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Introduction : The elements are made of tiny particles known as atoms. Atom shows all the
physical and chemical properties of that element.
Atom :
Definition – “The smallest indivisible particle of an element is known as atom.”
Different theories are put forward by different scientists to suggest atomic structure.
1) Dalton’s atomic theory (1808)
2) J.J. Thomson’s atomic theory (1808)
3) Rutherford’s atomic theory (1911)
According to these scientists, an atom is composed of number of subatomic particles like
protons, neutrons, electrons. These subatomic particles are considered as fundamental
particles. Number of other subatomic particles like mesons, positrons are discovered
afterwards.
According to Rutherford’s atomic model, an atom consists of central rigid part called as
nucleus. Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus. Electrons are revolving around the
nucleus in circular path known as orbits.
• Protons and neutrons have nearly unit mass, while electrons have negligible
mass, so mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus of atom.
• Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons
are neutral. In an atom, number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Therefore, atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
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Three fundamental particles present in an atom are electron, proton and neutron.
a) Electron : It is represented as ‘e- ’. It is present in the extra nuclear part of an atom.
It carries unit negative (-ve) charge.
Mass of electron = 0.0005486 amu = 0.91095 x 10 -29 gm = 0.91095 x 10 -31 kg
b) Proton : It is represented as ‘P ’. It is present in the nucleus of an atom.
It carries unit positive (+ve) charge.
Mass of proton = 1.0073 amu = 1.6726 x 10 -24 gm = 1.6726 x 10 -27 kg
c) Neutron : It is represented as ‘n ’. It is present in the nucleus of an atom.
It carries no electric charge (neutral).
Mass of neutron = 1.0087 amu = 1.6749 x 10 -24 gm = 1.6749 x 10 -27 kg
Atomic weight : “The average relative weight of an atom of element as compared with
1/12th weight of carbon atom is known as atomic weight or atomic mass.”
The elements are present in various isotopic forms; therefore atomic mass may have
fractional number.
e.g. atomic weight of chlorine :
2
Chlorine has two isotopic forms Cl35 and Cl37. These isotopes are present in the ratio
3:1 in chlorine gas.
Therefore,
Average atomic weight of Cl = (35 x 3) + (37 x 1) = 105 + 37 = 142
4 4 4
= 35.5
Thus, atomic weight of Cl is 35.5
Isobars :
Definition : “The atoms of different elements having same atomic mass numbers are known
as isobars.”
e.g. 18 Ar40 , 19 K40 , 20 Ca40
Isobars At. no. At. Mass no. No. of protons = No. of
no. of electrons neutrons
40
18 Ar 18 40 18 22
19 K40 19 40 19 21
20 Ca40 20 40 20 20
Properties :
i) Isobars are the atoms of different elements.
ii) They have same atomic mass number.
iii) They have different atomic number, different electronic configuration, different number
of protons, neutrons and electrons.
iv) Isobars have different chemical properties but same physical properties.
Bohr Theory :
Niels Bohr put forward theory of atomic structure in 1913. He suggested some modifications
in the Rutherford’s atomic model.
Assumptions :
(1) An atom consists of a small positively charged nucleus at its centre.
(2) The negatively charged electrons are revolving around the nucleus in certain circular
paths called energy levels.
(3) Each energy level is associated with a definite amount of energy.
(4) The energy levels are numbered as n = 1,2,3,4 etc. or represented as K, L, M, N, etc.
(5) The electrons revolving around the nucleus in certain energy levels neither gain nor lose
energy. Thus energy of revolving electrons is definite.
(6) When electron jumps from inner lower energy level to outer higher energy level, it
absorbs some energy (gain of energy).
(7) When electron jumps from outer higher energy level to inner lower energy level, it emits
some energy (loss of energy).
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Orbits :
Definition : “The fixed circular paths along which electrons are revolving around the nucleus are
known as orbits.”
According to Bohr’ theory, electrons revolving in certain closed circular paths (orbits) having a
definite energy. Therefore these orbits are called as energy levels. These energy levels are
numbered as n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. starting from the innermost energy level. These energy levels
are also named as K, L, M, N, etc. Total number of orbitals present in the main energy level is
equal to n2.The total number of electrons present in main energy level is equal to 2n2
Main Energy level (n) Number of orbitals (n2) Total Number of electrons (2n2)
n=1 1 2
n=2 4 6
n=3 9 18
n=4 16 32
Orbitals :
Definition : “The region in space around the nucleus where probability of finding an electron is
maximum, is known as orbital.”
