with pyrite, magnetite, lesser chalcopyrite, and associ-
ated sericite, chlorite. From high-grade sheeted vein cupola zone. CHA-048 548.9 m. e. Texturally destructive sercitically
altered (quartz-sericite-pyrite) quartz diorite, cut by a quartz-pyrite-calcite veinlet. CHA-019 526.7 m f. Pyrophyllite-quartz
veinlet cutting sericitically altered tuff. CHA-042 208.7. Abbreviations: ACT= actinolite, BI = biotite, BI2 = hydrothermal
biotite, CA = calcite, CP = chalcopyrite, CT = chlorite, KFD = K-feldspar, ILL = illite, MO = molybdenite, MT= magnetite,
PG = plagioclase, PY = pyrite, PYR = pyrophyllite, QZ = quartz, SE = sericite.
286 BARTOS ET AL.
high-grade mineralization (>1%, and in some cases, >2% Cu),
and a central Intermineral diorite and quartz diorite center,
which features an ore shell of lower grade mineralization
(>0.3% Cu) superimposed over the top of the intrusives (Fig.
4a, b). The vast majority of copper mineralization is restricted
to the broad area of potassic alteration (Fig. 4b) and the Early
quartz diorite cupola zone. This also includes areas where ser-
icite-chlorite alteration has overprinted preexisting potassic
alteration at intrusive tops. There is some copper mineraliza-
tion within the broad pervasive zone of outer sericite-chlorite
alteration, but it is relatively minor.
There is a strong correlation between density of quartz
veining and copper grade (Fig. 4c). This reflects two types
of quartz veining: (1) early wavy, irregular A-type veinlets
(as per Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) which consist of quartz ±
magnetite ± chlorite typically lacking alteration selvages and
preceding deposition of metal (as sulfide hair veinlets) and
(2) straight, continuous, railroad track (incipient coxcomb)
B-type (after Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) quartz-sulfide veins
with chlorite selvages which follow deposition of the sulfide
hair veinlets.
Ore mineralogy
Ore minerals at Nuevo Chaquiro are principally chalcopyrite
and molybdenite. Traces of bornite and cubanite have been
locally observed, but in amounts not exceeding 0.1 vol %.
Other sulfides include pyrite and minor amounts of pyrrho-
tite. Chalcopyrite is present as fine-grained disseminations
and stringers, or within quartz veinlets within potassic alter-
ation (and to a lesser degree in calcic-potassic alteration) and
rarely as meter-thick massive sulfide zones within the cupola
zone. Chalcopyrite hair veinlets without accompanying
alteration selvages are commonly seen in potassically altered
rocks. In addition, chalcopyrite hair veinlets were seen with
rare biotite and more commonly, chlorite selvages. A few
local chalcopyrite-pyrite veinlets with sericitic selvages were
also seen.
Molybdenite appears as inclusions in quartz-sulfide vein-
lets and in veinlets without other sulfides. There are multiple
generations of molybdenite mineralization: very early, asso-
ciated with chalcopyrite-magnetite hair veinlets (rarely with
potassic alteration halos); later, with quartz-pyrite veinlets
with sericitic selvages; and latest, anhydrite-pyrite veinlets
cutting sericitic alteration. There is also considerable dis-
seminated molybdenite within the biotitic alteration. Molyb-
denite distribution is such that the highest grades tend to
form an inverted cup coincident with the upper portion of
the copper shell.
No discrete silver or gold phases were observed, excluding
a single micron-sized gold grain in one thin section. There is a
good correlation between copper, gold, and silver grades; the
latter two elements are believed to reside within the matrix
of chalcopyrite, although this has not yet been confirmed by
