Contents

1 Polynomials 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 The vector space of polynomial functions over a field F . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Division algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Polynomial division algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Dividing Polynomials with 2 or More Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Synthetic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Fundamental Properties and Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 The golden rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Division Algorithm for Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Root-Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.5 Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Real and Rational Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 Descartes’s Rule of Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 Rational Roots Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Multivariate Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Graph of Polynomial functions 11

2.1 Identifying End Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Identifying Local Behavior of Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Determining the Number of Turning Points and Intercepts from the Degree
of the Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Zeros and Multiplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Graphing Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Steps for sketching the graph of a given polynomial function . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Using the Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Writing Formulas for Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.1 Steps: Given a graph of a polynomial function, write a formula for the function 14

3 Rational Functions 17

4 Problems 19
4.1 Polynomial Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Algebra of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Roots of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4 Root-Factor and Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5 Graphs of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1
2 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Polynomials

1.1 Introduction
Consider the following examples whereby we solve polynomial equations in the method of more
elementary courses:

1. x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 =⇒ (x − 1)(x − 2) = 0 =⇒ x = 1 or x = 2.
2. 2x2 − x − 1 = 0 =⇒ (2x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 =⇒ x = − 12 or x = 1.
3. x2 + 4 = 0 =⇒ (x − 2i)(x + 2i) = 0 =⇒ x = ±2i.

All three polynomials had their coefficients in the ring of integers Z. A couple of observations
are important:
• The method of factorization is crucial. We implicitly use a property inherent to integral
domains:
if the product of two terms is zero, at least one of the terms must be zero.
• Solutions need not live in the same ring as the coefficients. We might need to extend our ring
of coefficients in order to find all solutions. In elementary courses, we implicitly assume that
we can extend our ring of coefficients to the complex numbers and thus find all solutions to
a polynomial.
It is this second point which provided much of the purpose behind the development of ring and
field theory. The general problem is this:

Given a polynomial whose coefficients live in a field F, can we find a field E containing
F which contains a zero of the polynomial?

In elementary mathematics, where F = Q or R, it is enough to let E = C be the complex

numbers:
this is the famous Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Indeed the complex numbers were essen-
tially invented with this purpose. It will take some time, but we will eventually be able to answer
the general problem in the affirmative.
The obvious place to start is with a rigorous definition of the ring of polynomials over a ring
R.

Definition 1.1.1. Let R be a ring. A function of a single variable t is a polynomial on its

domain if we can put it in the form
∞
X
f (x) = = a0 + a1 x1 + · · · + ak xk + · · ·
k=0

where a0 , a1 , · · · ∈ R are coefficients and the variable x is raised to a non-negative inte-

ger power. The set of all such polynomials is denoted R[x], the ring of polynomials with
coefficients in R.

Note that the definition says can put it in the form. What this means is that a function can
be represented by many different algebraic expressions and if one of those expressions is of the

3
4 CHAPTER 1. POLYNOMIALS

polynomial form then the function is a polynomial function. Thus (t2 − 1)/(t − 1) for t 6= 1(why?)
2
−1)
is a polynomial because (t(t−1) and t + 1 represent the same function and t + 1 is a polynomial form.
Similarly cos 2(arccos t) = cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 2t2 − 1 where t = cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Definition 1.1.2. A constant polynomial is a polynomial all of whose coefficients are

equal to zero except for a0 .

Definition 1.1.3. One special polynomial expression is the zero polynomial. This is the
polynomial whose ith coefficient ai is equal to zero for all i ≥ 0.

Definition 1.1.4. We define the degree of a polynomial as follows:

• The degree of non-zero f (x) is the largest n ∈ N0 such that an 6= 0

We often denote the degree of the polynomial expression f by deg f i.e. deg(x2 +1) = 2
• Although the zero polynomial expression does not have any natural number as a degree,
it is extremely convenient to regard deg 0 (degree of the zero polynomial) as negative
(by convention, deg(0) = −∞), i.e., such that deg 0 is smaller than the degree of any
nonzero polynomial. This means that for any d ∈ N “the set of polynomials of degree
at most d” includes the zero polynomial.

Examples f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 is a degree two polynomial in the ring Z4 [x].

g(x) = πx3 + (1 + i)x is a degree three polynomial in the ring C[x].

