NOTES BASED ON ESAB WELDING

WHEN TO USE AC or DC SUPPLY in SMAW (Stick Welding)?

Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC power source depends on the type of welding to be
done and the electrodes used. The following factors should be considered:

1. Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range of
electrode types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some
will work properly only on DC.

2. Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy sections and
light gauge work. Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC because it is easier to strike
and maintain the DC arc at low currents

3. Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great, AC is
the best choice since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with DC. Even though
welding cables are made of copper or aluminium (both good conductors), the resistance in the
cables becomes greater as the cable length increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken
between the electrode and the work will be somewhat lower than a reading taken at the output
terminals of the power source. This is known as voltage drop.

4. Welding Position - Because DC may be operated at lower welding currents, it is more

suitable for overhead and vertical welding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-
position work if proper electrodes are selected.

5. Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the weldment.
In weldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic field can affect the
arc by making it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is especially troublesome
when welding in corners. AC seldom causes this problem because of the rapidly reversing
magnetic field produced.

Combination power sources that produce both AC and DC are available andprovide the
versatility necessary to select the proper welding current for the application.

EFFECTS OF POLARITY

Some electrodes operate on both DC straight polarity (electrode negative) and reverse
polarity (electrode positive) and others on DC negative or DC positive polarity only.

Electrode negative (-) produces welds with shallow penetration; however, the electrode
melt-off rate is high. The weld bead is rather wide and shallow as shown at "A". It is called
STRAIGHT POLARITY because electrons flow from electrode to base metal.
Electrode positive (+) produces welds with deep penetration and a narrower weld bead as
shown at "B".

What can moisture; oxygen and nitrogen do to weld (reason behind shielding of molten
weld pool)?

GTAW
Welding process performed using the heat of an arc established between a no consumable
tungsten electrode and the work piece. If a filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading
the molten puddle. [melting point of tungsten = saade 3 hazaar 3500C]

Gas tungsten arc welding produces exceptionally clean welds no slag is produced, the
chance inclusions in the weld metal island the finished weld requires virtually no cleaning.
Argon and Helium, the primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases. Inert gases do not
chemically combine with other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the reactive gases,
such as oxygen and nitrogen, from forming compounds that could be detrimental to the weld
metal. Gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding almost all metals — mild steel,
low alloys, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, nickel
and nickel alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium, and others.

Applications of GTAW:

 It is most extensively used for welding aluminium and stainless steel alloys where
weld integrity is of the utmost importance.
 Another use is for the root pass (initial pass) in pipe welding, which requires a weld
of the highest quality. Full penetration without an excessively high inside bead is
important in the root pass, and due to the ease of current control of this process, it
lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality welds, it is usually
necessary to provide an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent oxidation of
the inside weld bead.

GMAW (Formerly called as MIG)

Practically all GMAW is done using DCEP (Electrode positive) [i.e. reverse polarity to give
deep penetration and low burn-off]. This polarity provides deep penetration, a stable arc
and low spatter levels. A small amount of GMAW welding is done with DCEN [i.e. shallow
penetration and high burn-off] and although the melting rate of the electrode is high, the arc
is erratic. Alternating current is not used for gas metal arc welding.

It is a semi-automatic / automatic process. So the VI characteristics are constant voltage

type [Flat type. Ideally it should be horizontal line but the actual line have negative slope
because of the internal impedance of the system]

SHIELDING GASES
Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding
processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding (GMAW and
GTAW, more popularly known as MIG (Metal Inert Gas) and TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas),
respectively). Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen, and water vapour.

Shielding gases fall into two categories—inert or semi-inert. Only two of the noble gases,
helium and argon, are cost effective enough to be used in welding. Semi-inert shielding
gases, or active shield gases, include carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
These active gases are used with GMAW on ferrous metals. Most of these gases, in large
quantities, would damage the weld, but when used in small, controlled quantities, can
improve weld characteristics.

Properties of Shielding Gases

 Thermal conductivity (and heat transfer properties)

 Density relative to air
  Ease with which they undergo ionisation

Heat transfer is important for heating the weld around the arc.

Density relative to air: Gases heavier than air (e.g. argon) blanket the weld and require
lower flow rates than gases lighter than air (e.g. helium).