detailed metallurgical tests.
High-grade sheeted vein/cupola zone
The contact between the tuffs and the top of the Early east-
ern intrusive center is characterized by an area of intense
veining and stockwork, containing up to 80% by volume of
massive and banded quartz, and up to 5 vol % chalcopyrite,
as blebs, fractures, stringers, and disseminations (Fig. 6a-c).
The quartz appears granular and coarse grained, and sec-
ondary chlorite, sericite, and biotite are observed. This zone
hosts the highest Cu-Au grades in the deposit and can attain
a vertical thickness up to 225 m (Fig. 4c). Unidirectional
solidification textures (USTs), vein dikes, hydrothermal/
magmatic breccia, finger dikes, and small-scale pegmatite
pods of coarse-grained quartz-K-feldspar were all observed
in the general vicinity associated with the Early quartz dio-
rite; these are all typical cupola indicators in a porphyry sys-
tem (Seedorff et al., 2005).
Medium-grade mineralization
A second contiguous orebody, consisting of an inverted cup
oreshell (at lower grades of 0.3% Cu) occurs in the central
portion of the deposit, draped over the cupolas of a series
of Intermineral diorite and quartz diorites. Unidirectional
Solidification Textures (UST) (Fig. 5k) and sheeted quartz-
magnetite veining (Fig. 5m) have been identified within the
Intramineral porphyry cupola.
IS veins
The upper western flank of the porphyry system contains a
set of abundant N-S–striking IS carbonate-quartz-base metal
veins. These are carbonate (50–70 vol %) veins with associ-
ated quartz (10–40 vol %), and minor (typically 0.5–5 vol %)
amounts of pyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite,
with traces of galena, molybdenite, stibnite, marcasite, and
rarely, native arsenic (Figs. 5d, 7d). They tend to have ser-
icitic alteration selvages and typically contain minor amounts
of gold. These veins are typically centimeters to tens of cen-
timeters in width, with a maximum width on the order of one
meter. In close association with these veins are numerous
D veins of pyrite-quartz with sericitic selvages that locally can
also contain minor Au values. These veins occur on the upper
western flank of the deposit in a 600 × 200 m area that was
drilled to approximately 250-m depth.
Hydrothermal breccia
In general, hydrothermal breccia comprises a minor compo-
nent of the overall Nuevo Chaquiro hydrothermal system.
Typically, breccia occurrences are thin, less than a meter in
width, and are only locally observed. One breccia style was as
hydrothermal/magmatic breccia in which clasts of Early diorite
and A quartz veins were contained within a matrix of igneous
material and alteration minerals at the upper side contacts of
the stock or its apex within the high-grade sheeted vein zone.
Another mode of occurrence is associated with potassic alter-
ation at the contact of a quartz diorite porphyry, where clasts
of the porphyry were contained within a matrix of hydrother-
mal biotite (Fig. 5l). Another mode of hydrothermal breccia is
associated with sericitic alteration in which strongly sericitized
tuff fragments locally containing up to 20 vol % pyrite were
brecciated and cemented by a matrix of quartz and black tour-
maline. In another instance, a meter-wide hydrothermal brec-
cia comprising rounded, milled clasts of potassically altered
quartz diorite with truncated quartz-magnetite-chalcopyrite
veinlets was contained within a matrix of rock flour, sericite,
and secondary pyrite. In turn, the hydrothermal breccia at this
locale was cut by later carbonate veinlets.
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 287

