CHAPTER – 3

DEVELOPMENT OF AGGLOMERATED FLUXES

3.1 Introduction

There is a need to have more insight into the designing of flux such that

indigenously manufactured flux results in high weld metal integrity and is cost

effective. For analyzing and predicting the weld metal mechanical properties, it is

essential to estimate the weld metal composition with from the wire, flux and parent

metal combination. The welding parameters also affect the weld metal composition.

Therefore, the effect of welding parameters should also be considered while developing

flux formulation to estimate the weld metal composition with reasonable accuracy.

With the development of new alloys and the need for better weldment characteristics,

science of welding consumable is still evolving. It would be cost effective to use a

sound scientific approach (observation, characterization, correlation, modelling, etc.) in

establishing a fundamental basis for the development of welding consumables.

American Welding Society also defines the flux as “A material used to prevent,

dissolve or facilitate removal of oxides and other undesirable substances” (Butler and

Jackson, 1967).

Submerged Arc welding flux performs several functions. The main functions

are arc stabilization, protection from the atmospheric contamination, de-oxidation and

alloying of the weld metal. A flux should help in attaining the appropriate weld metal

composition and exhibit satisfactory welding behaviour. Welding characteristics of the

welded joint largely depend upon the characteristics of the welding flux. A flux

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performs effectively if it has the following characteristics within the optimum range

(Butler, 1967; Nippes, 1993).

(i) It should provide arc stability.

(ii) The flux should have good slag detachability.

(iii) Flux should be ductile at high temperature to prevent oxidation of the weld metal

and brittle at room temperature to facilitate slag removable.

(iv) The melting temperature of the flux must be lower than that of the molten metal so

that no gases are trapped between the slag and the weld metal and complete fluxing

action can take place. Therefore, the upper limit of the melting temperature of fluxes

used for joining steel is nearly 13500 C.

(v) The solidification range of the slag and its change of viscosity over this range have

to match to that of the solidifying weld metal to ensure uniform solidification.

(vi) The viscosity of a welding flux must be high enough to give it impermeability to

atmospheric gases and to prevent it from running away from the molten metal and

flowing in front of arc.

(vii) Flux must be fluid enough in the welding operation to permit rapid separation of

non-metallic particles such as oxides and evolution of gases from the molten metal.

(viii) The flux should be cost effective.

(ix) The flux should have a good rate of reaction, so that the various reactions among

solid, liquid and gas phases are completed within a very short time before the weld

deposit solidifies.

(x) The weld deposit should be free from welding defects like cracks, porosity etc.

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(xi) The weld deposit should give the required chemical composition and also the

desired mechanical and metallurgical properties.

Flux constitutes half of the total welding cost in submerged arc welding. Due to

transportation and handling, approximately 10-15% of the flux gets converted into very

fine particles termed as flux dust before and after welding. If welding is performed

without removing these very fine particles from the flux, the gases generated during

welding are not able to escape, thus it may result into welding defects like surface

pitting (pocking) and even porosity. If the flux is too fine, it will pack and not feed

properly. If a fine flux or a flux with small amounts of fine particles is recovered by the

vacuum system, the fine particles may be trapped by the system. Only coarser particles

will be returned to the feeding system for reuse, which may cause welding problems.

On the other hand, if these fine particles are removed by sieving, the cost of welding

will be increased significantly. If this flux dust is dumped, it will create the pollution.

The present study has been conducted to investigate the feasibility of

developing one acidic and basic agglomerated flux by utilizing wasted flux dust of the

parent commercial available fluxes. The chemical composition and mechanical

properties viz. tensile strength and toughness of the all weld metal joint using

developed fluxes as well as parent commercial fluxes of the same type were compared.

The radiographic examinations of all the welded joints were conducted to check weld

metal integrity. It was found that the chemical composition and mechanical properties

of the all weld metal prepared by using the developed fluxes are in the same range as

that of parent fluxes. The welded joints were also found to be radiographically sound.

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Therefore the developed fluxes prepared from the waste flux dust can be used without

any compromise in mechanical properties and quality of the welded joint, thereby

reducing the cost of welding.

3.2 Types of Fluxes

Fluxes can be classified into the following different ways:

1. Methods of manufacture

2. Chemical nature

3. Chemical compositions

3.2.1 Methods of manufacture

Based on the choice of several manufacturing methods, the different types of

fluxes are:

(a) Fused fluxes

(b) Bonded or Agglomerated fluxes

(c) Mechanical mixed fluxes

(d) Sintered fluxes

Fused fluxes

To manufacture a fused flux, the basic raw materials are silica, calcite,

dolomite, fluorspar, rutile, ferro-alloys etc. are dry mixed and melted in electric

furnace. After melting and final conditions, the furnace charge is poured and cooled.