The reader might wonder as to why we can’t define a polynomial expression as

n
X
ai xi = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x1 + a0 x0
i=0

This would allow us to define the degree of non-zero polynomials in a unified way as
“Every nonzero polynomial expression has a degree, which is a whole number, the largest whole
number i such that the coefficient ai of xi is nonzero.”
The answer is ’we can, as long as x 6= 0.’ The function f (x) = 3 and g(x) = 3x0 are different,
because their domains are different. The number f (0) = 3 is defined, whereas g(0) = 3(0)0 is not.

1.1.1 The vector space of polynomial functions over a field F

Let F be a field and let V be the set of all functions f from F into F which have a rule of the form

f (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x1 + c0

Where c0 , c1 , . . . , cn are fixed scalars in F (independent of x). A function of this type is called
a polynomial function on F . Let addition and scalar multiplication be defined as

(f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s)

(cf )(s) = cf (s)

Note that if f and g are polynomial functions and c is in F , then f + g and cf are again
polynomial functions.

1.1.2 Notation
For the polynomial an tn + an−1 tn−1 + · · · + a1 t1 + a0 , whith an 6= 0:

coefficients the numbers an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are called coefficients.

degree The non-negative integer n is the degree of the polynomial.

leading coefficient an is the leading coefficient

1.2. DIVISION ALGORITHMS 5

leading term an tn is the leading term

linear coefficient a1 is the linear coefficient

linear term a1 t is the linear term

constant term a0 is the constant term

constant polynomial A constant ppolynomial has but a single term a0 .

monic polynomial when the leading coefficient an is 1 the polynomial is said to be monic

types Special names are given to polynomials of low degree: 1 → linear; 2 → quadratic; 3 →
cubic; 4 → quartic; 5 → quintic.

roots/zeros Any value r such that P (r) = 0 is called a root or a zero of the polynomial P (t)

factor The polynomial D(x) is a factor of a polynomial P (x) if division of P (x) by D(x) results
in a remainder of zero.

1.2 Division algorithms

1.2.1 Polynomial division algorithm
See Kolman - College Algebra and Trigonometry p. 460

1.2.2 Dividing Polynomials with 2 or More Unknowns

See https://www.expii.com/t/dividing-polynomials-with-or-more-unknowns-4707

1.2.3 Synthetic Division

See polySupp02.pdf

1.3 Fundamental Properties and Theorems

Theorem 1.3.1. Let R be a ring

1. R[x] is a ring with respect to the inherited polynomial addition and mutiplication.
Specifically, if
∞
X X∞
f (x) = ak xk and g(x) = bk xk
k=0 k=0

then
∞
X
f (x) + g(x) = (ak + bk )xk
k=0
∞
X k
X
f (x)g(x) = ck xk , where ck = ai bk−i
k=0 i=0

2. If R has a unity 1 6= 0 then the constant polynomial 1 is the unity in R[x].

3. R[x] is commutative if and only if R is commutative.
6 CHAPTER 1. POLYNOMIALS

1.3.1 Basic Properties

Theorem 1.3.2. Let f, g ∈ R[x] where R is a ring

1. deg(f ) < deg(g) =⇒ deg(f ± g) = deg(g),

deg(f ) = deg(g) =⇒ deg(f ± g) ≤ deg(g) and,
deg(f g) ≤ deg(f ) + deg(g)
2. R is an integral domain if an only if R[x] is an integral domain. In such a case,

deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g)

Proof. See polySup04.pdf Theorem 22.3

If R is a field, then R[x] is merely an integral domain and we have the following

Theorem 1.3.3. Let f , g be nonzero polynomial expressions.