a b

c d
Fig. 7. Reflected light photos showing sulfide paragenetic relations. a. Massive chalcopyrite-pyrite vein in reopened quartz
A vein. Pyrite appears corroded by the chalcopyrite. Late calcite filling vugs. CHA-048 505.3 m. b. Early magnetite, pyrrho-
tite rimmed, replaced by chalcopyrite. Later generation of pyrite. CHA-048 703.1 m. c. Molybdenite rimmed/replaced by
chalcopyrite. Later euhedral pyrite. Biotite replaced by chlorite, replaced (?) by chalcopyrite. CHA-048 703.1 m. d. Calcite-
marcasite vein with botryoidal native arsenic. CHA-042 933.1 m. Abbreviations: AS = native arsenic, BI = biotite, CA =
calcite, CP = chalcopyrite, CT = chlorite, EA = open space, MAR= marcasite, MO = molybdenite, MT = magnetite, PO =
pyrrhotite, QZ = quartz, PY = pyrite.

Veinlet Types interpreted as corresponding to B veins. General parage-

The following veinlet types were observed, listed in their
approximate paragenetic order as determined from crosscut-
ting relationships (from earliest to latest, with parentheses
indicating uncommon phases):
 1. Pervasive hydrothermal biotite ± disseminated magne-
tite, chalcopyrite, (molybdenite), (pyrite).
  2. Biotite or actinolite hair veinlets ± anhydrite.
  3. Diffuse quartz “A” type veinlets ± magnetite ± (chlorite).
These are commonly reopened and filled with sulfides
from the next stage.
 4. Sulfide hair veinlets of magnetite-chalcopyrite-
(molybdenite), typically with no alteration selvages.
Rarely, veinlets of this type are seen accompanied by bio-
tite, K-feldspar, or EDM selvages. They appear stable in
biotite-altered rocks.
  5. Quartz-sulfide veinlets, commonly with chlorite selvages.
Quartz abundance appears to increase with time, and
quartz tends to be elongated perpendicular to the vein
walls, approaching a coxcomb appearance. These are
netic relations among the sulfides are as follows: (1) mag-
netite, (2) molybdenite ± pyrite, (3) chalcopyrite ± pyrite,
(4) chalcopyrite-pyrite, and (5) pyrite.
  6. Chalcopyrite hair veinlets with chlorite selvages. In the
deepest part of the deposit, epidote may locally accom-
pany chlorite in the alteration selvage.
  7. Pyrite hair veinlets with no selvages.
  8. Quartz-pyrite-molybdenite ± (chalcopyrite) veinlets with
sericitic selvages.
  9. Chalcopyrite hair veinlets with sericitic selvages.
10. Pyrite-quartz ± tourmaline “D veins” with sericite +
quartz selvages.
11. Anhydrite-pyrite-(molybdenite) veinlets, no selvages.
12. Pyrophyllite-quartz veinlets, no selvages.
13. Carbonate-quartz-pyrite-sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite
veins commonly with sericitic selvages. These show a
general paragenetic sequence of (1) quartz, (2) chalcopy-
rite, pyrite, (3) sphalerite (zoned from early light colored
to later dark colored), (4) arsenopyrite, native arsenic,
and (5) calcite.
288 BARTOS ET AL.
If one correlates the alteration selvages associated with spe-
cific veinlet types to the broader-scale alteration patterns
seen within the deposit as a whole, then (1) potassic altera-
tion would be associated with veinlet types a through d; (2)
calcic-potassic alteration would be associated principally with
veinlet type b and to a lesser degree, veinlet type a. A third
veinlet type – epidote ± calcite, (pyrite) with actinolite sel-
vages – would also be associated with calcic-potassic altera-
tion; timing relations of this veinlet type to other veinlet types
are uncertain; (3) Sericite-chlorite alteration (indicated by the
presence of chlorite) would be associated with veinlet types
e through g. (4) Sericitic alteration would be associated with
veinlet types g through m. The general temporal sequence of
calcic-potassic and potassic, then sericite-chlorite, then ser-
icitic is suggestive of an overall decreasing temperature and
pH, and increasing oxidation conditions.
Paragenesis
Key paragenetic observations include the following:
  1. Biotite and actinolite (and by extension, the potassic and
calcic-potassic alteration zones) appear roughly synchro-
nous. Quartz-sulfide veinlets containing actinolite cut
and are cut by quartz-sulfide veinlets containing biotite
selvages. However, there are also numerous examples of
actinolite-bearing veinlets (without alteration selvages)
cutting through biotite flooded wall rocks, suggesting that
at the interface between the two alteration types, calcic-
potassic alteration is expanding upon earlier potassic
alteration.
  2. Magnetite and sulfides (in the general sequence of first,
magnetite, then pyrrhotite, molybdenite, chalcopyrite, and
pyrite), appear at the end stages of potassic alteration. Sul-