Cooling may be accomplished by shooting the melt through a stream of water or by

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pouring it onto large chill blocks. The result is a product with a glassy appearance

which is then crushed, screened for size and packaged. Fused fluxes have the following

advantages:

(i) Good chemical homogeneity

(ii) Easy control of the fines without affecting the flux composition

(iii) Normally not hygroscopic, which simplifies handling, storage and welding

problem

(iv) Readily recycled through feeding and recovery system without significant changes

in particle size or composition

Their main disadvantage is the difficulty of adding deoxidizers and ferro-alloys

to them during manufacture without segregation or extremely high losses. The high

temperature (approximately 14000C) needed to melt the raw ingredients limit the range

of flux composition. Fused fluxes are more expensive to manufacture because of the

greater energy requirements to melt all of the ingredients or sophisticated equipment to

withstand the higher temperatures and the additional step of cooling and crushing the

liquid mass. Additionally, the fused fluxes are more expensive to use because a greater

amount melts during the welding.

Bonded or Agglomerated fluxes

The raw materials to produce a bonded flux are powdered, dry mixed and

bonded with either potassium silicate or sodium silicate or a mixture of two. Chemical

bonding takes place between particles due to formation of electrovalent or covalent

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unsaturated bonds. After bonding, the wet mix is passed through a 10 mesh screen to

form small pallets which are subsequently baked at 380 to 800 0C and then crushed to

desired grain size (Chew, 1976). Belton et al. (1963) reported different method for the

formation of pallets. As per this method, binder is added in sufficient quantity to wet

appropriately the dry mixed homogeneous powder.

The temperature involved in preparing these fluxes is lower than that used for

producing fused fluxes. The agglomeration permits the use of deoxidizers and alloying

elements that provides the manufacturer to obtain the stringent weld quality

requirements and better mechanical properties of the welded joint. These fluxes have

lower bulk density and hence under identical welding parameters less flux is melted for

a given amount of weld deposit as compared with fused flux. The advantages of the

bonded fluxes include the following:

(i) Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements which are added as ferro-alloys

or as elements to produce alloys not readily available as electrodes or to adjust weld

metal compositions

(ii) Usage with thicker layer of flux when welding

(iii) Colour identification

But it has the followings disadvantages:

(i) Tendency for some fluxes to absorb moisture in a manner similar to coating on

some shielded metal arc electrodes

(ii) Possible gas evolution from the molten slag

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(iii) Possible change in flux composition due to segregation or removal of fine mesh

particles

Mechanically mixed fluxes

To produce a mechanically mixed flux, two or more fused or bonded fluxes are

mixed in any ratio necessary to obtain the desired results. The advantages of

mechanically mixed fluxes are that several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly

critical or proprietary welding operations. The following are the disadvantages of

mechanically mixed fluxes:

(i) Segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment, storage and handling

(ii) Segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery systems during the welding

operation

(iii) Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix

3.2.2. Chemical nature

Fluxes are also identified as chemically basic, chemically acidic, or chemically

neutral. The basicity or acidity of a flux is related to the ease with which the

component oxides of the flux ingredients dissociate into cation and an oxygen anion

(Ward, 1965). Chemically basic fluxes are normally high in MgO or CaO, while

chemically acidic fluxes are normally high in SiO 2. The basicity or acidity of a flux is

referred to as the ratio of CaO or MgO to SiO2. Fluxes having ratios more than one are

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called chemically basic. Ratios near unity are called one chemically neutral and those

less than one are chemically acidic.

Generally, the chemically basic flux is manufactured by agglomeration

technique and has lower oxygen content, which contributes to better mechanical

properties due to less density of inclusions and gases. The flux has lower density and

viscosity, which contribute to lower current carrying capacity rate and penetration as

compared to acidic flux. The flux is hygroscopic and therefore, less tolerant to rust and

scaling. Basic fluxes have recently become the prime fluxes for welding critical

applications where close control on weld deposit and chemistry are required. Basic

fluxes are available to suit any weldable material by submerged arc welding.

The chemically acidic flux has higher density and viscosity, which contribute to

higher current carrying capacity rate and penetration. It is non-hygroscopic and

therefore can tolerate higher degree of rust and scale. Generally the flux is

manufactured by fusion technique and has higher oxygen content, which contributes to

inferior mechanical properties due to higher density of inclusions and gases.

The characteristics of chemically neutral flux are between the characteristics of

acidic and basic fluxes. A neutral flux adds little or no alloying elements to the

deposited weld metal. The main ingredients of the flux are alumina, titanium oxide,

manganese oxide etc. Notch toughness is higher due to presence of aluminum and

titanium which promote the formation of acicular ferrite in the weld metal.