Ease with which they undergo ionisation:

 Low ionisation potential means arc will quickly start (Ex. Argon).
 Higher ionization potential (Helium) it produces hotter arc at higher voltage, provides
wide deep bead. This is an advantage for aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys.

Note that Cost of Helium > Argon and more flow is required for helium, thus more costly
it becomes !!!!

Argon is the common shielding gas, widely used as the base for the more specialized gas
mixes.

Co2:

Pros Cons
Least Expensive Negatively effects arc stability
Deeper Penetration Weld spatter is more
Reduces surface tension of molten metal.
Thus wettability of molten metal to base
metal increases.

Carbon dioxide in concentration of 1-2% is commonly used in the mix with argon to reduce
the surface tension of the molten metal in MIG (SMAW).

Helium:

Pros Cons
Due to higher ionization potential it produces It is not easy to ionize, requiring higher
hotter arc at higher voltage, provides wide voltage to start the arc.
deep bead; this is an advantage for
aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys.
- Helium is more expensive than argon and
requires higher flow rates, so despite its
advantages it may not be a cost-effective
choice for higher-volume production.
- Pure helium is not used for steel, as it then
provides erratic arc and encourages spatter.

Blends of helium with addition of 5–10% of argon and 2–5% of carbon dioxide ("tri-mix")
can be used for welding of stainless steel.
Oxygen:

Pros Cons
Enhances arc stability and reduces the Oxygen causes oxidation of the weld, so it is
surface tension of the molten metal, not suitable for welding aluminium,
increasing wetting of the solid metal. magnesium, copper, and some exotic metals.
Increased oxygen makes the shielding gas
oxidize the electrode, which can lead to
porosity in the deposit if the electrode does
not contain sufficient deoxidizers.
It is used for spray transfer welding of mild Increased oxygen makes the shielding gas
carbon steels, low alloy and stainless steels. oxidize the electrode, which can lead to
porosity in the deposit if the electrode does
not contain sufficient deoxidizers.

Argon-oxygen blends with 1–2% oxygen are used for austenitic stainless steel where
argon-CO2 cannot be used due to required low content of carbon in the weld. The weld has a
tough oxide coating and may require cleaning.

Note that spray transfer is possible only with Argon gas.

CO2 shielding gas gives globular transfer.

Flux cored arc welding is done with direct current. All of the gas shielded electrodes are
designed for DCEP operation. The self-shielded electrodes are either designed specifically
for DCEN or DCEP.

SAW

Note that heat input is H=V*I*eta

(where eta is thermal efficiency which is high in SAW as arc is completely submerged in
granular flux.)
Note from the UCS equation that Si and Mn imparts ductility whereas C , S and P makes
weld less ductile and more hard thus prone to cracking.

UCS <25 FOR GOOD WELD

A NOTE ON ESSC (WHICH IS COSTLIER THAN) SASC

Cladding is a fundamental process to the manufacturing and fabrication industries and is used
across many applications, including petrochemical, oil and gas, pressure vessel and boiler
making. The process of cladding involves putting a new layer on top of an existing work
piece — sometimes to repair items such as nozzles, ball valves, mill rolls and shafts — or to
improve the wear resistance or corrosion properties of the piece.

The process is often used when there is a need to use mild or low-alloy steel for the main
structure with a specially alloyed material applied to a certain portion of the work piece to
accommodate necessary properties. It is more cost effective to apply the layer only where
needed, rather than fabricating the entire structure from the more expensive specially
alloyed material. Cladding offers a solution in these situations.

There are many types of Cladding, but one of the most flexible is Weld Cladding. All
welding processes can be used for Cladding, but due to constraints in the physical
requirements, some welding processes are better suited for Cladding than others. For
example, TIG Cladding lacks the necessary deposition rate — it’s about 5 pounds per
hour — to be used with larger, thicker materials, but it is ideal for small inside
diameters or restricted areas.

Strip Cladding processes are better suited for applications where a high deposition rate
is desirable and where the part will accommodate this higher rate of deposition. Strip
Cladding has been around for decades, and historically, Submerged Arc Strip Cladding
(SASC) has been the most commonly used process, offering deposition rates of about 33
pounds per hour.

