MATTER

GOAL

• Introduce the nature of matter and some of its fundamental characteristics

• Examine materials, both organic and inorganic, that are important in Earth
system processes
• Summarize Earth’s overall composition and internal structure
• Define the basic properties of minerals and rocks
• Describe regolith and its vital component, soil
OUTLINE

• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
EARTH MATERIALS

• Matter is substance, unlike (but related to) energy , matter has mass and
occupies space.
• The three common states of matter we are familiar with are solid, liquid and gas
• Materials occurring in the same state can still differ substantially
• For example, lava and water are both liquids; one non-aqueous, one aqueous
• Both are very important in a wide variety of Earth processes
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES
• In the solid states, matter is firm or compact in substance with a definite volume and
density, and tends to retain its shape even if it is not confined, because its constituent
atoms are fixed (about to be fixed) in position relative to each other
• In the liquid states: matter has a definite volume but its constituent atoms are able to
flow freely past one another; the material does not retain its own shape but conforms
to the shape of its container, taking on a free surface under the influence of gravity
• In the vapor or gas states: matter takes on the shape of the container in which it is
contained, filling the container completely (or escaping into space if it is not confined),
while its constituent atoms can move freely and acquire a uniform distribution within
the container.
 EARTH MATERIALS

• The three common states of matter we are familiar with are solid, liquid and gas
• Materials occurring in the same state can still differ substantially
• For example, lava and water are both liquids; one non-aqueous, one aqueous
• Both are very important in a wide variety of Earth processes
EARTH MATERIALS
CHANGE OF STATE

• Change of state (phase)

• State:
• Phase: homogeneous masses of material that can be separated from one another by a
definable boundary
• Immiscible(“unmixable”): matters that do not mix spontaneously and thoroughly with one
another
EARTH MATERIALS

Matter can coexist in various states and phases. In (A), matter of uniform composition
(H2O) coexists in two different states (liquid and solid) and two different phases (water
and ice), separated by physical boundaries. In (B), different phases coexist in the same
state (oil and water, both liquids; different types of beans, all solids). In (C), there is
only one phase and one state, as is always the case with gases.
 OTHER STATES OF MATTER

• Plasma: an ionized (electrically charged) gas with

unique properties and characteristics. (A common
state of matter in the Sun and other stars, as well as
interstellar and intergalactic materials, lightening Aerogel or ‘frozen smoke’
and the polar auroras, Aurora Borealis and Aurora
Australis)
• Other familiar materials –both natural and
manufactured –occur in forms that seem to have
properties of more than one state of matter
• Colloids: consisting of extremely fine particles
dispensed in a continuous medium, usually liquid
• Gels: seems solid, holding their shape to a certain
extent, but they are also jellylike; they tend to flow
and are easily deformed, and displaying some of the
properties of liquids
• Aerosols: colloids that consist of micro-particles or
nanoparticles suspended in a gas (such as air).
EARTH MATERIALS: THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBSTANCE

• Chemical elements are the most fundamental substances into

which matter can be separated
• An atom is the smallest individual particle that retains the
distinctive properties of a given chemical element
• Atoms are built of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus
ATOMS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF
MATTER
• Atoms
• Smallest particles of matter that
cannot be chemically split
• Composed of:
• Protons: charge of +1
• Neutrons: charge of 0
• Surrounded by electrons: charge
of –1
• Electrons exist as a cloud of
negative charges surrounding
the nucleus of protons and
neutrons, called principal
shells
• The outermost shell contains
valence electrons, which
interact with other atoms to
or chemical bonds
 EARTH MATERIALS

• An atom is electrically neutral because the positive charge of

the protons balances with the negative charge of the electrons
• An atom that has excess positive or negative charge is called an
ion
• A positive ion is a cation
• A negative ion is an anion
 EARTH MATERIALS

• The number of protons in the nucleus of

an atom is called the atomic number
• Electrons are considered mass-less
• The sum of the neutrons and the protons
in the nucleus is the atomic mass
• Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic
number but different mass numbers
• Some isotopes are radioactive, and can be
used in radioactive dating
ATOMS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