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3.2.3 Chemical compositions

On the basis of chemical composition the fluxes can be classified as:

(i) Calcium Silicate (high silica)

(ii) Calcium Silicate (medium silica)

(iii) Calcium Silicate (low silica)

(iv) Alumina Rutile

(v) Fully Basic Flux

(vi) Manganese Silicate

(vii) Alumina Basic

(viii) Rutile

3.3 Properties of Flux

The flux properties affect the quality, bead geometry and mechanical properties

of the weld. Therefore the relation between the properties of a flux and its welding

behavior should be known. The performance of the weld metal depends upon the

properties of the flux, which are further depended upon the chemical composition of

the flux. The properties of the flux undergo a change with the change of flux

composition in order to obtain the required weld chemistry. The various studies have

been conducted to analyze the effects of the flux properties on the welding behaviour.

Flux consumption rate, weld penetration, viscosity, slag detachability etc. are

determined by the properties of the flux. The important properties of flux, which affect

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the weld metal chemistry and welding behaviour, are classified into the three

categories, namely physical, metallurgical and technological properties.

3.3.1 Physical properties

Physical properties of a flux include grain size, melting point, heat capacity,

thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, surface tension, viscosity, grain size etc.

These properties influence the welding parameters, bead geometry, arc stability, bead

quality, heat affected zone and inclusion rating of the weld metal etc.

3.3.1.1 Particle size and distribution

Flux particle sizes and their uniform distribution within the bulk flux are

important because that influences feeding, recovery, amperage level, and weld bead

smoothness and shape. As amperage increases, the average particle size for fused

fluxes should be decreased and the percentage of small particle should be increased. If

the amperage is too high with a given particle size, the arc may be unstable and leave

ragged, uneven bead edges. Finer fluxes can be used at higher current density.

Generally, fluxes for current higher than 800 ampere are used with finer grain

(Vishvanath, 1982). Patchet (1983) observed that the particle size influenced the

dimensional instability of the weld bead especially at higher current. When rusty steel

is welded, coarse particle fluxes are preferable, because they allow gases to escape

more easily.

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Flux grain size and its distribution influence the flux consumption rate, weld bead

shape, surface quality and arc stability. The finer the flux, the more is the flux density,

which contributes towards high flux consumption rate and less tolerance to rusting. It

also affects the operating range of the flux, particularly with respect to welding current.

3.3.1.2 Electrical conductivity

Cold flux is nonconductor of electricity but once it melts due to heat of the arc,

it becomes highly conductive and hence the current flow is maintained between the

electrode and the job through the molten flux.

Electrical conductivity of the flux influences the arc stability and slag current,

which heat the slag and therefore improves the transition region between weld and

parent metal (Wanka, 1980). The electrical conductivity of the flux depends upon

basicity index, flux composition and temperature. It increases with the increase in

basicity index and temperature. Flux consumption rate increases with the increase in

electrical conductivity (Bennett, 1970; Renwick and Patchet, 1976; Gupta and Gupta,

1988). Kaushal et al. (1988) reported that the electrical conductivity influenced the heat

affected zone.

3.3.1.3 Arc stability

Arc stability can be defined as the fluctuation of voltage from the average arc

voltage during welding. The larger the magnitude of voltage fluctuation, the greater is

the arc instability. A stable arc will produce good weld bead and a defect free weld

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nugget. Defects commonly introduced by unstable arc are slag entrapment, porosity,

blow holes and lack of proper fusion. Arc stability also affects the initiation and

maintenance of welding arc and even the weld bead morphology (Patchett, 1974). The

arc should initiate easily and be able to maintain itself under a varying arc length

(Schwemmer and Williamson, 1979). If due to certain reasons arc length decreases, arc

voltage will decrease, arc current and therefore burn off rate will increase thereby

causing the arc to lengthen. The reverse occurs if the arc length increases than the

normal.

Arc stability is also affected by non symmetrical flow of plasma jet. The flux

ingredients play an important role in welding by providing easily ionized atoms, which

helps in improving the arc stability. Lithium oxide, potassium oxide and sodium oxide

produce vapours that are easily ionized and therefore increase the arc stability.

However, potassium oxide is more effective than sodium oxide. Farias et al. (1997)

reported that the addition of magnesium improved the arc stability. Witting (1980)

observed that the addition of fluorides of calcium and magnesium caused arc

instability. Addition of compounds such as aluminum oxide and chromium oxide

decreases the arc stability and addition of potassium oxalate, potassium silicate and

lithium carbonate to a flux increases the arc stability (Nadkarni, 1988).

3.3.1.4 Interfacial tension

The surface tension at the interface of molten flux and weld metal is known as

the interfacial tension. The interfacial tension depends upon the flux and weld metal

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composition (Hazlett, 1957; Yakobashvili, 1970). Interfacial tension of a flux

influences the protection of weld metal from the atmospheric gases and thus welds

bead surface quality. It also influences the spreading tendency of weld pool and thus

nature of the heat transfer during welding. A high interfacial tension between molten

flux and weld metal gives rise to undercut, whereas low interfacial tension cause easy

separation of slag from the weld metal. An increase in interfacial tension between flux

and molten weld causes an increase in penetration. Komapov et al.(1983) observed that

low value of interfacial surface tension promoted better profile of the deposited weld

metal. Researchers (Goloshubov, 1972; Wanka, 1980) reported that the range of the

surface tension of the fused fluxes should be between 250-450 dynes/cm depending on

welding application.

