Metallic denture base

Base-metal alloys are used extensively in dentistry for appliances and

instruments. Cast cobalt chromium and nickel-chromium alloys have
been used for many years for fabricating partial denture frameworks and
have replaced Type IV gold alloys almost completely for this application.
Cast nickel-chromium alloys are used in fabricating crowns and bridges.
These alloys were developed as substitutes for Type III gold alloys, and
in some cases may be used as a substructure for dental porcelain. Nickel
chromium and cobalt-chromium alloys are used in porcelain-fused-to-
metal restorations.

General requirements of a dental alloy

1-The alloy's chemical nature should not produce harmful toxicologic or
allergic effects in the patient or the operator.

2-The chemical properties of the appliance should provide resistance to

corrosion and physical changes in the oral fluids.

3-The physical and mechanical properties such as thermal conductivity,

melting temperature, coefficient of thermal expansion,and strength should
all be satisfactory.

4-The technical expertise needed for fabrication and use should be

feasible for the average dentist and skilled technician.

5-The metals, alloys, and companion materials for fabrication should be

plentiful, relatively inexpensive, and readily available,even in periods of
emergency.
Cobalt-chromium alloys:
Composition:
The chemical composition of these alloys specified in the ISO Standard
for Dental Base Metal Casting Alloys is as follows:
Cobalt main constituent

Chromium no less than 25%

Molybdenum no less than 4%

Cobalt + nickel + chromium no less than 85%

A typical material would contain 35–65% cobalt, 25–35% chromium, 0–

30% nickel, a little molybdenum and trace quantities of other elements
such as beryllium, silicon and carbon.

Nickel-chromium alloys
The chemical composition of these alloys specified in the ISO Standard
for Dental Base Metal Casting Alloys (Part 2) is as follows:

Nickel main constituent

Chromium no less than 20%

Molybdenum no less than 4%

Beryllium no more than 2%

Nickel + cobalt + chromium no less than 85%

As for the Co/Cr alloys the concentrations of minor ingredients can have
a profound effect on properties. The concentration of carbon and the
nature of the grain boundaries are major factors in controlling the
properties of these alloys.

Function of Various Alloying Elements:

Chromium is responsible for the tarnish and corrosion resistance of these
alloys. When the chromium content of an alloy is higher than 30%, the
alloy is more difficult to cast. With this percentage of chromium, the
alloy also forms a brittle phase, known as the sigma phase. Therefore cast
base-metal dental alloys should not contain more than 28% or 29%
chromium. In general, cobalt and nickel, Cobalt increases the elastic
modulus,strength, and hardness of the alloy more than does nickel.

The effect of other alloying elements on the properties of these alloys is

much more pronounced.One of the most effective ways of increasing the
hardness of cobalt-based alloys is by increasing their carbon content. A
change in the carbon content of approximately 0.2% changes the
properties to such an extent that the alloy would no longer be usable in
dentistry. For example, if the carbon content is increased by 0.2 % over
the desired amount, the alloy becomes too hard and brittle and should not
be used for making any dental appliances. Conversely, a reduction of
0.2% in the carbon content would reduce the alloy's yield and ultimate
tensile strengths to such low values that, once again, the alloy would not
be usable in dentistry. Furthermore, almost all elements in these alloys,
such as chromium, silicon, molybdenum, cobalt, and nickel, react with
carbon to form carbides, which change the properties of the alloys.

Aluminum in nickel-containing alloys forms a compound of nickel and

aluminum (Ni,Al). This compound increases the ultimate tensile and
yield strengths of the alloy considerably. The addition of as little as 1% to
2% beryllium to nickel-based alloys lowers the fusion range by about
100 ºC. However, recent studies suggest that this concentration of
beryllium may adversely affect ductility. Corrosion resistance is also
compromised.

Silicon and manganese are added to increase the fluidity and castability
of these alloys. Nitrogen, which cannot be controlled unless the castings
are made in a controlled atmosphere, such as in a vacuum, also
contributes to the brittle qualities of these cast alloys. When the nitrogen
content of the final alloy is more than 0.1%, the castings lose some of
their ductility.

Manipulation of base metal casting alloys

The fusion temperatures of the Ni/Cr and Co/Cr alloys vary

with composition but are generally in the range 1200–1500ºC.
This is considerably higher than for the casting gold alloys
which rarely have fusion temperatures above 950ºC. Melting of
gold alloys can readily be achieved using a gas–air mixture. For
base metal alloys, however, either an acetylene–oxygen flame or
an electrical induction furnace is required. The latter method is
to be favoured since it is carried out under more controlled
conditions. When using oxyacetylene flames the ratio of oxygen
to acetylene must be carefully controlled. Too much oxygen
may cause oxidation of the alloy whilst an excess of acetylene
produces an increase in the metal carbide content leading to
embrittlement.