However, technology advancements, especially related to consumables, have made the

Electroslag Strip Cladding (ESSC) process a good alternative in some applications, such as
oil and gas, pressure vessel and petrochemical — one that can save labor time and material
costs and greatly increase the deposition rate. SASC and ESSC are the formal designations,
but the processes are also commonly referred to as SAW and ESW.

How Strip Cladding works?

Electroslag Strip Cladding and Submerged Arc Strip Cladding are similar processes, but they
differ in that SASC uses an arc, while ESSC is a resistance heating process that does not use
an arc.

With Submerged Arc Strip Cladding, an arc runs along the width of the strip, depositing weld
metal on the base material. Because there is penetration into the base material, dilution levels
typically are about 20 percent with this method.

With Electroslag Strip Cladding, the strip is fed through a delivery system much like wire is
fed during a typical wire welding process. Since ESSC is not an arc process, heating takes
place in the conductive flux, and the resulting heating effect melts the strip and base material
into the liquid slag, which is then transferred into molten metal that is deposited onto the base
material. The strip actually rides on top of the slag system created by the flux, protecting the
weld.

Another difference between Submerged Arc Strip Cladding and Electroslag Strip Cladding is
that the flux is delivered in front of the weld in ESSC, while in SASC, the flux is delivered at
both the front and behind the weld, to shield the arc from atmospheric contamination. The
flux for each process looks similar, but the ESSC flux is specifically formulated to work with
that process.

Electroslag Strip Cladding offers some advantages when compared to its SASC counterpart,
including a reduced dilution rate of base material into the weld — typically about 10 percent
for ESSC compared to 20 percent for SASC — along with greater deposition rates, improved
travel speeds and lower flux consumption. The heat input of the two processes are
comparable.

Deposition rates of 55 pounds per hour

Because the dilution rate with ESSC is much less, the process can often be completed by
applying one layer of material using a flux for standard travel speed — whereas two layers
are typically required when using a high-speed ESSC flux. That compares to the minimum of
two passes needed to get the required overlay chemistry with Submerged Arc Strip Cladding.

The need to deposit only one or two layers of material by using ESSC not only saves labor
time and costs, but it also reduces the necessary strip material needed for the application,
resulting in consumable savings.

The typical travel speed offered by the ESSC process is double that of Submerged Arc Strip
Cladding — 10 inches or more per minute compared to 5 inches per minute. This is achieved
mostly due to the higher deposition rate that is realized while still maintaining a similar layer
thickness, so more metal is being deposited in the same amount of time.
Electroslag Strip Cladding also offers greater deposition rates — about 55 pounds per hour,
compared to the 33 pounds per hour typically offered with Submerged Arc Strip Cladding. A
higher deposition rate, combined with increased travel speed, reduces welding time and
improves productivity for manufacturing and fabrication applications.

Another time-saving benefit offered by the ESSC process stems from the electroslag refining
that occurs when the molten metal passes through the slag bath. This results in cleaner weld
metal with lower oxygen levels, which means less post-weld cleaning is necessary for some
applications.

Best practices for optimized results

To obtain the desired weld metal composition, it’s important to choose the right combination
of strip electrode and flux together with correct welding parameters.

For Electroslag Strip Cladding, it’s necessary to use a dedicated ESSC flux that provides
good electrical conductivity at high temperatures. This is typically done with a higher content
of fluorides in the flux.

The optimal voltage for the ESSC process is governed by the flux, and it tends to be a
narrower voltage window compared to SASC. It’s important to note that too high a voltage
will cause spatter and unstable fusion, but too low a voltage increases the risk of short-
circuiting as a result of the strip sticking to the base metal.

In consumable selection for ESSC, the strip width needed for the application is determined by
the size and shape of the components to be surfaced. The strip electrodes are typically .5 mm
thick, and standard widths include 30, 60 and 90 mm.

With Electroslag Strip Cladding, it’s important to use magnetic steering when the strip width
is greater than 60 mm. Due to the magnetic field created by the high current, the molten metal
moves from the edge to the inside of the cladded plate. Using magnetic steering connected to
the welding head can help control this effect.

Choosing equipment, accessories and consumables designed for Electroslag Strip Cladding
can help manufacturers find success with the ESSC process.