3.3.1.5 Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow. Viscosity of the molten flux

depends upon flux ingredients and temperature. Fluxes having more silica content,

exhibit high viscosity due to network formation tendency of silicon ion (Ward, 1965).

The viscosity can be reduced by the addition of calcium fluoride, calcium oxide,

manganese oxide etc. Also, viscosity decreases with increase in temperature. Tarlinsku

(1980) reported that the preferred range of viscosity for the satisfactory welds was

between 22-35 poise at the temperature range of 1450-15500C.

Viscosity of the molten flux affects the inclusion rating of the weld, internal gas

porosity, pocking, weld bead appearance, welding position and heat transfer during

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welding (Butler and Jackson 1967). A flux with a high viscosity tends to confine the

weld pool, thus increasing the heat input for a given area and resulting in deeper

penetration. The optimum range of slag viscosity improves the formation of the weld

by restricting the disturbing factors and suppressing oscillations of the weld pool as

they move in viscous slag towards the solidifying boundaries of the molten metal

(Kuzmenko, 1985).

A flux must remove undesirable elements and gases away from the weld metal

by first absorbing atoms and molecules into the molten slag at the liquid metal-slag

interface followed by diffusion of these species away from the interface. Viscosity

influences the velocity of separation of the liquid metal from the liquid slag. Hence, a

flux with low viscosity has more bulk diffusion rate and, therefore results in faster

reaction rate at the metal-slag interface. This phenomena contributes to cleaner weld

metal and low non-metallic inclusions such as oxides, sulfides, etc. while, a higher

viscosity may result in entrapment of gases, which contributes to the surface defects

like pocking. However, the viscosity of a welding flux must be high enough to give it

impermeability to atmospheric gases and to prevent it from running away from the

molten metal and flowing in front of the arc (Butler and Jackson, 1967). Selection of

proper viscosity also depends on the position and speed of the welding. A more viscous

flux is desirable for vertical and overhead welding to assist in reinforcing and

protecting the weld pool and low viscous flux is preferred for high welding speed.

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3.3.1.6 Melting point

Melting point of the flux influences the weld metal protection characteristic,

flux viscosity, current carrying capacity and flux consumption rate. The flux should be

in molten stage after the weld metal has solidified to protect the weld metal and to

obtain the good weld surface appearance. Therefore, the upper limit of the melting

point of the flux, used for steel, is generally considered to be about 1350 0C (Nippes,

1993). The flux consumption rate increases where as the current carrying capacity and

viscosity decreases with the decrease in melting point. The melting point depends upon

the ingredients and their ratios. In general, it decreases with the addition of calcium

fluoride and manganese oxide.

3.3.2 Metallurgical properties

Metallurgical properties influence the microstructure of the weldment, which in

turn affect the overall mechanical properties of the weldment. The oxygen level and

chemistry of weldment are also influenced by metallurgical properties. These include

chemical characteristics, basicity index and oxidation power of flux. The chemical

characteristics of a flux depend upon composition and chemical characteristics of the

flux ingredients. It influences the slag-metal-gas reactions and the weld metal

composition, which further affect the mechanical soundness of the weldment.

3.3.2.1 Basicity index

Basicity index is a measure of basicity of the flux / slag oxide system and it is

used as a parameter by which the chemical behaviour of the flux or slag and

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mechanical properties of the weld metal can be correlated (Potapov, 1978). The

basicity of a flux is related to the ease with which the component oxides of the flux

ingredients dissociate into a metallic cation and oxygen ion. Chemical behaviour of the

flux and slag influences the slag-metal-gas reactions in the weld pool, which in turn

further affects the elements transfer behaviour. It exerts a strong effect on the process

of flux hydration and oxidation-reduction process taking place at the heterogeneous

boundary of slag and metal. Basicity index influences the oxygen content in the weld

pool, which further affects the porosity, inclusions level, and oxidation of alloy and

mechanical properties of the weld metal (Lancaster, 1993). In general, oxygen level in

the weld metal decreases with increase in basicity index. Eager (1978) also observed

that weld metal oxygen content reduced from 900 ppm to 250 ppm for a basicity index

change from 0.50 to 1.5 and then remained constant at 250 ppm level with further

increase in basicity index. Basicity index also affects the dephosphorization and

desulphurization process in the weld pool (Tarng and Chang, 2002).

3.3.2.2 Oxidation power

Oxidation power of the flux influences the oxidation-reduction reaction taking

place during welding. It depends upon the stability of the various oxides present in the

flux and increases with the increase in amount of oxides which have lower thermal

stability such as silica, manganese oxide etc. It also depends upon the basicity of the

flux. In general, high basicity index results in low oxidation power of the slag.

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3.3.3 Technological properties

The important technological properties which influence the economics and the

productivity of the welding include detachability, flux usage and penetration.