1. If f + g 6= 0, then deg(f + g) ≤ max(deg f, deg g).

2. We have deg(f g) = deg f + deg g.

3. We have deg(f ◦ g) = deg f · deg g.

Proof. See polySupp01.pdf Theorem 1 p.3

1.3.2 The golden rule

When considering polynomials, there are likely to be several rings simultaneously in play: a ring
of coefficients R, a ring of polynomials R[x], and perhaps a ring S in which zeros might lie. As
such, it is important to keep track of which ring you are working in. Thus:
Only use an equals sign to denote equality of objects in the same ring!
Constant polynomials are a primary source of confusion: for instance, the symbol 0 now has
two possible meanings:
Do we mean 0 ∈ R or 0 ∈ R[x]
The elementary approach to solving polynomial equations breads the rule: for example, when
we write
2x2 − x − 1 = 0
we are simultaneously considering the left hand side as a polynomial 2x2 − x − 1 = 0 ∈ Z[x] and as
the number 0. The elementary approach considers x to be a variable, the correct choice of whcih
will yield 0 ∈ Z. The problem is that the correct choice(s) may not lie in Z. Since we are not
equating objects in the same ring, the above expression can be considered illegal. Out of respect
for the golden rule, we talk of finding zeros of a polynomial f (x) rather than of solving the equation
f (x) = 0. However we describe the practice, in order to find zeros of polynomials, we need to be
able to evaluate them. This should be completely intuitive except for the fact that we may evaluate
at an element in a larger ring than that containing the coefficients.

1.3.3 Division Algorithm for Polynomials

Theorem 1.3.4. (Division Algorithm) Let F be a field, and let f, g ∈ F [x], where F [x]
is the set of polynomials in one variable over F . Suppose that g 6= 0. There are unique
polynomials q, r ∈ F [x] such that

f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) and deg r(x) < deg g(x)

Proof. The idea is to imitate the proof of the Division Algorithm for Z. Let

S = {f (x) − g(x)q(x)|q(x) ∈ F [x]}

1.3. FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS 7

The set {deg s(x)|s(x) ∈ S} is a subset of the nonnegative integers, and therefore must contain a
smallest element by well-ordering. Let r(x) ∈ S be an element in S of smallest degree, and write

r(x) = f (x) − g(x)q(x) where q(x) ∈ F [x]

We need to show that deg r(x) < deg g(x). If r(x) = 0, then since g(x) 6= 0, we have deg g(x) ≥
0 > −∞ = deg r(x) Suppose then that r(x) 6= 0. Assume toward a contradiction that deg r(x) >
deg g(x). Write
r(x) = rn xn + · · · + r1 x + r0 ,
g(x) = gm xm + · · · + g1 x + g0 .
Assume rn , gm 6= 0, and n ≥ m. Consider the polynomial
 
rn n−m rn n−1
r(x) − x g(x) = (r(x) = rn xn + · · · + r1 x + r0 ) − rn xn + x + ···
gm gm

Its degree is less than n, since the n-th degree terms cancel out (this is like carrying out one step
r(x)
of division of g(x) ).
However,
 
rn n−m rn n−m rn n−m
r(x) − x g(x) = f (x) − g(x)q(x) − x g(x) = f (x) − g(x) q(x) − x
gm gm gm

Hence this is also an element of S. We have found an element of S of smaller degree than r(x),
which is a contradiction. It follows that deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Finally to prove uniqueness, suppose that to the contrary the property holds for both (q1 (x), r1 (x))
and (q2 (x), r2 (x)) then
q1 (x)g(x) + r1 (x) = q2 (x)g(x) + r2 (x)
so
(q1 (x) − q2 (x))g(x) = r2 (x) − r1 (x)
If q1 (x) − q2 (x) is 0 than q1 and q2 are the same and so are r1 and r2 . Now if q1 (x) − q2 (x) 6= 0
then we work towards a contradiction. Given that q1 (x) − q2 (x) 6= 0 we have

deg((q1 (x) − q2 (x))g(x)) = deg(q1 (x) − q2 (x)) + deg(g(x)) ≥ deg(g(x)) > deg(r2 (x) − r1 (x))

(to see that deg(g(x)) > deg(r2 (x) − r1 (x)) see theorem 1.3.3 part a) which is a contradiction,
since both sides of the equation should have equal deg therefore q1 (x) − q2 (x) = 0

1.3.4 Root-Factor Theorem

Theorem 1.3.5. (Factor Theorem) Let F be a field and f ∈ F[x] be a polynomial expression
and c ∈ F . The following are equivalent:

1. f (c) = 0. (“c is a root of f .”)

2. There is some polynomial expression q ∈ F[x] such that as polynomial expressions

f (x) = (x − c)q(x) (“x − c is a factor of f ”)

or in other words c is a root of f (x) if and only if x − c is a factor of f .

Proof. See polySupp01.pdf Theorem 3 p.4

Root-Factor Theorem in a Ring

The root-factor theorem holds in any ring
Proof. Let p(x) = cn xn + · · · + c1 x + c0 . Then:

p(x) = p(x) − p(a) = cn (xn − an ) + · · · + c1 (x − a)

But over any ring x − a|xk − ak .