fides tend to occur in three subequal modes: (1) as hair
veinlets typically lacking alteration selvages comprised of
essentially pure sulfide commonly cutting earlier A-type
quartz veins in potassically altered rocks; (2) as dissemi-
nations within biotite-altered rocks without reaction rims;
or (3) in association with quartz-sulfide B veinlets. The
quartz-sulfide B veinlets are commonly accompanied by
chlorite as vein filling or selvages, but there is also rare local
K-feldspar as selvages or vein filling, suggesting compat-
ibility with both potassic and sericite-chlorite conditions.
These veinlets extend temporally and spatially beyond
the potassic zone into sericite-chlorite alteration. Copper
deposition, as chalcopyrite, appears to have occurred dur-
ing the end stages of potassic alteration and in the general
transition time between potassic and sericite-chlorite con-
ditions with considerable overlap either way.
 3. The presence of chalcopyrite and quartz-chalcopy-
rite-pyrite veinlets with sericitic selvages suggests that
deposition of copper continued in part beyond sericite-
chlorite conditions into sericitic conditions. This, how-
ever, appears to be relatively minor.
  4. Paragenetic relations typically have magnetite first, sur-
rounded by chalcopyrite ± a later generation of pyrite.
Pyrrhotite tends to occur in calcic-potassic alteration and
in the deeper portions of potassic alteration.
  5. Anhydrite appears broadly (if on a relatively minor basis)
coincident with potassic alteration. The presence of rare
gypsum (after anhydrite) veinlets with sericitic selvages
suggests anhydrite deposition may extend into sericitic
alteration conditions.
  6. Minor pyrophyllite-quartz veinlets cutting sericitic altera-
tion suggests incursions into advanced argillic conditions
toward the end stages of the hydrothermal system.
 7. The carbonate-quartz–base metal veinlets consistently
demonstrate decreasing sulfidation state with time inter-
nally within individual veinlets. Timing relations between
carbonate-base metal veins and pyrophyllite-quartz vein-
lets were not observed. A generalized paragenetic dia-
gram is shown in Figure 8.
Supergene Effects
Supergene effects at Nuevo Chaquiro are minimal. Typically,
pervasive oxidation marked by clays and iron oxides replacing
sulfides extends at depth to 20 to 40 m below the surface with
patchy oxidation extending tens of meters below that along
fracture zones. There is no supergene blanket or obvious
enrichment of hypogene grades. Trace amounts of supergene
chalcocite and covellite were seen rimming chalcopyrite blebs
within shallow levels of the IS veins.
Age Dates
There are currently six age dates available from Nuevo Cha-
quiro, two obtained using U-Pb techniques on zircons, and
four using Re-Os methods on molybdenite (Table 2). The old-
est obtained date is 10.9 ± 0.2 Ma which was derived from
one of the andesitic flows of the Combia Formation. This age
is a little older than the published ages for this unit (6–10 Ma;
Vinasco et al., 2011), but the age of the Combia Formation
is felt to be not particularly well constrained (Ramirez et al.,
2006).
Three Re-Os age dates and one U-Pb date for the main
age of mineralization at Nuevo Chaquiro have been obtained.
These are, respectively, 7.51 ± 0.04, 7.397 ± 0.043, 7.437 ±
0.097, and 7.6 ± 0.2 Ma (Table 2; G. Gonzalez, 2012; Valencia,
2012; Leal-Mejia, 2014). The average of these four dates is
7.47 ± 0.09 Ma. A single Re-Os age date from molybdenite
from the IS carbonate-quartz-base metal vein zone gives an
age of 7.53 ± 0.04 Ma, which is within error to the average
main porphyry mineralization age of 7.47 ± 0.09 Ma (Valen-
cia, 2012; G. Gonzalez, 2012; Table 2). This supports that the
IS vein zone represents a distal effect of the main porphyry
mineralization as opposed to a separate, later event.
Time/Space Evolution
Figure 9 shows the inferred time-space evolution of the
Nuevo Chaquiro system with overall inferred flow lines of the
hydrothermal fluid depicted. There are several broad conclu-
sions that can be derived:
 1. The magmatic-hydrothermal system progressed from
east to west with the Early quartz diorite at the eastern-
most portion of the system, and with Intermineral por-
phyries being emplaced progressively westward. The
apices of each intrusion also appear to have vertically
decreased westward, with the apex of the earliest Inter-
mineral intrusive (phase 2), being approximately 120 ver-
tical meters below that of the Early quartz diorite, and
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 289