Investment moulds for base metal alloys must be capable of

maintaining their integrity at the high casting temperatures used.
Silica-bonded and phosphate-bonded materials are favoured
with the latter product being most widely used. Gypsum bonded
investments decompose above 1200ºC to form sulphur dioxide
which may be absorbed by the casting, causing embrittlement.
This effect can be reduced by the incorporation of oxalate in the
investment, however the problem is generally avoided by
choosing an investment which is more stable at elevated
temperatures.

The density values of base metal alloys are approximately half

those of the casting gold alloys. For this reason the thrust
developed during casting may be somewhat lower, with the
possibility that the casting may not adequately fill the mould.
Casting machines used for base metal alloys must therefore be
capable of producing extra thrust which overcomes this
deficiency. The problem may be aggravated if the investment is
not sufficiently porous to allow escape of trapped air and other
gases. Careful use of vents and sprues of adequate size is
normally sufficient to overcome such problems.

The greatest expense involved in producing a Co/Cr dental

casting is in the time required for trimming and polishing. In the
‘as cast’ state, the alloy surface is normally quite rough, partially
due to the coarse nature of some investment powders. Finer
investments can be used to give a smoother surface requiring
less finishing. One common technique involves painting the wax
pattern with fine investment – this then forms the inner surface
of the investment mould. The bulk of the mould is then formed
from the coarser grade material.

Base metal alloys, and particularly the Co/Cr type, are very hard
and consequently difficult to polish. After casting, it is usual to
sandblast the metal to remove any surface roughness or adherent
investment material as well as the green layer of oxide which
coats the surface after casting. Electrolytic polishing may then
be carried out. This procedure is essentially the opposite to
electroplating.If a rough metal surface is connected as the anode
in a bath of strongly acidic electrolyte,a current passing between
it and the cathode will cause the anode to ionize and lose a
surface film of metal.

Casting:

Investment mould:

The mould cavity is formed by allowing the investment to set

around the wax pattern and associated sprue former and spruce
base (crucible). After allowing the investment material to set,
the sprue base and former are removed and the wax pattern
‘burnt out’ to leave the completed mould cavity. The choice of
investment material depends on the type of alloy which is to be
cast. The casting ring liner serves a dual purpose. It forms a
relatively pliable lining to the inner surface of the rigid metal
casting ring. This allows almost unrestricted setting expansion
and thermal expansion of the investment. In addition, its thermal
insulating properties ensure that the investment mould does not
cool rapidly and contract after removal from the ‘burn out’
oven.
Heating of the investment mould should be carried out at a rate
which enables steam and other gases to be liberated without
cracking the mould. Also it is important that the temperature to
which the mould is heated is adequate to enable thermal
expansion and inversion to occur and that this temperature is not
allowed to fall significantly before casting begins. Casting into a
quartz-containing investment mould should be carried out with a
mould temperature above 650ºC if adequate expansion due to
thermal expansion and inversion is to be achieved. This requires
that the mould be heated to about 750ºC to allow for cooling
which may occur before casting commences. For cristobalite-
containing investment moulds the mould temperature should be
above 350ºC at the time of casting and this requires heating to
about 450ºC to allow for cooling effects.

The balance between the molten alloy temperature and mould

temperature is important in terms of producing a complete and
accurate casting with a fine grain structure. The alloy should be
hot enough to ensure that it is fully molten and remains so
during casting into the mould, but should not be so hot that it
begins to oxidize or that crystallization is delayed when it
reaches the extremities of the mould cavity or causes damaging
interactions with the mould walls. The mould temperature
should be great enough to ensure complete expansion of the
mould and to prevent premature crystallization leading to
incomplete filling of the mould by alloy, but not great enough
for crystallization to be delayed for so long that a coarse grain
structure forms.

Factors such as length and diameter of the sprue and the

distance of the mould cavity from the base of the mould all have
an effect on the quality of the casting. For large castings, two or
more sprues may be necessary in order to ensure that molten
alloy is able to reach all parts of the mould cavity before
solidifying.

Casting machines:

Numerous types of casting machines are available, the aim of

each being to cause molten alloy to completely fill the
investment mould cavity. The three main variables which
characterize the machines are as follows:

1-The alloy may be melted in the mould sprue base (mould

crucible) or in a separate crucible located in the casting
machine.

2- The alloy may be melted by one of several methods including

gas-air torch, oxyacetylene torch, electrical induction heating or

electrical resistance melting.

3- The molten alloy may be driven into the mould by gravity, air
pressure, steam pressure or by centrifugal force. The arm of the
centrifugal casting machine is rotated either by a spring or by
means of an electric motor.