8 CHAPTER 1. POLYNOMIALS

1.3.5 Remainder Theorem

For non-roots we get the remainder theorem

Theorem 1.3.6. The remainder of the division of a polynomial f (x) by a linear polynomial
x − r is equal to f (r). In particular, x − r is a divisor of f (x) iff f (r) = 0

What about the remainder of a division of a polynomial f (x) by a linear polynomial of the
form ax + b? A generalized version of the remainder theorem is

Theorem 1.3.7. The remainder of the division of a polynomial f (x) by a linear polynomial
ax + b is equal to f (− ab ). In particular, ax + b is a divisor of f (x) iff f (− ab ) = 0

Corollary 1.3.8. Let f be a nonzero polynomial of degree n. Then the corresponding polynomial
function f has at most n real roots: i.e., there are atmost n real numbers c such that f (c) = 0.
Proof. See polySupp01.pdf Corollary 4 p.4
Pn
Lemma
Pn 1.3.9. Let f = i=0 ai xi be a polynomial expression. Suppose that the function f =
i
i=0 ai x is the zero function: f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ R. Then ai = 0 for all i, i.e., f is the zero
polynomial expression.
Proof. Proof 1:
Use Corollary 1.3.8
Proof 2:
Suppose that all ai and not equal to zero. Then a0 = f (0) = 0. Furthermore for any real nonzero
c we have
f (c)
= an cn−1 + · · · + a1 = 0
c
Now we need to prove that a1 = 0. Suppose that a1 6= 0. Note that we can choose c to be as small
as possible, therefore we can make an cn−1 + · · · + ca2 as small as possible. If we make it smaller
than the magnitude of a1 then the sum of both cannot be equal to zero. Formally
Suppose that a1 6= 0. Choose c such that 0 < c < 1 and

2c(|a2 | + · · · + |an |) < |a1 |

Then

|an cn−1 + an−1 cn−2 + · · · + a1 |

≥ |a1 | − [|an |cn−1 + |an−1 |cn−2 + · · · + |a2 |c]
≥ |a1 | − c[|an | + |an−1 | + · · · + |a2 |]
> |a1 | − (1/2)|a1 | > 0

But the polynomial is zero for all values of c > 0 thus a contradiction. Hence a1 = 0, ∀c 6= 0. We
can continue to show that a2 , a3 , . . . an are all zero. Thus f (x) must be the zero polynomial.

Theorem 1.3.10. (Uniqueness Theorem For Polynomials) Let

f = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
g = bn xn + · · · + b1 x + b0 ,

be two polynomial expressions. The following are equivalent:

1. f and g are equal as polynomial expressions: for all 0 ≤ i ≤ n, ai = bi .

2. f and g are equal as polynomial functions: for all c ∈ R, f (c) = g(c).
3. There are c1 < c2 < · · · < cn+1 such that f (ci ) = g(ci )f or1 ≤ i ≤ n + 1

Proof. See polySupp01.pdf Theorem 6 p.4

1.4. REAL AND RATIONAL ZEROS 9

In particular, the theorem says that if two polynomials f (x) and g(x) look different – i.e., they
are not coefficient-by-coefficient the same expression – then they are actually different functions,
i.e., there is some c ∈ R such that f (c) 6= g(c).

1.4 Real and Rational Zeros

1.4.1 Descartes’s Rule of Signs
Theorem 1.4.1. If P (x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, then

• the number of positive zeros either is equal to the number of variations in sign of P (x) or is
less than the number of variations in sign by an even number.

• Since the negative roots of the polynomial equation f (x) = 0 are positive roots of the equation
f (−x) = 0, the rule can be readily applied to help count the negative roots as well.

Proof. See polySupp03.html

1.4.2 Rational Roots Theorem

Finally, we want to prove an arithmetic result about polynomials, the Rational Roots Theorem.
For this we need another number-theoretic preliminary. Recall that we say positive integers a and b
are coprime (or relatively prime) if they are not both divisible by any integer d > 1 (equivalently,
they have no common prime factor).

Theorem 1.4.2. (Generalized Euclid’s Lemma) Let x, y, z ∈ Z+ . Suppose that x, y are coprime
and that yz is divisible by x. Then z is divisible by x.

Extra Credit Exercise:

1. Prove the Theorem 1.4.2 using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (uniqueness of prime
factorizations).