• Element
• A group of the same kind of atoms
• Approximately 90 natural elements and several synthesized in a
laboratory
• Organized in a periodic table so that those with similar properties
line up
THE PERIODIC TABLE
EARTH MATERIALS

• Compounds form when anions and cations combine to form a bond

• The smallest unit that retains all the properties of a compound is called a
molecule
WHY ATOMS BOND

• Chemical Bonding
• Formation of a compound by combining two or more elements
• Transferring or sharing electrons that allows each atom to attain a full
valence shell of electrons
• Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are
surrounded by eight valence electrons
WHY ATOMS BOND
• Ionic Bonding
• Atoms gain or lose outermost (valence) electrons to form
ions (positively and negatively charged atoms).
• Ionic compounds consist of an orderly arrangement of
oppositely charged ions.
• Ionic bond: the attraction of oppositely charged ions to
one another
• Examples include:
• Halite (table salt)—NaCl
HALITE (NACL)—AN EXAMPLE OF IONIC BONDING
COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

• Covalent Bonding
• Atoms share a pair of
electrons
COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

• Other Types of Bonding:

• Metallic Bonding
• Valence electrons are free to migrate among atoms
• Accounts for the high electrical conductivity of metals
• Hybrid Bonds
• Many chemical bonds are actually hybrids that exhibit
some degree of electron sharing and some degree of
electron transfer
COMPLEX IONS

• Sometimes two kind of ions form such strong bonds with each other that they
act like a single ion. Such a strongly bonded pair is called a complex ions:

(CO3)2-, (SO4)2-, (PO4)3-, NO3-, (SiO4)4- anions

COMPOUND, MIXTURE AND SOLUTION

• Compounds are different from mixtures

• Solution: a homogeneous mixture in which the different constituents are not
easily distinguishable from one another
• You can often tell a mixture or solution from a compound because it is usually
possible to separate the components of a mixture by some physical or
mechanical means whereas the components of compounds can only be
separated chemically.
OUTLINE

• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
ORGANIC MATTER

• Possibly the most fundamental compositional distinction is that of

organic and inorganic matter
• Organic applies specifically to compounds consisting of carbon
atoms bonded together by covalent bonds
• In addition organic implies that the compound is biotic in origin
 ORGANIC MATTER

• A common characteristic of organic

compounds is their tendency to occur
in long chain-like structures called
polymers
• Important biopolymers in the Earth
system
• Proteins: chains of bonded amino acids
• Nucleic acids: (e.g. DNA) built of
nucleotides
• Carbohydrates: the basis for most food
we eat, a carbon-hydrogen-oxygen
compound
ORGANIC MATTER
• Lipids are another important family of organic molecules, which are not polymers and
include
• Fats and oils
• Phospholipids
• Waxes
• Steroids
OUTLINE

• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Earth inherited its overall composition from its location in the solar nebula
• Earth has internal layering that originated early in solar system history due to
chemical differentiation of the partially molten planet
• Layers are distinguished by composition, rock strength, and state of matter
 COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF
THE EARTH

• There are three major

compositional layers in the
Earth
• Core: metallic iron solid
inner core and liquid outer
core
• Mantle: dense rocky matter
• Crust: thin, less dense rocky
matter
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• The core and mantle

have nearly constant
thicknesses, but the
crust varies in place to
place by a factor of 9
• The average oceanic
crust is 8 km thick
• The average
continental crust is 45
km thick, but ranges
from 30-70 km
• The two crusts also
differ fundamentally in
composition
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Scientific reasoning, indirect

sampling, and indirect measurement
provide information about the core
and mantle that otherwise is
inaccessible
• In addition to compositional layering,
the Earth contains layers with
differences in rock strength
 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• How do we know it?

• Seismic observation
• Tidal observation
• High pressure and temperature
experiment
• Meteorite analogy
• Geochemical constraints

Nature 451, 266-268(17 January 2008)

COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Scientific reasoning, indirect

sampling, and indirect measurement
provide information about the core
and mantle that otherwise is
inaccessible
• In addition to compositional layering,
the Earth contains layers with
differences in rock strength
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Mesosphere: “middle
sphere” within the
mantle
• Asthenosphere: “weak
sphere” in the
uppermost mantle
• Lithosphere: “rocky
sphere” the outermost
100 km
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Of the 92 naturally
occurring chemical
elements, only 12 occur in
Earth’s crust
• The crust is dominated by
two elements
• Oxygen
• Silicon
• With the other ten
elements, these are
responsible for the
composition of all common
Earth materials
COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF
THE EARTH
MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS
Geologists define mineral as an naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an
orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition that allows for some
variation.