Mineral Early Late

High T Medium T High/Low T

Potassic Calcic- Sericite-Chlorite Sericite Argillic Propylitic

Potassic

Actinolite

Molybdenite

Quartz

Biotite

Magnetite

Anhydrite

Epidote

Pyrrhotite

Chalcopyrite

Pyrite

K Feldspar

Chlorite

Bornite

Cubanite

Sericite

Calcite

Illite/Smectite

Tourmaline

Sphalerite

Galena

Arsenopyrite

Pyrophyllite

Marcasite

Stibnite

Native Arsenic

Fig. 8. Generalized paragenetic diagram, Nuevo Chaquiro deposit. Line thickness proportional to abundance. Individual
intrusions (and their fluid/metal pulses) have not been broken out.
290 BARTOS ET AL.

a b

c d

Fig. 9. Proposed time/space sequence for the Nuevo Chaquiro deposit, drawn along the same line of section as Figure 4. a.
Intrusion of Early quartz diorite porphyry. Formation INTRUSIVES
e of sheeted vein zone at cupola accompanied by a very strong sericite-
chlorite overprint. Highest grades in the deposit. b. Intrusion of Intermineral porphyry phase 2: western portion of Early
quartz diorite consumed. Weak sericite-chlorite overprint, but with significant Cu grades Intrusive contact
(but less than those associated with
the Early quartz diorite). c. Intrusion of Intermineral porphyry phase 4 and associated hydrothermal system
Early Diorites, (phase
Qtz 3 is out of
Diorites
section and not shown). Moderate sericite-chlorite overprint; moderate Cu grades. Calcic-potassic alteration occurs at higher
elevations than in previous intrusions. d. Intrusion of Intermineral porphyry phase 5 and associated hydrothermal system.
Intermineral
Moderate sericite-chlorite overprint, comparable to that of phase 4, but with significantly Diorites,
lower Cu grades. Qtz Diorites
e. Formation of
sericitic/phyllic cap. Late intrusive rocks emplaced at this time; Postmineral dikes followed later. Argillic pipes within the
phyllic cap form centered on faults/fracture zones. Advanced argillic alterationALTERATION
(pyrophylite ± quartz veinlets) formed in
upper portion of the phyllic cap (above strong dashed line); this has been largely eroded away. Qtz = quartz.
Argillic
the latest Intermineral porphyry, phase 5, being approxi- overprint; and the younger
Sericitic Intermineral porphyries, phases
(Phyllic)
mately 365 m below the Early quartz diorite (Fig. 9). 4 and 5, have moderate overprints (Fig. 9).
Chlorite-Sericite
  2. The apex of each intrusion has an overprint of sericite-chlo-   3. There is only a weak correlation between the intensity
rite alteration superimposed on earlier potassic alteration. of the sericite-chlorite
Potassic overprint (which presumably
The intensity of the overprint varies: The Early quartz dio- reflects the extent of hydrothermal
Calcic-Potassic fluid flow) and cop-
rite has a very strong sericite-chlorite overprint; the oldest per grades. The intrusion with the most intense sericite-
Intermineral porphyry, phase 2, has a weak sericite-chlorite Propylitic
chlorite overprint, the Early quartz diorite, does have
Cupola Zone
Chlorite-Sericite Overprint
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 291
e INTRUSIVES
Fig. 9. (Cont.)
the highest copper grades. However, despite a relatively  
weak sericite-chlorite overprint, the earliest of the Inter-
mineral porphyries, phase 2, had significant intermediate
grade copper deposited with it. It may be that some of the
copper associated with Intermineral phase 2 represents
recycled copper from the Early quartz diorite which was
partially consumed by Intermineral phase 2. Intermineral
phase 4 has a significantly more intense sericite-chlorite
overprint than Intermineral phase 2. Nonetheless, the  
grade of copper associated with Intermineral phase 2 is
considerably greater than that in Intermineral phase 4.
The latest Intermineral porphyry, phase 5, has copper
values that are lower still, being only strongly anoma-
lous to at best very low grade—this, despite Intermineral
phase 5 having strong potassic alteration and a sericite-
chlorite overprint comparable to that of Intermineral
phase 4. The suggestion is that available copper was being
removed from the overall hydrothermal/magmatic reser-
voir following the successive emplacement of the various
porphyries, with the earliest fluids tapping effectively
more available copper. By the end stages of Intermineral
porphyry emplacement, there appears to have been mini-
mal available copper remaining in the system.
  4. The Early quartz diorite had extensive internal recircula-
tion of progressively cooling and evolving hydrothermal
fluid to considerable depths (on the order of 830 verti-  
cal meters) within the intrusion. This is evidenced by the
presence of quartz-pyrite veining with sericite selvages,
carbonate-base metal veinlets (also with sericitic selvages),
and small pockets of white illite occurring deep within the
Early quartz diorite. Similar features were not seen within
the Intermineral porphyries. In these porphyries, the evo-
lution and the internal recirculation of hydrothermal fluids
within the apexes appears to have been considerably less,