The main energy level contains some sub-energy levels namely s, p, d, f . These sub-energy
levels contain orbitals.
sub-energy No. of orbitals Names of orbitals
level
s one s
p three px, py, pz
(i) s - orbitals :The s - sub energy level consists of only one orbital known as s - orbital.
s – orbitals are spherical and non-directional in character. Every s-orbital can be filled
with two electrons.
(ii) p - orbitals :The p-sub energy level consists of three orbitals, designated as px, py, pz
orbitals. p – orbitals are dumb-belled shaped, and perpendicular to each other. Every p –
orbital contains two lobes.
In px – orbital two lobes are situated along x-axis, in py – orbital two lobes are situated
along y -axis, while in pz – orbital two lobes are situated along z –axis. Thus p – orbitals
are directional in character.
Every p -orbital can be filled with two electrons. Thus p - sub energy level can be filled
with total six electrons.
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Distinction between orbits and orbitals :
Orbits Orbitals
1. Orbits are fixed circular paths along 1. Orbital is the region in space around the
which electrons are revolving around nucleus where probability of finding an
the nucleus. electron is maximum.
2. Orbits are designated by numbers n = 1, 2. Orbitals are designated as s, p, d, f
2, 3, 4, etc. or by letters K,L,M,N,etc.
3. Orbits are closed circular paths. 3. Orbitals can have different shapes like
spherical, dumb-belled shaped.
Quantum Numbers:
I] Principle Quantum Number (n) –
It represents the main energy level or “shell”. It has values n = 1, 2, 3, 4……..
II] Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) –
It represents “subshell”. It has integer values from 0 to n-1.
n-1
l= 0, 1, 2, 3, …. n - 1
orbital: s p d f ….
III] Magnetic Quantum Number (m) –
It represents the “orbital”. It has integer values from (- l) to (+ l) including 0.
0
m = (-l), … -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, … (+l)
IV] Spin Quantum Number (s) –
It represents the “spin of electron”. It has values (+1/2) & (-1/2)
s = +1/2 , -1/2
b) Diagrammatic representation :
c) Orbital representation :
i) Carbon (Z = 6) 1s2 2s2 2p2
8
ii) Sodium (Z = 11) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Valency :
Definition : The number of electrons present in the outermost energy level of atom, which can
be shared, gained (taken) from other element or given to other element is called as valency of
that element.
There are two types of valencies : (i) Electrovalency, (ii) Covalency
(i) Electrovalency :
Definition : “The number of electrons from in the outermost energy level of atom, which can
be gained (taken) from other element or given to other element is called as electrovalency of
that element.”
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Electrovalency is of two types ;
a) Positive electrovalency : ‘The number of electrons, which can be given by the atom to other
atom is called as positive electrovalency.’
e.g. sodium, magnesium & aluminium have 1, 2 & 3 electrons in the outermost energy level. So
they can give 1,2 & 3 electrons respectively to form Na+, Mg++ , Al+++ ions. Thus Na, Mg & Al
have positive electrovalency.
b) Negative electrovalency : ‘The number of electrons, which can be gained by the atom from
other atom is called as negative electrovalency.’
e.g. phosphorus, sulphur & chlorine have 5, 6 & 7 electrons in the outermost energy level. So
- - -
they can gain 3, 2 &1 electrons respectively to form P , S - -, Cl -- ions. Thus P, S & Cl have
negative electrovalency.
(ii) Covalency : The number of electrons present in the outermost energy level of atom,
which can be shared with the other atom is called as valency of that element.
e.g. carbon & silicon have 4 electrons in the outermost energy level. They can share these
4 electrons with other atoms, thus they show covalency 4.
Octet Rule :
“The atoms tend to acquire eight electrons in the outermost energy level.” This is octet rule.
When an atom contains eight electrons in the outermost energy level, its electronic
configuration is ‘stable electronic configuration’.
