Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited

(A Government of India Enterprise)

Quality Assurance Directorate

(For internal Circulation)

Disscussion on “Terms and definitions related to welding (Ref: ISO-25901-2016)”

 Major Types of Welding Electrode coatings

4 major types of welding electrode coatings are the most commonly used. They are

 Rutile Coating
 Basic or low H2 Coating
 Cellulosic Coating
 Iron oxide Coating

Figure 1
Rutile electrode

Figure 2

The rutile type electrodes present the best properties in use: very good arc stability,
transfer of metal in fine drops which generally results in a low level of spatters and
lower fume emission than the basic electrodes, a very good bead wetting and a very
easy restart from cold.
However, by its nature, this slag has an influence on the content of residual elements
in the deposited metal. The elements which are in general not desirable from the
perspective of optimizing mechanical properties. They are:
Oxygen:
The oxygen content cannot be lowered to the level which can be reached with a
basic electrode. This results is a most significant inclusion content and consequently
in a lower ductile fracture energy during impact tests.
Titanium:
The titanium content of the deposited metal cannot be adjusted, as we would wish,
in order to optimize the mechanical properties. Indeed, the slag being mainly
composed of rutile elements (titanium oxide TiO2), some titanium is inevitably
transferred to the deposited metal in variable quantities.
Niobium and Vanadium:
The niobium and vanadium content of the deposited metal cannot be lowered
beyond a certain point because these elements exist as impurities in the natural
rutiles used in the manufacture of welding products.
Diffusible Hydrogen:
The diffusible hydrogen content of welds created with rutile electrodes is always very
high. Usually, this results from the presence of organic materials added to facilitate
extrusion and to improve the arc’s characteristics..
Thus, rutile electrodes are valued for their user-friendliness and the creation of a weld
bead, whereas basic electrodes are essential when the joints to be made must satisfy
severe metallurgical quality standards.
Basic or low hydrogen Electrode Coating

Figure 3

The basic electrode coating is made up of calcium carbonates and fluorite. This
coated electrodes must satisfy the required mechanical properties of the steels
which it is intended to weld (tensile, impact strength, CTOD, creep, etc.). Many
analytical combinations make it possible to obtain the tensile characteristics sought
in the deposited metal, but the solutions that satisfy both the tensile and toughness
characteristics are much more limited. This is increasingly true the higher the tensile
properties. In addition, the chemical balance retained for an electrode must be the
most robust possible, i.e. it must satisfy the various requirements in spite of the
variations inherent in any industrial production, and that, in a broad field of welding
conditions (thermal cycles). Lastly, a basic electrode must be designed so that the
diffusible hydrogen content in the deposited metal is as low as possible in order to
avoid any risk of cold cracking while minimizing or even precluding pre-heating and
post-heating.

Cellulosic Electrode coating

Figure 4

The cellulosic electrode coating is made up of organic materials mostly cellulose.

Cellulosic electrode coating is identical as rutile. But, the basic difference is the
percentage of Titanium dioxide,(Tio2 ) is less in the cellulosic coating. When cellulosic
burns, it results is the evolution of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
These gases provide a protective shield to the molten base metal.
When compare with the same thickness of the work a cellulosic coating results in
deeper penetration as compared to rutile coating. Since the rate of evolution of
hydrogen gas is high there is a danger of hydrogen embrittlement of the base metal.

Iron oxide electrode coating

Figure 5

The electrode coated with iron oxide improves arc behavior, bead appearance; helps
increase the metal deposition rate and arc travel speed. During welding evolution of
hydrogen gas is less as compare with cellulosic coated electrode. Also it as low
penetration and good look weld penetration.

 ACID AND BASIC SLAG SYSTEMS The type of slag produced from covered
electrodes has a definite effect on the quality of the weld metal.  The E6010, 6011,
6012, 6013, 7014, 7024 and other cellulosic and rutile electrodes, produce slags that
are predominantly silicon dioxide (sand) and have an acidic behaviour.  Acid slag
systems do no refining of the weld metal.  In contrast, the slag from the E7016,
E7018 and other low hydrogen electrodes is made up mostly of lime and fluorspar,
two items that are basic in chemical behaviour.  Basic slags do some refining of the
weld metal, resulting in lower non-metallic inclusion content.