• Definition of a Mineral:
• Naturally occurring
• Generally inorganic
• Solid substance
• Orderly crystalline structure
• Definite chemical composition
• Definition of a Rock:
• A solid mass of minerals or mineral-like matter that occurs
naturally
Example

 Sugar crystal
 Oyster shell
 Ice
 Glass for beer bottle, or volcanic glass
 Opal
HOW DO MINERALS FORM?

• Precipitation of Mineral Matter

• Crystallization of molten rock by cooling
• Mineral matter deposition as a result of biological processes

Minerals can change forms when pressure and temperature conditions are changing.
 HOW DO MINERALS FORM?

• Precipitation of Mineral
Matter
• Ions dissolved in an
aqueous solution
reach saturation and
start forming
crystalline solids
• A drop in temperature
or water loss through
evaporation can cause
ions to reach
saturation
HOW DO MINERALS FORM?

• Crystallization of Molten Rock

• Similar to water freezing
• When the magma is hot, the atoms are mobile
When the magma cools, the atoms slow and
begin to chemically combine
• Deposition as a Result of Biological Process
• Marine organisms secrete calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Minerals have definite crystalline structures and chemical compositions that give them
unique sets of physical and chemical properties shared by all samples of the mineral

• Primary Diagnostic Properties

• Determined by observation or performing a simple test
• Several physical properties are used to identify hand
samples of minerals
INTERACTION WITH LIGHT

• Interaction with light

• Luster
• Color
• Streak
• Luminescence
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Optical Properties
• Luster
• Appearance of a mineral in reflected light
• Two basic categories:
• Metallic
• Nonmetallic
• Includes vitreous or glassy luster, dull or earthy luster,
pearly luster, silky luster, greasy luster
SUBMETALLIC AND METALLIC LUSTER OF
GALENA (PbS)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
• Optical Properties
• Ability to transmit light
• Opaque—no light is transmitted
• Translucent—light, but no image is transmitted
• Transparent—light and an image are visible through the sample
• Diaphaneity: meaning the light-transmitting qualities of a mineral (This word originates from
the Greek word diaphanes, meaning transparent).
• Transparent describes a mineral that transmits light and through which an object may be
seen. Most gem- stones are transparent and many are priced on the quality of their
transparency.
• Translucent describes a mineral that is capable of transmitting light diffusely but is not
transparent. Although a translucent mineral allows light to be transmitted, it will not
show a sharp outline of an object seen through it.
• Opaque describes a mineral that is impervious to visible light, even on thin edges of the
mineral. Most metallic minerals are opaque.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Optical Properties
• Color
• Generally unreliable for mineral
identification
• Often highly variable due to
impurities or slight changes in
mineral chemistry
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
STREAK IS OBTAINED ON AN UNGLAZED PORCELAIN PLATE

• Optical Properties
• Streak
• Color of a mineral in its
powdered form
• Not every mineral
produces a streak when
rubbed across a streak
plate
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
COMMON CRYSTAL HABITS

• Crystal Shape or
Habit
• Characteristic
shape of a
crystal or
aggregate of
crystals
CRYSTAL HABITS
In contrast, crystal habit is the general
shape of a mineral, which also includes
irregularities due to growth.