All the elements of 8th group have 8 electrons in the outermost energy level, so they have
stable electronic configurations. Hence these elements are very stable. They are chemically
inactive and called as ‘inert elements’.
e.g. Neon (at.no. 10) E.C. 1s2 2s2 2p6
8
Argon (at.no. 18) E.C. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
8
Duplet Rule :
“Helium shows stable electronic configuration with two electrons in the outermost energy
level.” This is duplet rule.
• Thus , an atom shows stable electronic configuration when it completes duplet or octet.
Formation of compounds :
There are two main types of compounds :
(a) Electrovalent (ionic) compounds, (b) Covalent compounds.
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(a) Electrovalent (ionic) compounds :
Definition : ”The compounds formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to other
atom are known as electrovalent compounds.”
During the formation of electrovalent (ionic) compounds, electrovalent (ionic) bonds
are formed. e.g. NaCl, CaCl2
Properties :
1. Electrovalent compounds are completely soluble in water.
2. Electrovalent compounds produce positive and negative ions when dissolved in water.
3. Electrovalent compounds have high melting points and boiling points.
4. Electrovalent compounds are crystalline in nature.
2 8 7
iii) Sodium has one electron and chlorine has seven electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) sodium
gives one electron and chlorine gains one electron.
v) Due to the electron transfer sodium forms Na+ ion and chlorine forms Cl - ion.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus NaCl compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
2 8 7
iii) Al has three electrons and Cl has seven electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level)
aluminum gives three electrons and each of the three chlorine atoms gains one electron.
v) Due to electron transfer aluminum forms Al+++ ion and three chlorine atoms form 3Cl- ions.
vi) These ions are held together by electrostatic force of attraction called as electrovalent
or ionic bond.
vii) Thus AlCl3 compound is electrovalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
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ii) Electronic configuration
Cl (Z=17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2 8 7
iii) Chlorine has seven electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) chlorine
needs one more electron.
v) Two chlorine atoms contribute one electron each. Total two electrons are
shared in between them.
vi) Thus, ‘one electron pair’ is shared in between two chlorine atoms.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pair, covalent bond is formed in between two Cl atoms.
vii) Cl2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
2 6
iii) Carbon has four electrons and oxygen has six electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration (8 electrons in outermost energy level) carbon
needs four more electrons and each oxygen atom needs two electrons.
v) One carbon atom contributes four electrons and both oxygen atoms contribute two
electrons each. Total eight electrons are shared in between them as shown in diagram.
vi) Thus, total ‘four electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between C and O.
vii) CO2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
iii) Hydrogen has one electron and oxygen has six electrons in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each hydrogen needs one more electron (2
electrons in outermost energy level) and oxygen atom needs two electrons (8 electrons
in outermost energy level).
v) Two hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each and oxygen atom
contributes two electrons. Total four electrons are shared in between them.
vi) Thus, total ‘two electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between H and O.
vii) H2O molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
15
5) Formation of Ammonia (NH3) molecule :
NH3 molecule contains one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms.
i) Atomic number of Hydrogen is 1 and atomic number of nitrogen is 7.
ii) Electronic configurations
H (Z= 1) 1s1
1
O (Z= 7) 1s2 2s2 2p3
2 5
iii) Hydrogen has one electron and nitrogen has five electrons in outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each hydrogen needs one more electron
(2 electrons in outermost energy level) and nitrogen atom needs three electrons
(8 electrons in outermost energy level).
v) Three hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each and nitrogen atom
contributes three electrons. Total six electrons are shared in between them.
vi) Thus, total ‘three electron pairs’ are shared in between them.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between N and H.
vii) NH3 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
H (Z= 1) 1s1
1
iii) Carbon has four electrons and hydrogen has one electron in the outermost energy level.
iv) To obtain stable electronic configuration each carbon atom needs four electrons
(8 electrons in outermost energy level) and each hydrogen needs one more electron
(2 electrons in outermost energy level).
v) Two carbon atoms contribute four electrons each and two hydrogen atoms contribute
one electron each.
Each carbon atom shares three electrons with other carbon atom and one electron with
hydrogen atom as shown in the diagram.
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vi) Thus, out of total ‘five electron pairs’, three electron pairs are shared in between
carbon-carbon and two in between carbon-hydrogen.
vii) Due to sharing of electron pairs, covalent bonds are formed in between C and H.
vii) C2H2 molecule is formed by sharing of electrons, so it is a covalent compound.
Diagrammatic Representation :
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