2. Explain why Theorem 1.4.2 is indeed a generalization of Euclid’s Lemma. (Hint: let x = p
be prime. What does it mean that p, y are coprime?)

Theorem 1.4.3. (Rational Roots Theorem) Let a0 , . . . , an be integers, with a0 , an 6= 0.

Consider the polynomial
P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
Suppose that cb is a rational number, written in lowest terms, which is a root of P : P ( cb ) = 0.
Then a0 is divisible by b and an is divisible by c.

Proof. Well, we know that

b bn b
0 = P ( ) = an n + · · · + a1 + a0
c c c
Multiplying through by cn clears denominators, giving

an bn + an−1 bn−1 c + · · · + a1 bcn−1 + a0 cn = 0

Rewriting this equation as

an bn = c(−an−1 bn−1 c − · · · − a0 cn−1 )

shows that an bn is divisible by c. But since b and c have no prime factors in common and bn
has the same distinct prime factors as does b, bn and c have no prime factors in common and are
thus coprime. So Theorem 1.4.2 applies to show that an is divisible by c. Similarly, rewriting the
equation as
a0 cn = b(−an bn−1 − an−1 bn−2 c − · · · − a1 cn−1 )
shows that a0 cn is divisible by b. As above, since b and c are coprime, so are b and cn , so by
Theorem 1.4.2 a0 is divisible by b.
10 CHAPTER 1. POLYNOMIALS

In high school algebra the Rational Roots Theorem is often employed to generate a finite list of
possible rational roots of a polynomial with integer coefficients. This is nice, but the same result
can be put to much more impressive use. For instance, taking an = 1 and noting that 1 is divisible
by c iff c = ±1 we get the following result.

Corollary 1.4.4. Let a0 , . . . , an−1 ∈ Z, and consider the polynomial

P (x) = xn + · · · + a1 x + a0

Suppose c is a rational number such that P (c) = 0. Then c is an integer.

So what? Well, here’s what. Let p be any prime number, n ≥ 2 any integer, and consider the
polynomial
P (x) = xn − p.
By Corollary 1.4.4, if c ∈ Q is such that P (c) = 0, then c ∈ Z. But if c ∈ Z is such that P (c) = 0,
then cn = p. But this means that the prime number p is divisible by the integer c, so c = ±1 or
c = ±p. But (±1)n = ±1 and (±p)n = ±pn , so cn = p is impossible. So there is no rational
√
number c such that cn = p: that is, n p is irrational.
√
This is a doubly infinite generalization of our first irrationality proof, that 2 is irrational, but
the argument is, if anything, shorter and easier to understand. Moral: polynomials can be useful
in surprising ways!

1.5 Multivariate Polynomials

Given a ring of polynomials R[x], we can adjoin a second indeterminate y to create the ring
nX o
(R[x])[y] = bk (x)y k : bk (x) ∈ R[x]

Since multiplication within this ring essentailly assumes that the indeterminates x, y commute,
this can be written alternatively as a ring of polynomials in two indeterminates
nX o
R[x, y] = ajk xj y k : ajk ∈ R[x]
Chapter 2

Graph of Polynomial functions

2.1 Identifying End Behavior

Knowing the leading coefficient and degree of a polynomial function is useful when predicting its
end behavior. To determine its end behavior, look at the leading term of the polynomial function.
Because the power of the leading term is the highest, that term will grow significantly faster than
the other terms as x gets very large or very small, so its behavior will dominate the graph. For
any polynomial, the end behavior of the polynomial will match the end behavior of the term of
highest degree.

2.2 Identifying Local Behavior of Polynomial Functions

In addition to the end behavior of polynomial functions, we are also interested in what happens
in the “middle” of the function. In particular, we are interested in locations where graph behav-
ior changes. A turning point is a point at which the function values change from increasing to
decreasing or decreasing to increasing.

We are also interested in the intercepts. As with all functions, the y-intercept is the point at
which the graph intersects the vertical axis. The point corresponds to the coordinate pair in which
the input value is zero. Because a polynomial is a function, only one output value corresponds to
each input value so there can be only one y-intercept (0, a0 ). The x-intercepts occur at the input
values that correspond to an output value of zero. It is possible to have more than one x-intercept.