3.3.3.1 Detachability

Detachability can be defined as the ease with which the slag is removed from

the weld metal after solidification. Time and effort required to remove slag lowers

productivity. Incomplete removal of slag can lead to weld defects like slag inclusions,

lower the corrosion resistance of the weld and impair the appearance of the weldment

and can compromise weldment integrity. Therefore, the ability to remove slag with

relative ease is an important factor for higher production rate, better mechanical

properties of the weld metal.

The composition of the flux plays an important role in the risk of slag

inclusions through its effect on the weld bead shape and the ease with which the slag

can be removed. Melting point of the slag has an effect on the amount of inclusions in

the weld metal and the ability to weld out of position. A weld pool with low oxygen

content will have a high surface tension producing a convex weld bead with poor

parent metal wetting. Thus, an oxidizing flux, containing for example iron oxide,

produces a low surface tension weld pool with a more concave weld bead profile, and

promotes wetting into the parent metal. High silicate flux produces a glass-like slag,

often self-detaching. Fluxes with lime content produce an adherent slag which is

difficult to remove.

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Detachability also varies depending upon the type of flux used. For rutile or acidic

fluxes, i.e. large amounts of titanium oxide (rutile) with some silicates, the oxygen

level of the weld pool is high enough to produce a flat or slightly convex weld bead.

The fluidity of the slag is determined by the calcium fluoride content. Fluoride-free

coatings designed for welding in the flat position produce smooth bead profiles and an

easily removed slag. The more fluid fluoride slag designed for positional welding is

less easily removed. For basic fluxes, the high proportion of calcium carbonate

(limestone) and calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the flux reduces the oxygen content of

the weld pool and therefore its surface tension. The slag is more fluid than that

produced with the rutile coating. Fast freezing also assists welding in the vertical and

overhead positions but the slag coating is more difficult to remove. Consequently, the

risk of slag inclusions is significantly greater with basic fluxes due to the inherent

convex weld bead profile and the difficulty in removing the slag from the weld toes

especially in multi-pass welds. Addition of corundum, zirconia, rutile and alumina in a

flux improves detachability (Bennett, 1970).

3.3.3.2 Flux usage

Besides economic consideration, flux consumed in SAW influences the pick up

or reduction of alloying elements and therefore affects the mechanical soundness and

metallurgical properties of the weld metal. The flux consumption depends on physical

properties of the flux such as melting point, density, thermal properties, chemical

composition, basicity index and welding parameters viz. wire feed rate, open circuit

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voltage, welding speed etc. The flux consumption increases with the decrease in

melting point and decreases with the decrease in the density of the flux and thermal

conductivity of the base material. The flux consumption initially increases with the

current, reaches maximum and then decreases. The flux consumption increases with

the increase in welding voltage (Pandey and Mohan, 2003).

In applications where low hydrogen considerations are important, fluxes may

be kept dry. Fused fluxes do not contain chemically bonded H 2O, but particles hold

surface moisture. Bonded fluxes contain chemically bonded H 2O, and may hold surface

moisture as well. Bonded fluxes need to be protected in the same manner as low-

hydrogen shielded metal arc electrodes. The user should follow the directions of the

flux manufacturers for specific baking procedures.

When alloy-bearing fluxes are used, it is necessary to maintain a fixed ratio

between the quantities of flux and electrode melted, to obtain consistent weld metal

composition. There ratio is actually determined by the variables of the welding

procedure. For example, deviation from an established volt-ampere relation will change

the alloy content of the weld metal by changing the flux-electrode melting ratio.

3.3.3.3 Penetration

Penetration is the distance from base plate top surface to the maximum extent

of the weld nugget. Penetration determines the load carrying capacity of a welded

structure. It affects the weld strength. Flux ingredients and welding parameters

influence the penetration. Indocochea and Olson (1983) reported that the penetration

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increased with the increase in slag viscosity and interfacial tension, and represented the

same by the following equation:

P = k  ( l - s) (V-V) (3.4)

Where, η, γl, γs, and `k‟ are the viscosity, interfacial tension of liquid, interfacial

tension of solid and constant respectively. The flux ingredients which increase the

viscosity and oxygen activity of the slag like silica also increase the penetration.

3.4 Ingredients of Fluxes and their Functions

Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of

manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminum, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other

compounds such as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible

with a given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired

mechanical properties. All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal

chemical composition and mechanical properties. The ingredients of the fluxes have

varying degrees of influence on the physical properties. The functions of the main

ingredients are as follows:

3.4.1 Manganese oxide

Manganese oxide is chemically basic in nature. According to Ferrera, and

Olson (1975), its addition improves the arc stability, reduces the viscosity and thereby

favours high welding speed. It also reduces the harmful effect of sulphur.