 Air-arc gouging:, also referred to as metal arc gouging, and previously as air arc
cutting, is an arc cutting process where metal is cut and melted by the heat of a
carbon arc. Molten metal is then removed by a blast of air. It employs a consumable
carbon or graphite electrode to melt the material, which is then blown away by an air
jet. This process is useful for cutting a variety of materials, but it is most often used
for cutting and gouging aluminum, copper, iron, magnesium, and carbon and stainless
steel. Because the metal is blown away by the air jet, it does not need to be oxidized.
 Figure 6

 ARC STUD WELDING : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ljz6twH-Pc4 for

animated video of Arc stud welding.
 Point 14 on sheet. [Note: For alloys that can undergo natural ageing (e.g. some
aluminium alloys) the as welded condition lasts only for a limited period of time.]
Natural Ageing: Natural aging is a step in the heat treatment of aluminum alloys in which
the metal is removed from the quench bath and allowed to gain its full strength at room
temperature. Effect: material is hardened. Adverse effect: In some applications, naturally
aging alloys may be stored in a freezer to prevent hardening until after further operations —
assembly of rivets, for example, may be easier with a softer part.

[In artificial ageing, the metal is held at an elevated temperature for it to gain its full strength
in a shorter period of time. For example 6000 series Al-Cu-Mg can be hardened by ‘artificial’
ageing – i.e by baking the solid solution at 150°C to 180°C after quenching.]

 Back Step welding: It comes under techniques to minimize weld distortion. For
reference, all techniques are noted here.
Techniques to Minimize Welding Distortion
1. Size of Weld
It’s important to avoid overwelding. The bigger the weld, the greater the shrinkage that will
occur. Ensuring that the weld has been correctly sized will minimize distortion and save weld
metal and time.
2. Intermittent Welding
Intermittent welding, rather than continuous welds will minimize the amount of weld metal
used. This will, in turn, minimize the distortion during the welding process.
3. Fewer Weld Passes
During the welding process, shrinkage will accumulate with every weld pass. Therefore, a
fewer number of passes will result in less distortion. Try to perform a small number of big
weld passes rather than a large number of small passes.
4. Welding Placement
It’s important to place welds near the neutral axis or center of the part. This placement will
result in less leverage for shrinkage forces to pull plates out of alignment. Avoiding pulling
the plates out of alignment will minimize the distortion of the product.
5. Balance Around the Neutral Axis
Balancing your welds around the neutral axis of the product and weld on both sides of the
plate in order to offset one shrinkage force with another. This balance will minimize
distortion, as the forces will counteract each other.
6. Backstep Welding Technique
Using the backstep welding technique involves generally welding left to right, while
depositing each bead segment right to left. As each bead segment is placed, the heated edges
expand, temporarily separating the plates. However, as the heat moves out, expansion along
the edges brings the plates back together. Successive beads cause the plates to expand less
and less throughout the process because of the restraint that the prior welds cause. This
technique minimizes distortion as the welding process goes on.

Figure 7

7. Presetting Parts
Through a few trial welds at the beginning, you can determine the amount of preset required
for prior welds. You can then use this information to preset parts before welding in order to
make the shrinkage work for you. This control of shrinkage will minimize the distortion of
your product.
8. Alternate Welding Sequence
A carefully planned welding sequence can help minimize distortion. During assembly, the
structure will shrink in one place, counteracting the shrinkage in another. This counteraction
will create a balance that will prevent distortion.
9. Clamping
Using clamps will lock parts into the desired position and hold them until the welding is
finished. Although removing the clamps can cause minimal distortion, it will cause
significantly less distortion than movement during welding.
10. Peening
Peening is the process of striking a product with the back part of a hammer. Peening the weld
bead will stretch it and relieve stresses, minimizing distortion. However, it should be
performed carefully and not executed on the final pass where it can cover a possible crack.
11. Thermal Stress Relief
Another technique to relieve stress in order to minimize distortion is thermal stress relief.
This process involves controlled heating of the weldment to an elevated temperature followed
by a controlled cooling. This control of temperature will reduce stresses pulling on the
product.
12. Minimize Welding Time
The longer the welding process takes, the greater the chance for distortion. Minimizing your
welding time is a good way to reduce welding distortion. Use of mechanized welding
equipment will reduce the welding time and distortion.
13. Water-Cooled Jig
Using a water-cooled jig is an effective tool in minimizing distortion in sheet metal welding.
The tool carries heat away from the welded components and circulates water through the
tubes during welding. Clamps are also used in this process to minimize the distortion.