Aggregate
Individual Crystal Terms: Crystal Terms:
•Arborescent
•Acicular •Botryoidal
•Bladed •Dendritic
•Blocky •Druse
•Equant •Encrusting
•Fibrous •Geode
•Platy •Granular
•Phantomed •Globular
•Lamellar
•Prismatic •Mammillary
•Pseudomorph •Massive
•Sceptered •Micaceous
•Striated •Nodular
•Stubby •Oolitic
•Tabular •Pisolitic
•Twins •Radiating
•Rosette
•Stalactitic
•Sub-botryoidal
•Vugs
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Crystal Shape, or Habit

• Mineral strength
• How easily minerals break or deform under stress
• Tenacity
• The mineral’s resistance to breaking or deforming
• Brittle minerals (such as those with ionic bonds) will shatter into small
pieces
• Malleable minerals (such as those with metallic bonds) are easily
hammered into different shapes
• Sectile minerals, such as gypsum and talc, can be cut into thin shavings
• Elastic minerals, such as the micas, will bend and snap back to their
original shape
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Crystal Shape, or Habit

• Cleavage
• Tendency to break along planes of weak bonding
• Produces smooth, flat surfaces
• Described by:
• Number of planes
• Angles between adjacent planes
• Resulting geometric shapes
Cleavage Directions Exhibited by Minerals
MICAS EXHIBIT PERFECT CLEAVAGE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Crystal Shape, or Habit

• Fracture
• Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken
• Irregular fractures
• Conchoidal fractures
• Splintery fractures
• Fibrous fractures
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Crystal Shape, or Habit

• Hardness
• Resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching
• All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the Mohs scale of hardness
 HARDNESS MEASUREMENTS

• Scale for measuring the hardness of a mineral. The Mohs hardness scale is
the more popular measurement for hardness, but its numbers are not
proportionate. Absolute hardness is proportionate, but not commonly
used.
• One should always use a fresh mineral surface to determine hardness:
• Sometimes, when one mineral is softer than another, portions of
the first will leave a mark on the second that may be mistaken for a
scratch. Such a mark can be rubbed off, whereas a true scratch will
be permanent.
• The surfaces of some minerals are frequently altered to a material
that is much softer than the original mineral. A fresh surface of the
specimen to be tested must be used.
• The physical nature of a mineral may prevent a correct
determination of its hardness. For instance, if a mineral is granular,
or splintery, it may break but appear to be scratched by a mineral
much softer than itself. It is always advisable when making the
hardness test to confirm it by reversing the order of procedure; that
is, try to scratch mineral Aby mineral B, but also try to scratch B by
A.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Density and Specific Gravity

• Density is defined as mass per unit volume
• Specific gravity is ratio of the weight of a mineral
to the weight of an equal volume of water
• Most minerals have a specific gravity
between 2 and 3
• Jolly Balance
• Heavy liquids
• Bromoform (G=2.89)+Acetone
• Lithium metatungstate (G=3.0) + Water
• Methylene iodide (G=3.33)+acetone
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Other Properties:
• Taste
• Halite tastes like salt
• Feel
• Talc feels soapy
• Graphite feels greasy
• Magnetism
• Magnetite can be picked up by a magnet
• Lodestone is a natural magnet
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Other Properties:
• Optical properties
• Calcite has double refraction
• Reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid
• Carbonates will effervesce in
acid
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• All mineral samples are crystal or

crystalline solids
• Any natural solid with orderly,
repeating internal structures
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• All mineral samples are crystal or

crystalline solids
• Any natural solid with orderly,
repeating internal structures
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• Mineral Structures
• Unit cells
• Atomic arrangement that results in the basic building blocks of a mineral crystal
• Minerals can be constructed of the same unit cells and have different external forms
• Examples of minerals with cubic unit cells include:
• Fluorite—crystals are cubes
• Magnetite—crystals are octahedrons
• Garnets—crystals are dodecahedrons
CUBIC UNIT CELLS
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• Mineral Structures
• Steno’s Law or Law of
Constancy of Interfacial
Angles
• Regardless of
crystal size, the
angles between
equivalent crystal
faces of the same
mineral are
consistent
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• Compositional Variations in Minerals

• Ions of similar size can substitute for one another
without disrupting the mineral’s internal framework
• Examples include olivine: (Mg, Fe)SiO4
MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• Compositional Variations in Minerals

• Other minerals have trace variations in their chemical compositions
• Examples include quartz (SiO2) and fluorite (CaF2)

• The trace variations can significantly influence the mineral’s color

MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS

• Structural Variations in Minerals

• Polymorphs
• Minerals with the same
composition but different
crystalline structures
• Examples include diamond and
graphite
• Transforming one polymorph into another
is called a phase change
 HOW MINERALS ARE CLASSIFIED