11
 12 CHAPTER 2. GRAPH OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

2.2.1 Determining the Number of Turning Points and Intercepts from

the Degree of the Polynomial
A continuous function has no breaks in its graph: the graph can be drawn without lifting the pen
from the paper. A smooth curve is a graph that has no sharp corners. The turning points of a
smooth graph must always occur at rounded curves. The graphs of polynomial functions are both
continuous and smooth.
The degree of a polynomial function helps us to determine the number of x-intercepts and the
number of turning points. A polynomial function of nth degree is the product of n factors, so it
will have at most n roots or zeros, or x-intercepts. The graph of the polynomial function of degree
n must have at most n–1 turning points. This means the graph has at most one fewer turning
point than the degree of the polynomial or one fewer than the number of factors.

Example: Given the graph of the polynomial function below, determine the least possible degree of the
polynomial and whether it is even or odd. Use end behavior, the number of intercepts, and
the number of turning points to help you.

Solution: The end behavior of the graph tells us this is the graph of an even-degree polyno-
mial. The graph has 2 x-intercepts, suggesting a degree of 2 or greater, and 3 turning points,
suggesting a degree of 4 or greater. Based on this, it would be reasonable to conclude that
the degree is even and at least 4.

1. Given the function f (x) = −4x(x + 3)(x − 4), determine the local behavior.

2.2.2 Zeros and Multiplicity

Graphs behave differently at various x-intercepts. Sometimes the graph will cross over the x-axis
at an intercept. Other times the graph will touch the x-axis and bounce off.
Suppose, for example, we graph the function f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 2)2 (x + 1)3
 2.2. IDENTIFYING LOCAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 13

The x-intercept x = −3 is the solution to the equation (x + 3) = 0. The graph passes directly
through the x-intercept at x = −3. The factor is linear (has a degree of 1), so the behavior near
the intercept is like that of a line; it passes directly through the intercept. We call this a single
zero because the zero corresponds to a single factor of the function.

The x-intercept x = 2 is the repeated solution to the equation (x − 2)2 = 0. The graph touches
the axis at the intercept and changes direction. The factor is quadratic (degree 2), so the behavior
near the intercept is like that of a quadratic–it bounces off of the horizontal axis at the intercept.

The factor is repeated, that is, the factor (x − 2) appears twice. The number of times a given
factor appears in the factored form of the equation of a polynomial is called the multiplicity. The
zero associated with this factor, x = 2, has multiplicity 2 because the factor (x − 2) occurs twice.

The x-intercept x = −1 is the repeated solution of factor (x + 1)3 = 0. The graph passes
through the axis at the intercept but flattens out a bit first. This factor is cubic (degree 3), so the
behavior near the intercept is like that of a cubic with the same S-shape near the intercept as the
function f (x) = x3 . We call this a triple zero, or a zero with multiplicity 3.

For zeros with even multiplicities, the graphs touch or are tangent to the x-axis at these x-
values. For zeros with odd multiplicities, the graphs cross or intersect the x-axis at these x-values.
See the graphs below for examples of graphs of polynomial functions with multiplicity 1, 2, and 3.

For higher even powers, such as 4, 6, and 8, the graph will still touch and bounce off of the
x-axis, but for each increasing even power the graph will appear flatter as it approaches and leaves
the x-axis.

For higher odd powers, such as 5, 7, and 9, the graph will still cross through the x-axis, but for
each increasing odd power, the graph will appear flatter as it approaches and leaves the x-axis.

Example: Use the graph of the function of degree 6 to identify the zeros of the function and their
possible multiplicities.
14 CHAPTER 2. GRAPH OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Solution: The polynomial function is of degree n which is 6. The sum of the multiplicities
must be 6.
Starting from the left, the first zero occurs at x = −3. The graph touches the x-axis, so the
multiplicity of the zero must be even. The zero of –3 has multiplicity 2.
The next zero occurs at x = −1. The graph looks almost linear at this point. This is a single
zero of multiplicity 1.
The last zero occurs at x = 4. The graph crosses the x-axis, so the multiplicity of the zero
must be odd. We know that the multiplicity is 3 and that the sum of the multiplicities must
be 6.

reference

2.3 Graphing Polynomial Functions

2.3.1 Steps for sketching the graph of a given polynomial function
1. Find the intercepts.

2. Check for symmetry. If the function is an even function, its graph is symmetric with respect
to the y-axis, that is, f (−x) = f (x).