with total sericite-chlorite overprint heights on the order of
330 to 450 vertical meters (Fig. 4a).
Intrusive contact
Early Diorites, Qtz Diorites
Intermineral Diorites, Qtz Diorites
ALTERATION
Argillic
Sericitic (Phyllic)
Chlorite-Sericite
Potassic
Calcic-Potassic
Propylitic
Cupola Zone
Chlorite-Sericite Overprint
5. Although the pulses of magmatic/hydrothermal fluid
accompanying each porphyry appear geochemically
similar, there were minor differences. For example,
the elevation at which calcic-potassic alteration first
occurs in Intermineral phase 4 is considerably higher
(by approx. 275 m) than that seen in Intermineral phase
2, possibly suggesting a relatively higher temperature of
those fluids.
6. The sericitic/phyllic cap on top of the system is inferred to
have formed after emplacement of the last Intermineral
porphyry and its associated potassic alteration. The chem-
ical components comprising the phyllic cap were proba-
bly introduced by all the porphyries, Early, Intermineral,
and Late; their deposition did not occur until after the
potassic and calcic-potassic alteration had ceased. In all
field relations seen to date, sericitic alteration crosscuts or
replaces earlier potassic alteration; there is no evidence
for an advancing potassic alteration front superimposed
upon any earlier sericitic alteration. A similar model (a
single, late sericitic cap following the emplacement of
multiple intrusions, each with its own associated potassic
alteration) has been proposed by Seedorff and Einaudi
(2004a, b) for the sericitic alteration associated with the
Seriate and Henderson intrusive centers at the Hender-
son porphyry molybdenum deposit.
7. The time of formation of the pervasive propylitic and ser-
icite-chlorite alteration zones beyond the pervasive potas-
sic alteration (as opposed to the specific sericite-chlorite
overprints occurring at individual porphyry apexes) is
not completely clear. It is believed that, as depicted in
Figure 9, a pervasive sericite-chlorite and propylitic
alteration shell formed synchronously with the general
potassic alteration halo accompanying the intrusion of
each individual porphyry and the release of its associated
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid, likely brought about by
progressive fluid cooling.
292 BARTOS ET AL.
  8. The intermediate argillic alteration and the IS veins likely
formed toward the end stages of phyllic time. Advanced
argillic alteration, of which sparse remnants occur in the
upper reaches of the present-day deposit, also appeared
to have formed at this time, centered over the intrusion
apexes.
Discussion
At Nuevo Chaquiro, there have been multiple cycles of cal-
cic-potassic and potassic alteration, with later overprinting by
sericite-chlorite alteration, each associated with an individual
intrusion of either an Early or Intermineral porphyry; these
are all overprinted by a single, later sercitic (phyllic) altera-
tion event superimposed as a broad cap upon the entire sys-
tem. There is also an evolution in veinlet types with A veinlets
being far more commonly associated with the Early quartz
diorite and much less common in the Intermineral porphy-
ries. In addition, the amount of sericite-chlorite overprinting
varies with each intrusion. Some are pervasively overprinted
such that relict potassic alteration can barely be discerned.
Others have only a weak sericite-chlorite overprint upon
potassic alteration. Copper grades appear to have only a rela-
tively weak correlation to the intensity of the sericite-chlorite
overprint (the potassic alteration in all the Intermineral por-
phyries tends to be consistently pervasive and strong; it is the
sericite-chlorite alteration which appears to vary).
The high-grade Cupola/Sheeted vein zone at Nuevo Cha-
quiro stands out and can be compared to a subparellal array of
sheeted A veins, in which the early quartz veins are repeatedly
deposited in a manner similar to a UST, and then reopened
and filled by subsequent massive sulfide (typically chalcopy-
rite with minor pyrite). Porphyry deposits with comparable
features include Yerington, Nevada (Dilles and Einaudi, 1992;
Proffett, 2009); Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina (Proffett,
2003); Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia (Khashgerel et al., 2006); Ok
Tedi, Papua New Guinea (Rush and Seegers, 1990); and Red
Chris, British Colombia (Rees et al., 2015). All these deposits
feature zones containing high-grade copper associated with
multiple generations of A veins occurring within and immedi-
ately surrounding the upper cupola portion of early porphyry
phases (Sillitoe, 2000, 2010).
It is not clear exactly when the broad disseminated bio-
tite alteration in the wall-rock tuffs was formed. There is the
sense that the Early quartz diorite was sealed and essentially
stewed in its own juices, with relatively little outward fluid
flow beyond the immediate intrusive contact. In contrast, the
outer biotite halo in wall-rock tuffs near the Intramineral por-