• More than l4000 minerals have

been named
• Rock-Forming Minerals
• Only a few dozen
• Common minerals that make up
most of the rocks of Earth’s crust
• Composed mainly of the eight
elements that make up most of
the continental crust
HOW MINERALS ARE CLASSIFIED

• Classifying Minerals
• A collection of specimens that exhibit similar internal structure and chemical
compositions are called mineral species
• Mineral species are then further divided into mineral varieties
• Examples of varieties of quartz
• Smoky quartz: contains trace amounts of aluminum
• Amethyst: contains trace amounts of iron
• Mineral species are assigned to mineral classes
• Silicates, carbonates, halides, and sulfates are different mineral classes
HOW MINERALS ARE CLASSIFIED

• Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals

• Silicate minerals are the most common type of
minerals
• Account for >90% of Earth’s crust
• Silicon and oxygen make up the basic building
blocks of silicate minerals
• Nonsilicate minerals are not as common as the
silicates but important economically
THE SILICATES

• All silicate minerals contain oxygen and silicon—the

two most abundant elements in Earth’s crust
• Silicate Structures
• Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron
• Fundamental building block
• Four oxygen ions surrounding a much
smaller silicon ion
• Single tetrahedra are linked together to form
various structures
THE SILICATES
• Silicate Structures
• Minerals with
independent tetrahedra
• Oxygen ions are
bonded with positive
ions (such as Mg2+,
Fe2+, Ca2+)
• Examples include:
• Olivine
• Garnet
• Form hard, dense
equidimensional
crystals that lack
cleavage
THE SILICATES

• Silicate Structures
• Minerals with independent
tetrahedra
• Oxygen ions are bonded
with positive ions (such as
Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+)
• Examples include:
• Olivine
• Garnet
• Form hard, dense
equidimensional crystals
that lack cleavage
THE SILICATES

• Silicate Structures
• Minerals with chain or sheet structures
• Polymerization—the SiO4 tetrahedra can link to one another in a variety
of configurations
• Accounts for the high variety of silicate minerals
• Tetrahedra can form single chains, double chains, and sheet structures
• Some oxygen ions are “shared” between tetrahedra
THE SILICATES

• Silicate Structures
• Minerals with three-dimensional framework
• All oxygen ions are “shared” between tetrahedra
• Examples include:
− Quartz
− The feldspars
Five Basic Silicate Structures
THE SILICATES

• Joining Silicate Structures

• Most silicate minerals have a net negative charge (except for quartz)
• Metal ions are required to balance the charge
• These positive ions bond with unshared oxygen ions in the tetrahedra
• Most common ions are Fe2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Al3+, Ca2+
THE SILICATES

• Joining Silicate Structures

• Covalent silicon–oxygen bonds are typically stronger than the ionic bonds of the silicate
structure
• Controls the cleavage and hardness of minerals
• Examples:
• Quartz has a three-dimensional framework, is very hard, and lacks cleavage

• Talc has a sheet structure framework bonded with Mg ions and is a very soft mineral
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The feldspars are the most common silicate group and make up more than 50
percent of Earth’s crust
• Quartz is the second-most abundant mineral in the continental crust and the only
common mineral made completely of silicon and oxygen
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Light (Nonferromagnesium) Silicates

• Generally light in color
• Have a specific gravity of approximately 2.7
• Contain varying amounts of aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium
• Lacking iron and magnesium
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Light Silicates

• Feldspar group
• Most common mineral
group
• Forms under a wide
range of temperatures
and pressures
• Exhibit two directions of
perfect cleavage at 90
degrees
• Two most common
members:
• Orthoclase
(potassium feldspar)
• Plagioclase (sodium
and calcium feldspar)
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Light Silicates

• Quartz
• Only common silicate composed
entirely of oxygen and silicon
• Hard and resistant to weathering
• Conchoidal fracture
• Often forms hexagonal crystals
• Colored by impurities (various ions)
 COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Light Silicates

• Muscovite
• Common member of the mica family
• Excellent cleavage in one direction
• Thin sheets are clear
• Used as glass during the Middle Ages