3. If a function is an odd function, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, that is,
f (−x) = −f (x).

4. Use the multiplicities of the zeros to determine the behavior of the polynomial at the x-
intercepts.

5. Determine the end behavior by examining the leading term.

6. Use the end behavior and the behavior at the intercepts to sketch the graph.

7. Ensure that the number of turning points does not exceed one less than the degree of the
polynomial.

2.3.2 Using the Intermediate Value Theorem

Let f be a polynomial function. The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if f (a) and f (b)
have opposite signs, then there exists at least one value c between a and b for which f (c) = 0.

2.4 Writing Formulas for Polynomial Functions

2.4.1 Steps: Given a graph of a polynomial function, write a formula
for the function
1. Identify the x-intercepts of the graph to find the factors of the polynomial.
2.4. WRITING FORMULAS FOR POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 15

2. Examine the behavior of the graph at the x-intercepts to determine the multiplicity of each
factor.
3. Find the polynomial of least degree containing all of the factors found in the previous step.

4. Use any other point on the graph (the y-intercept may be easiest) to determine the stretch
factor.
16 CHAPTER 2. GRAPH OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Chapter 3

Rational Functions

17
18 CHAPTER 3. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Chapter 4

Problems

4.1 Polynomial Division

1. Use polynomial division to find the quotient Q(x) and the remainder R(x)
•
2x3 − 2x
x2 + 2x − 1
•
x4 − x3 + 2x2 − x + 1
x2 + 1
2. Determine the remainder
• −4x3 + 6x − 2, x−1
5 4 2
• 6x − 3x + 2x + 7, x+1
3. Let p(t) be any polynomial over an integral domain D and c be any element of D. Consider
the equation
p(t) = (t − c)q(t) + k
where q(t) is a polynomial and k a constant polynomial over D. Show that
deg q = (deg p) − 1

Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 1. p.58

4. Let r be a zero of the polynomial p(t) over an integral domain, so that for some polynomial
q(t), p(t) = (t − r)q(t). Prove that , if s 6= r, then s is a zero of p(t) if and only if s is a zero
of q(t)
Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 3. p.58
5. (a) Suppose r1 , r2 , . . . , rk are distinct zeros of a polynomial p(t) over an integral domain.
Show that there exists a polynomial q(t) for which
p(t) = (t − r1 )(t − r2 ) · · · (t − rk )q(t).
(b) Prove that the number of distinct zeros of a nonzero polynomial over an integral domain
cannot exceed its degree.
(c) Verify that the polynomial t2 − 5t + 6 over Z12 has more than two zeros. This example
shows that 5b may fail when the condition that the coefficients belong to an integral
domain is dropped.
Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 4. p.58
6. Let a and b be two distinct zeros of a polynomial f (t), so that, for some polynomials u(t)
and v(t),
f (t) = (t − a)u(t) = (t − b)v(t)
Prove that the remaining zeros of f (t) are the solutions of the equation
u(t) − v(t) = 0

Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 5. p.59

19
20 CHAPTER 4. PROBLEMS

7. Consider the equation t4 − 5t − 6 = 0

(a) By inspection, determine two integer solutions.
(b) Use 5 to determine two other solutions of the equation.
Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 6. p.59
8. In the case of dividing a polynomial f (t) by the binomial (t − c), the remainder can be given
by a formula f (c). Derive a formula for the remainder when f (t) is divided by (t − a)(t − b)
Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 11 p.61
9. Let F be a field and let F [x, y] denote the ring of polynomials in the variable x and y with
coefficients in F . Suppose f (x, y) belongs to F [x, y]. Apply the Factor Theorem to the ring
F [x] to show that f (x, x) = 0 if and only if (x − y) is a factor of f (x, y). More generally,
show that y − g(x) divides f (x, y) if and only if f (x, g(x)) = 0, for g(x) in F [x].
Barbeau-Polynomials Excercise 12 p.61

Proof. If R is a commutative ring, then for the ring R[x] we have the Factor Theorem:
Let f ∈ R[x] and let r ∈ R. Then in R[x] we have (x − r)|f if and only if f (r) = 0.
Now suppose F is a commutative ring and f ∈ F [x, y] is such that f (x, x) = 0
Let R = F [x] and let g ∈ R[y] be defined as g(y) = f (x, y). Then
f (x, x) = 0
=⇒ g(x) = 0
(by the Factor Theorem in R[y])
=⇒ (y − x)|g in R[y]
=⇒ (x − y)|g in R[y]
=⇒ (x − y)|f in F [x, y]