phyries was much more extensive than that near the Early
quartz diorite, suggesting considerably more outward hydro-
thermal fluid flow with these porphyries. In part, the large
scale potassic (biotitic) alteration halo reflects the permeable,
mafic nature of the Combia Formation andesitic tuffs; Silli-
toe, (2010, p. 11, 20) notes that ferrous Fe-rich host rocks
have a tendency to favor large potassic halos and high-grade
porphyry copper mineralization. However, there also seems
to be a difference between the respective porphyries as to the
extent of their outward potassic wall-rock alteration haloes.
There is a consistent paragenesis for the alteration-mineral-
ization associated with each intrusion, suggesting a relatively
stable underlying magma chamber that fluxed geochemically
similar pulses of magmatic/hydrothermal fluid accompanying
each porphyry intrusive. Although geochemically similar, these
fluid pulses varied in magnitude and grade, typically decreas-
ing in copper and gold with time. Thus, the Early quartz dio-
rite contains the deposit’s highest grades, and the various later
Intermineral porphyries appear to show generally decreasing
copper grades with time, with the minor late dikes still being
pervasively sericitically altered, but barren of copper.
At Nuevo Chaquiro, the close association of high copper
grades with A quartz veins at or surrounding the upper parts
of the Early porphyy, the abundant secondary magnetite, the
strong association of copper with potassic (biotitic) altera-
tion (or chlorite), and the minimal occurrence of EDM vein-
lets all suggest that emplacement of the magmatic chamber
responsible for the hydrothermal fluids and porphyries was
at relatively shallow levels. By comparison with the Yering-
ton, Nevada, deposit, this is estimated to be less than 5 km
below the paleosurface (Proffett, 2009). There are a couple of
important differences in Nuevo Chaquiro compared to Yer-
ington. One is the virtual absence of bornite and K-feldspar
in the high-grade zone (and the deposit as whole) as well as
the more mafic, possibly more reduced, initial igneous com-
positions (diorites and quartz diorites vs. quartz monzonites).
Another significant difference is the overall igneous morphol-
ogy. Yerington is an elongated dike cluster (See fig. 1B of Prof-
fett, 2009) whereas Nuevo Chaquiro is a combination small
stocks complex with extruding dikes (Fig. 5a). This would pos-
sibly suggest a somewhat deeper level of emplacement for the
underlying magma chamber than at Yerington, but still rela-
tively shallow (perhaps a depth of emplacement of ~4.5 km as
opposed to ~4 km?).
Timing of copper deposition
The relative timing of copper deposition in porphyry copper
deposits appears to vary. Many deposits, perhaps the major-
ity, appear to have copper depositing early at relatively high
temperatures as chalcopyrite ± bornite, commonly with mag-
netite, and synchronous with potassic alteration (Hemley and
Hunt, 1992; Dilles et al., 2000). Deposits where this occurs
include Bingham, El Salvador, Yerington, Dos Probes, and
Bajo de la Alumbrera (Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004b, and
references therein). At other deposits, such as Sierrita-Espe-
ranza (Preece and Beane, 1982), Santa Rita (Reynolds and
Beane, 1985), and Far Southeast (Hedenquist et al., 1998),
copper occurs relatively later at inferred lower temperatures
as chalcopyrite with pyrite and chlorite ± sericite broadly syn-
chronous with the onset of sericitc alteration. Both variants
occur at Nuevo Chaquiro: chalcopyrite-magnetite in associa-
tion with biotite (potassic alteration), and chalcopyrite-pyrite
in association with sericite-chlorite alteration.
Classification
In terms of dominant metal, the principal criterion used in
the classification scheme of Seedorff et al. (2005), Nuevo
Chaquiro falls within the tonalitic-granodioritic Cu-(Au-
Mo) subclass of porphyry copper deposits (Seedorff et al.,
2005, Table 1). Overall metal ratios such as Au/Ag and Cu/
Mo (0.071, and 50, respectively) also support placing Nuevo
Chaquiro within this subclass (Seedorff et al., 2005, fig. 13A).
However, the strong association of mineralization at Nuevo
 THE NUEVO CHAQUIRO DEPOSIT, MIDDLE CAUCA BELT, COLOMBIA 293
Chaquiro with intrusions of diorite to quartz diorite compo-
sition also suggests affinities with the dioritic porphyry gold
class, despite an overall gold grade of 0.31 g/t Au, which is
below the 0.40 g/t Au minimum proposed by Sillitoe (1993)
for gold-rich porphyries. As noted by Seedorff et al., 2005 (p.
285), there is a continuum between the two classes; it would
appear the Nuevo Chaquiro (and most likely, the other por-
phyry occurrences in the Middle Cauca belt, all of which have
dioritic or quartz dioritic compositions; Table 1) falls within
this continuum.
Summary and Conclusions
Nuevo Chaquiro is a Miocene age, unexposed porphyry Cu-
Au-Mo deposit located in the Middle Cauca belt of Colombia.
The subsurface geology comprises a stock-dike cluster of dio-