 Baking of electrodes: The coating of the electrode is having the tendency to absorb
moisture. For example, SMAW welding electrodes have flux coating over it. The flux
composition consists of calcium carbonate which can absorb moisture from the
atmosphere when exposed to air. The electrodes are always packed in a hermetically
closed packages. When opened, moisture may be absorbed from air. To remove
moisture the electrodes are baked at around 250-300 deg celcius. After that the
electrodes are kept in a holding oven until it is used. As the moisture in the flux can
cause porosity in weld metal, it is recommended to bake the electrodes before use.
Also baking reduces the level of dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal which is prone
to make delayed cracking in the weld metal.

Figure 8

 Pillow test example [in seam welds]:

 Simulative mechanical tests in Spot welds:

 Power source characteristics:

The prime objective of an arc welding power source is to deliver controllable welding
current at a voltage demanded by the welding process. In order to understand how the
requirements of the processes affect the design of the power source it is necessary to
understand the interaction of the power source and the arc characteristics. If the
voltage of a welding arc at varying arc lengths is plotted against the welding current
the curves illustrated in following Fig. are obtained.
 Figure 9 Static arc characteristic

The highest voltage is the open circuit voltage of the power source. Once the arc is
struck the voltage rapidly falls as the gases in the arc gap become ionised and
electrically conductive, the electrode heats up and the size of the arc column
increases. The welding current increases as the voltage falls until a point is reached at
which time the voltage/current relationship becomes linear and begins to follow Ohms
Law. What is important to note from above figure is that as the arc length changes
both the voltage and welding current also change – a longer arc giving higher voltage
but with a corresponding drop in welding current and vice versa. This characteristic
of the welding arc affects the design of the power source since large changes in
welding current in manual metallic arc (MMA) and TIG welding is undesirable but is
essential for the MIG/MAG and flux cored arc welding processes.

Drooping/ Constant Current characteristics:

shows drooping or constant current power source static characteristics, such as would
be used for the MMA or TIG process, superimposed on the arc characteristic curves.
When manual welding is taking place the arc length is continually changing as the
welder cannot maintain a constant arc length. With a constant current power source as
the arc length changes due to the welder’s manipulation of the welding torch there is
only a small change in the welding current – the steeper the curve the smaller the
change in current so there will be no current surges and a stable welding condition is
achieved. Since it is primarily the welding current that determines such features as the
penetration and electrode consumption this means that the arc length is less critical,
making the welder’s task easier in achieving sound defect free welds.
 Figure 10 Constant current characterstics

Constant Voltage Characteristics:

Figure 11 Constant voltage characterstics

Constant voltage power sources, also known as constant potential, are used in welding with
solid and flux cored electrodes, and as the name implies, the voltage output remains relatively
constant.  On this type of power source, the voltage is set at the machine and amperage is
determined by the speed that the wire is fed to the welding gun.  Increasing the wire feed
speed increases the amperage. Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases the amperage.
Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, just as it
does in welding with a coated electrode.  However, when using a constant voltage power
source and a wire feeder that delivers the wire at a constant speed, arc length caused by
operator error, plate irregularities, and puddle movement are automatically compensated for
by the characteristics of this process. In Figure 11, we see that condition #2 produces the
desired arc length, voltage, and amperage.  If the arc length is increased as in #1, the voltage
increases slightly; the amperage decreases considerably, and therefore, the melt-off  rate of
the wire decreases. The wire is now feeding faster than it is melting off.  This condition will
advance the end of the wire towards the work piece until the proper arc length is reached
where again, the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate.  If the arc length is decreased as in #3,
the voltage drops off slightly, the amperage is increased considerably, and the melt-off rate of
the wire increases.  Since the wire is now melting off faster than it is being fed, it melts back
to the proper arc length where the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate.  This is often referred
to as a self-adjusting arc.  These automatic corrections take place in fractions of a second, and
usually without the operator being aware of them.