4.2 Algebra of Polynomials

1. Find the sum of the coefficients of the polynomial obtained after expanding and collecting
the terms of the product
(1 − 3x + 3x2 )743 (1 + 3x − 3x2 )744
The USSR Olympiad Problem Book, problem 196
2. Which of the expressions,
(1 + x2 − x3 )1000 or (1 − x2 + x3 )1000
will have the larger coefficient for x20 after expansion and collecting of terms? The USSR
Olympiad Problem Book, problem 197
3. Prove that in the product
(1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · − x99 + x100 )(1 + x + x2 − x3 + · · · + x99 + x100 )
after multiplying and collecting terms, there does not appear a term in x of odd degree. The
USSR Olympiad Problem Book, problem 198
4. Find the coefficient of x50 in the following polynomials:
(a) (1 + x)1000 + x(1 + x)999 + x2 (1 + x)998 + · · · + x1000
(b) (1 + x) + 2(1 + x)2 + 3(1 + x)3 + · · · + 1000(1 + x)1000
The USSR Olympiad Problem Book, problem 199
5. Find the coefficient of x2 upon the expansion and collecting of terms in the expression
((((x − 2)2 − 2)2 − 2)2 − · · · − 2)2
| {z }
n timesvb

The USSR Olympiad Problem Book, problem 200

4.3. ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS 21

4.3 Roots of polynomials

1. Find two polynomials of degree 3 whose roots are 2, 3, and -3.

2. Find the polynomial P (x) of degree 3 that has the zeros -2, i, and −i and that satisfies
P (1) = −3

3. Find the polynomial of degree 2 that has 2 zeros at −2

4. If 4 is a zero of the polynomial P (x) = x3 − 8x2 + 21x − 20, find the other zeros.

5. If −1 is a zero of multiplicity 2 of P (x) = x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 − 4x − 3, find the remaining zeros

and write P (x) as a product of linear factors.

4.4 Root-Factor and Remainder Theorem

1. Determine the values of r for which division of x2 − 2x − 1 by x − r has a remainder of 2

2. Determine the values of k for which 2k 2 x3 + 3kx2 − 2 is divisible by x − 1

3. Show that P (x) = 2x4 + 3x2 + 2 has no factors of the form x − r, where r is a real number.

4. Show that x − y is a factor of xn − y n , where n is a natural number.

5. The remainder R obtained by dividing x100 by x2 − 3x + 2 is a polynomial of degree less than

2. Then R may be written as:

(a) 2100 − 1
(b) 2100 (x − 1) − (x − 2)
(c) 2200 (x − 3)
(d) x(2100 − 1) + 2(299 − 1)
(e) 2100 (x + 1) − (x + 2)

Solution: Let Q(x) be the quotient when x100 is divided by x2 − 3x + 2. Since we are given
that R is a polynomial of degree less than 2 we have R = ax + b, for some reals a and b and
we can write
x100 = (x2 − 3x + 2)Q(x) + (ax + b)
To eliminate Q(x) we can reformulate the equation as

x100 = (x − 2)(x − 1)Q(x) + (ax + b)

This gives us two equations 2100 = 2a + b and 1100 = a + b. Solving simultaneously we get
a = 2100 − 1 and b = 2 − 2100 . Expanding and combining terms, we see that the answer is B.

4.5 Graphs of Polynomials

1. Given the function f (x) = −3x2 (x−1)(x+4), express the function as a polynomial in general
form and determine the leading term, degree, and end behavior of the function.

2. Sketch a possible graph for f (x) = −2(x + 3)2 (x − 5)

3. Sketch a possible graph for f (x) = 41 x(x − 1)4 (x + 3)3

4. Find an odd degree function with one zero at (−3, 0) whose multiplicity is 3 and another
zero at (2, 0) with multiplicity 2. The end behavior fo the graph is:

lim f (x) = ∞
x→−∞

lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞

5. Show that the function f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 6 has at least two real zeros between x = 1
and x = 4
22 CHAPTER 4. PROBLEMS

6. Show that the function f (x) = 7x5 − 9x4 − x2 has at least one real zero between x = 1 and
x=2
7. Write formulas for the following polynomial functions.

(a)

(b)

(c)
8. Solutions at https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakercollegealgebra/chapter/graph-polynomial-f