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3.4.2 Silica

Silica is considered as acidic in nature. Its addition improves good weld

appearance and slag detachability. It also increases the viscosity and current carrying

capacity. Higher silica content gives higher content of O2− ions that react with carbon

and cause transfer of silicon and oxygen into the weld metal (Tuliani et al. 1972).

Volobuev (1982) reported that the silica content of the flux controls not only the

welding and technological properties but also the metallurgical properties of the fluxes

and has a strong effect, especially on the susceptibility to hot cracking of the weld

deposit.

3.4.3 Halides

Borikov et al. (1983) observed that halides affects the oxidizing and reducing

reaction taking place at the slag metal boundary and therefore transfer of alloying

elements. Potapov et al. (1981) reported that the addition of halides of alkali metals

improves the metallurgical and mechanical properties by providing uniform

distribution of non-metallic inclusions. The addition of potassium fluoride and

manganese fluoride reduces the amount of diffusible hydrogen in the weld metal.

3.4.4 Calcium fluoride

Calcium fluoride (CaF2) occurs naturally as the mineral fluorite and is basic in

nature. It is also called as fluorspar and is the least expensive of the fluorides. It is

used in some amounts to provide protection from the atmosphere and lower the melting

range of the slag. Too much fluoride adversely affects the arc stability and can increase

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the tendency for undercutting at the edges of the weld bead. Weymueller (1981)

reported that calcium fluoride increased the fluidity of the flux, which in turn resulted

in better weld coverage and helped to escape gases from the weld pool. The addition of

calcium fluoride reduces the dissolved hydrogen and silicon content of weld metal

3.4.5 Rutile

Rutile is the most common natural form of TiO2 and is a chemically neutral

oxide.It is effective in reducing the viscosity, especially when aluminum oxide or silica

is to be replaced and is added for bead appearance. It promotes the formation of

acicular ferrite and refines the grains that results in increase of ductility and toughness

of the weld metal. Rutile is employed to provide for good slag removal after the weld

has solidified and to reduce the oxygen content of the weld metal (Kohno et al. 1982).

3.4.6 Calcium oxide

Calcium oxide is normally present as a stable complex compound with SiO 2

and/or Al2O3 and is chemically basic. It is quite hygroscopic in nature and increases the

basicity index and hence, decrease the sulphur and phosphorous content in the weld

metal. It also improves the arc stability and decrease the viscosity of the slag (Rissone,

2002). It is added to the flux to maintain the desired fluidity and oxygen content in the

weld metal.

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3.4.7 Sodium oxide

The sodium oxide is present as a silicate which functions as a binder for the

fluxes. Sodium oxide can also be present as some form of mineral. It is highly basic in

nature and enhances the arc stability.

3.4.8 Potassium oxide

Potassium silicate is formed when potassium oxide combines with silica. The

potassium oxide gives improved arc stability and is also basic in nature.

3.4.9 Aluminum oxide

Aluminum oxide is a mild acidic oxide. It is added for maintaining good weld

bead appearance and easy detachability of slag. Its addition promotes acicular ferrite

and refines the grain, thereby improves the mechanical properties of the weld metal. It

also improves the slag detachability.

3.5 Weldability

The weldability or joinability of a material refers to its ability to be welded. It

indicates the ability of a material to respond to the welding process under given

fabrication conditions in order to enable successful fabrication of a well designed

structure which, in turn, should successfully render the intended service when put to

use (Wiseman, 1976). Thus, weldability is a measure of how easy it is to:

(i) Obtain defect free welds

(ii) Achieve adequate mechanical properties

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(iii) Produce welds resistant to service degradation

Weldability is not a fixed parameter for a given material, but will depend on a

number of factors including chemistry, surface finish, heat-treating tendencies, joint

details, service requirements, and welding processes and facilities available.

3.6 Experimental Procedure

The entire experimental plan is presented in the form of flow chart in Fig.3.1

Development of Fluxes

Conducting trials to check behaviour of

developed fluxes

F
Chemical composition of weld metal laid by
developed and parent fluxes

Preparation of welded joints using developed

avavaiaklabfluxes
and parent flux

Radiographic examination of the welded joints

Machining
bahoiour of the joints
of developed and testing for of
fluxesbehaviour
mechanical
developed properties
fluxes

Fig. 3.1 Flow chart of experimental plan

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3.6.1 Development of fluxes

In the present study, agglomerated cost effective fluxes were developed by

using the flux dust of acidic and basic flux respectively, with addition of potassium

silicate as binder and aluminum powder as deoxidizer. Numbers of welding trials were

conducted to find the percentage of binder and deoxidizer to the flux dust. The weld

metal was checked for smooth bead appearance free from visual defects, chemical

composition and slag detachability. The trials were repeated until satisfactory results

were obtained after analyzing the weld bead. It was found that the 90 ml addition of

potassium silicate binder in 550 grams of flux dust, and aluminum powder (4% of the

weight of the flux dust) gave an excellent bead appearance, free from any visual

defects and satisfactory detachability.