rites and quartz diorites intruded into a package of Miocene
age andesitic tuffs. None of the intrusive rocks, excluding some
Late and Post-mineral porphyry dikes, breached the present-
day surface, much less the paleosurface, of which an esti-
mated 1 to 1.5 km have been estimated to have been removed
by erosion (based on the presence of incipient advanced argil-
lic alteration in the upper reaches of the deposit).
There are four main intrusive groupings: Early, Intermin-
eral, Late, and Post-mineral. Immediately within and adjacent
to the apex of an Early quartz diorite is a zone of highly devel-
oped quartz veins and associated high-grade copper mineral-
ization. This comprises a zone currently estimated at 104 Mt,
averaging 1.1% Cu, 0.64 g/t Au, within the overall resource of
566 Mt, averaging 0.64% Cu, 0.31 g/t Au. Mineralization in
the high-grade zone is dominated by A and B quartz veinlets.
Chalcopyrite occurs within re-opened A veinlets, as crosscut-
ting sulfide hair veinlets, and within quartz B veinlets; chlorite
is a commonly associated phase with the latter. The slightly
later Intermineral porphyries created a second orebody
slightly to the west but contiguous with the Early orebody.
The Intermineral orebody has an inverted bowl shape. Here
Cu-Au-Mo mineralization is associated with potassic altera-
tion that manifests itself as secondary flooding of the wall-rock
matrix by hydrothermal biotite accompanied by dissemina-
tions and hair veinlets of chalcopyrite, magnetite, molybde-
nite, and pyrite.
The emplacement depth of the batholith sourcing the mag-
matic fluids and porphyries at Nuevo Chaquiro is inferred to
be relatively shallow, with emplacement depths of <5 km. The
average date of porphyry mineralization at Nuevo Chaquiro is
7.47 Ma ± 0.09 Ma; carbonate-quartz–base metal veins occur-
ring on the western flank of the deposit have an identical age
within error (7.53 ± 0.03 Ma), suggesting a direct linkage
between the two mineralization styles. At Nuevo Chaquiro,
there appears to have been multiple cycles of synchronous
calcic-potassic and potassic alteration, with later overprinting
by sericite-chlorite alteration, each cycle associated in time
with the individual intrusion of either an Early or Intermineral
porphyry. These are all overprinted by a single, later sercitic
(phyllic) event superimposed as a broad cap upon the entire
system. Associated with the phyllic cap were carbonate-base
metal veins, typically occurring on the upper western flank of
the deposit, as well as minor, late intermediate argillic pipes,
localized on faults and fractures. There was also incipient
advanced argillic alteration (pyrophyllite ± quartz veinlets) at
the upper central portion of the system; this has been largely
eroded away.
In many aspects, Nuevo Chaquiro is a “typical” Au-rich por-
phyry copper system. Detailed geologic logging confirms that
many of the generalizations postulated by Sillitoe (2010) for
this class of deposit are indeed present at Nuevo Chaquiro.
Nonetheless, important geologic and exploration questions
remain. In particular, the contrast between the mineraliza-
tion styles between the Early and Intermineral orebodies
(sheeted subparallel high-grade zones vs. broad zones with
disseminated mineralization of moderate grade) as well the
timing differences in copper deposition (associated with both
potassic and sericite-chlorite conditions) suggest that Nuevo
Chaquiro may represent a combination of different porphyry
mineralization styles.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following geoscien-
tists who made contributions to the observations and ideas
expressed within: Rex Brommecker, Leonardo Cajica, Andres
Giraldo, Jhon Alfonso, German Gonzalez, Anwar Urquiza,
Julian Valencia, Andrei Perez, Nick Winer, Sergei Diakov,
and Timo Garzon. Eric Seedorff and Richard Tosdal provided
critical insights during their reviews of the project. Luke Swift
and Derek Nicholson assisted in the unraveling of the igneous
architecture; their contributions are particularly appreciated.
Nuevo Chaquiro is a 92:8 joint venture between AngloGold
Ashanti and B2Gold. Both companies are thanked for permis-
sion to publish. Reviews by Nathan Fox, Victor Maksaev, and
Thomas Bissig significantly improved the manuscript.
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APPENDIX
data-point error ellipses are 2σ
0.24
0.20
207Pb/ 206Pb
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04 20 16 12 8 0.0004
300 500 700 900 1100
238U/206Pb
Fig. A1. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of Nuevo Chaquiro miner-
alized quartz diorite (Valencia, 2012)
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data-point error ellipses are 2σ
0.0016
10
0.0014
8
0.0012
206Pb/ 238U
0.0010
0.0008
Aurora-IM-01
0.0006
AGE: 8.0+0.9/-0.4Ma
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
207Pb/ 235U
Fig. A2. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analysis of Aurora diorite porphyry
(Leal-Mejia, 2011)