• Produces the “glimmering” brilliance often

seen in beach sand
 COMMON SILICATE MINERALS
• The Light Silicates
• Clay minerals
• “Clay” is a general term
used to describe a
variety of complex
minerals that have
sheet structure
• Clay makes up a large
percentage of soil
• Most originate as
products of chemical
weathering
• Kaolinite is common
clay mineral used to
manufacture fine china
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Dark (Ferromagnesium) Silicates

• Contain iron and/or magnesium in their structure
• Generally dark in color
• Have a specific gravity between 3.2 and 3.6
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Dark Silicates

• Olivine group
• High-temperature
silicates
• Black to green in
color
• Glassy luster and
conchoidal fracture
• Forms small, rounded
crystals
 Common Silicate Minerals
• The Dark Silicates
• Pyroxene group
• Important components of
dark-colored igneous rocks
• Augite is the most common
mineral in the pyroxene
group
• Black in color
• Two distinctive cleavages
at nearly 90 degrees
• Dominant mineral in
basalt
 COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Dark Silicates

• Amphibole group
• Hornblende
is the most
common
mineral in
this group
• Two perfect
cleavages
exhibiting
angles of 120
and 60
degrees
COMMON SILICATE MINERALS

• The Dark Silicates

• Biotite
• Iron-rich member of the mica
family
• Excellent cleavage in one
direction
• Garnet
• Composed of individual
tetrahedra linked by metallic
ions (similar to olivine)
• Glassy luster and conchoidal
fracture
IMPORTANT NONSILICATE MINERALS

• Divided into groups based on the negatively charged ion or complex ion that the
members have in common
• Make up approximately 8 percent of Earth’s crust
COMMON NONSILICATE MINERAL GROUPS
IMPORTANT NONSILICATE MINERALS

• Carbonates
• Composed of the carbonate ion (CO32−) and a positive ion
• Two most common carbonates are calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
• Primary constituents in limestone and dolostone
IMPORTANT NONSILICATE MINERALS

• Many nonsilicate minerals have economic value

• Examples:
• Halite (mined for salt)
• Gypsum (used to make building materials)
• Hematite and magnetite (mined for iron ore)
• Native elements (gold, silver, and diamonds)
IMPORTANT NONSILICATE MINERALS
OUTLINE

• Earth materials
• Organic matter
• Composition and internal structure of the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
 ROCKS

• A rock is any naturally

formed, nonliving, coherent
aggregate mass of solid
matter that constitutes part
of a planet, asteroid, moon,
or other planetary object
• Minerals are the most
common and abundant
building blocks of rocks
ROCKS

• There are three families of rocks

• Igneous: formed from the cooling and consolidation of magma or lava
• Sedimentary: formed from either chemical precipitation of material or deposition
of particles transported in suspension
• Metamorphic: formed from changing a rock as a result of high temperatures, high
pressures, or both
ROCKS
• Earth’s crust is mainly igneous and metamorphic rock, however, most of the
rock we see at surface is sedimentary
ROCKS

• The two main features that best classify rocks are

• Texture: the overall appearance of a rock, resulting from the size,
shape, and arrangement of its mineral grains
• Mineral assemblage: the kinds and relative amounts of minerals
present
ROCKS
ROCKS
ROCKS

A:plutonic rocks
B: Volcanic rocks
C: Metamorphic rocks
D: sedimentary rocks
E: fossil-containing
limestone
OUTLINE

• Earth materials
• Organic matter
• Composition and internal structure of the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
REGOLITH

• Rock exposed at Earth’s surface is susceptible to alteration by the action of

water, wind, and other agents that physically and chemically break it apart and
alter it
• This broken-up, disintegrated rock matter is called the regolith
REGOLITH

• Literally “blanket rock,” the regolith forms a layer draped over most of
Earth’s surface
• Three categories describe most of the various materials of the regolith
• Saprolite: rock that is weathered in situ
• Sediment: loose rock and mineral particles
• Clastic sediment (broken particles)
• Chemical sediment (dissolved material)
• Soil: contains organic matter mixed with minerals, can support rooted
plants
REGOLITH