3.6.2 Flux preparation

The above said flux ingredients were weighed and wet mixed for 10 minutes

and then passed through a 10 mesh screen to form small pallets. Potassium silicate was

added as binder because of better arc stability (Bennett, 1970; Renwick and Patchet,

1976). The pellets of the flux were dried in air for 24 hours and then baked in the

muffle furnace between 650-7000C for nearly three hours (Gupta and Gupta, 1988).

After cooling, these pallets were crushed and subsequently sieved. After sieving, fluxes

were kept in air tight bags and baked again at 3000C before welding.

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3.6.3 Chemical analysis

To avoid the dilution, four-layer-high weld pad was made as per AWS A5.23-90

standard as shown in Fig.3.2, using 4 mm diameter wire and the laboratory made

agglomerated fluxes.

Fig. 3.2 Weld metal pad for chemical analysis

The compositions of the electrode and base metal are shown in Table 3.1. The welding

parameters, as shown in Table 3.2, were kept constant. The inter pass temperature was

maintained between 150-1600C. The weld sample of approximately 50mm length was

cut from the middle of the each weld pad. The cut weld pad was cleaned at the upper

most layers. The chemical composition was determined at the clean surface of the

upper most layers by spectroscope.

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Table 3.1 Chemical composition of base plate and electrode wire

Element
C Mn Si S P Ni Cr
(%)
Base
0.21 0.2 0.26 0.028 0.025 0.12 0.43
Plate
Electrode
0.069 1.86 0.1 0.028 0.023 Nil Nil
Wire

Table 3.2 Welding parameters

Parameter Units Values

Current Ampere 550
Open Circuit Voltage Volt 38
Electrode stick-out Millimeter 30
Welding speed m/hr 28
Arc Voltage Volt 31

3.6.4 Preparation of welded joints

The four butt weld joints were made with mild steel as base plate and backing

strip. A constant voltage D.C submerged arc welding power source was used for

forming the joints with base plates having the dimension 275 x 125 x 25 mm using 4

mm diameter wire electrode of grade C (AWS-5.17-80 EH-14). DCEP polarity was

used throughout the experimentation. The backing plates of 12 mm thick were tack

welded to these 25 mm thick base plates. The dimensions of the groove weld laid on

the weld plate are shown in Fig.3.3; 25mm length of all weld material was cut from

each end of the groove weld and discarded. All the specimens were cleaned thoroughly

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and their surfaces polished using 600 no. and 800 no. grit polishing paper before

subjecting them to the testing.

Fig.3.3 Geometry and dimensions of groove weld in mm

3.6.5 Radiographic examination

The welded plate was cleaned and thereafter backing plate and crown were

removed by machining. The well cleaned weld plate was radiographed and interpreted

according to standard 9.252 AWS D.1.15-88.

3.6.6 Tensile test

Three all weld metal tensile test pieces were cut from each welded plate and

machined to the standard dimensions. The tensile tests were carried out on a universal

testing machine (Make FIE-India) on three test specimens for each type of developed

and parent fluxes. The location and dimensions of the tensile sample are shown in Figs

3.4 and 3.5 respectively.

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The groove welds were laid as per AWS A5.23-90 and welding parameters were

maintained as per Table 3.2 using DCEP polarity. The dimension of the weld plate and

location of tensile and Charpy test pieces are shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig.3.4 Location of the tensile sample

Fig. 3.5 Dimensions of the tensile sample in mm

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 Fig.3.6 Dimensions of weld plate in mm

3.6.7 Impact test

Charpy V notch impact test was carried out to evaluate the toughness of the

welded joints at 00C. The zero degree centigrade temperature was attained by keeping

impact test specimens under ice cubes. Five all weld metal impact test specimens were

cut from each welded joint of plates as per AWS standard A5.23-90. The orientations

and dimensions of the sample are shown in Figs.3.7 and 3.8 respectively. The

specimens were fine polished by the surface grinder. The specimens were positioned

properly and load was released suddenly behind the notch and recorded on the scale of

0-300 joules with 2 joules least count. Among the five values of the impact strength,

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the lowest and the highest values were discarded and average of other three values was

taken for the evaluation of impact strength of the groove welds.

Fig.3.7 Location of the impact sample in mm

Fig. 3.8 Dimensions of the impact sample in mm

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3.6.8 Scanning electron micrograph (SEM)

Scanning electron micrograph of the fractured surfaces of tensile test specimens

were laid at 20kVand 1500 X on microscope (Make JOEL Japan, JSM-6100).

3.7 Results and Discussion

The flux behaviour of the developed fluxes was found to be satisfactory. The

bead surface appearance was found to be excellent and free from any visual defects and

it was comparable with the parent fluxes. The slag was easily detachable form the

welded joint laid by the developed fluxes.

As shown in Table 3.3 the compositions of all weld metal of the developed and

parent fluxes are found to be in the same range. However, manganese content of the

weld metal laid by using the developed acidic and basic fluxes is slightly lower than

the weld metal laid by using the parent acidic and basic fluxes. The silicon content of

the weld metal laid by using both of the developed fluxes is higher than the weld metal

laid by using the parent fluxes.

The carbon equivalent was being computed from the following equation
(Mercado et al. 2005)

Cequivalent = C + Mn/6 + Si/24 + Ni/40 + Cr/5 + Mo/4 + V/4 (3.1)

Where C, Mn, Si, Ni, Mo and V represent the metallic content, expressed as
percentage.

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Table 3.3 Chemical composition of all weld metal laid by developed and parent fluxes

Element Carbon
(%) C Mn Si S P Ni Cr Equivalent

Parent
0.041 1.5 0.43 0.018 0.016 Nil 0.09 0.3269
Basic Flux
Developed
0.05 1.35 0.47 0.013 0.018 0.0037 0.0345 0.30157
Basic flux
Parent
Acidic 0.058 1.6 0.49 0.018 0.018 Nil 0.08 0.3610
Flux
Developed
Acidic 0.051 1.52 0.52 0.016 0.017 0.0142 0.048 0.3359
flux

Potassium silicate binder was added to the flux dust. The silicon di-oxide,

associated with potassium silicate binder dissociate into oxygen and silicon due to heat

during welding (Lau et al., 1980). It causes the additional amount of oxygen and silicon

content in the weld pool. The additional amount of oxygen results in oxidation of

manganese and hence the less manganese content in the weld metal laid by using the

developed fluxes as compared to the weld metal laid by using the parent fluxes. The

additional amount of silicon results in increase of silicon content and hence the

higher silicon content in the weld metal laid by using the developed fluxes as compared

to the weld metal laid by using the parent fluxes.

The radiographs of the welded joint which were prepared using developed

fluxes were found to be acceptable as per 9.252 of AWS D.1.15-88 radiographic

standard of dynamic loading.

The average values of tensile properties, yield strength, ultimate strength,

elongation percentage, area reduction percentage and impact strength of the developed

fluxes as well as parent fluxes are shown in Table 3.4 and 3.5 respectively.
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Table 3.4 Tensile strength of all weld metals laid by using parent and developed fluxes

Yield Area
Tensile
Strength Elongation Reduction
Flux Strength
(N/mm2) (%) (%)
(N/mm2)
Parent Basic 481 586 28 68
Flux
Developed 495 584 22 66
Basic flux
Parent Acidic 510 625 25 52
Flux
Developed 500 617 29 65
Acidic flux

Table 3.5 Impact strength of all weld metals laid by using parent and developed fluxes

Flux Impact strength / Toughness (joules)

Observations
1 2 3 4 5 Average
Parent 170 146 182 138 153 156.33
Basic Flux
Developed 138 155 158 148 169 153.66
Basic flux
Parent 75 74 98 73 72 74
Acidic
flux
Developed 70 80 65 68 71 69.96
Acidic
Flux

The average values of tensile strength and impact strength of all weld metal

obtained by using the developed and parent fluxes are reported to be in the same range.

However, the tensile strength and impact strength of all weld laid by using the parent

acidic and basic fluxes are slightly higher than that of the all weld laid by using the

corresponding developed fluxes. It is attributed to slightly higher carbon equivalent of

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all weld metal laid by using parent fluxes than that of carbon equivalent of all weld

metal using the developed fluxes.

The weld metal composition and mechanical properties viz. tensile strength and

impact strength of the developed fluxes were also found satisfactory and comparable

with parent fluxes available in the market. The highest and lowest tensile strengths

were obtained for the weld metal with highest and lowest equivalent carbon

respectively. It has been reported by Lancaster (1980) that carbon equivalent higher

than 0.45 had a high susceptibility to cold cracking after welding. The carbon

equivalent of welds for all fluxes is lower than 0.45. Carbon equivalent for acidic

fluxes are more than that of basic fluxes, resulting in higher value of tensile strength of

the weld laid using acidic fluxes.

The higher value of impact strength of the weld prepared from basic flux can be

attributed to lower oxygen content due to higher thermal stability of basic oxides. The

oxygen may be present in the weld bead in the form of oxides of iron or of any of the

metals contained in the welding flux, electrode or base metal. These oxides, if present

in the weld bead, appears as microscopic particles which fail to float to the surface of

the molten weld metal before it solidifies and thus remain interspersed throughout the

weld metal along the grain boundaries resulting in potential low energy fracture

regions.

Figs.3.9 and 3.10 show the scanning electron micrographs of the fractured

tensile test specimens of the weld laid out at same parameters using developed as well

as parent fluxes. The micrographs of all specimens show the ductile mode of fracture.

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 (a) (b)

Fig. 3.9 SEM image of tensile test fractured surface of weld laid by (a) Parent acidic flux,
(b) Developed acidic flux

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.10 SEM image of tensile test fractured surface of weld laid by (a) Parent basic flux,
(b) Developed basic flux

89