Preface

T his memoir addresses the geology and dynamics of the principal petroleum basins of South
America from Venezuela to Argentina. Our understanding of the way these sedimentary
basins formed has advanced immensely in the last decade. This reflects improved data quality, a
different way of looking at the data, a new integrated approach to basin analysis, and a new genera-
tion of geologists. A wide variety of papers reviews the tectonic framework, comparative structural
styles, sequence stratigraphy, and the way these are interrelated. These basins were a long time in
the making. Most have evolved by repeated reactivation of preexisting fabrics. The structural devel-
opment, its timing, and the way sedimentation responded to this activity is of paramount impor-
tance to oil and gas exploration. Intentionally we do not review in any detail the Mesozoic basins of
the Atlantic margin because a subject so vast would require space of its own.
We are grateful to the following people for their generous assistance in many ways, for being
there when we needed them: Peter Aukes, Hugo Belotti, Nora Cesaretti, Miguel Cirbián, Al
Ferworn, Silvia González, Gary Howell, Bob Meneley, Luis Spalletti and Graciela Suárez Marzal de
Spalletti, Anne Thomas, Gustavo Vergani, and members of the AAPG staff. We thank Edgar Ortiz
and Jeremy Tankard for the paintings prepared especially for this volume. Copyediting and layout
were done by Kathy Walker. We are also grateful to Perez Companc for its support.
 All of the manuscripts were reviewed externally. We would like to thank the following for their
critical reviews:

J. Allan D. A. Lehto
R. B. Allen J. Letouzey
R. W. Allmendinger S. Liu
H. Arbe O. López Gamundi
C. D. Arregui O. López Paulsen
P. G. Aukes D. Loureiro
H. R. Balkwill J. D. Lowell
C. Barcat J. A. Maloney
H. Belotti P. Mann
K. T. Biddle R. Manoni
A. Boll J. R. McLean
G. C. Bond R. A. Meneley
A. J. Boucot E. J. Milani
R. L. Brown M. Mozetic
K. R. Butler A. C. Newson
R. Caminos H. Passalacqua
M. A. Cooper M. J. Perkins
M. C. Covey J. L. Pindell
L. Dalla Salda V. Ploszkiewicz
M. J. de Wit V. A. Ramos
J. F. Dunn J. Reynolds
A. Edwards G. Rodrigue
R. N. Erlich D. Roeder
N. Eyles F. Roure
R. D. Forsythe D. B. Rowley
J. Gallagher F. Schein
C. F. Garrasino D. W. Scholl
S. Greer T. Sempere
R. H. Groshong B. M. Sheffels
N. E. Haimila A. E. Slingsby
P. E. Isaacson L. R. Snowdon
M. P. A. Jackson C. R. Tippett
W. R. Jamison M. A. Uliana
W. A. M. Jenkins J. Utting
P. B. Jones B. van Hoorn
T. E. Jordan G. Vergani
J. W. Kerr J. N. J. Visser
E. Kozlowski C. Vistalli
C. Knutson H. J. Welsink
G. E. Kronman H. J. White
D. Larue P. A. Ziegler
L. Legarreta N. Zilli

This memoir was stimulated by a meeting on Gondwana geology held in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, in
August 1992. Financial support was provided by Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos,
Phillips Petroleum, Tesoro Bolivia Petroleum, Perez Companc, Mobil Boliviana Petroleum, Chevron
International (Bolivia), Exxon Company, and Texaco Bolivia.

Anthony Tankard
Ramiro Suárez Soruco
Herman Welsink

ANTHONY TANKARD is a principal
of Tankard Enterprises, a
Calgary-based company. A native
of South Africa, he received B.Sc.
(Honours) and Ph.D. degrees
from Natal University and
Rhodes University, respectively.
Since 1970, he worked in research
institutions in South Africa and
the United States before entering
the Canadian petroleum industry
in 1981. Tony established Tankard
Enterprises in 1992. His work
includes basin evolution, stratig-
raphy, the way sedimentation
responds to structural develop-
ment, and the habitat of hydro-
carbon accumulation. He is
actively involved in AAPG affairs
and has published numerous
technical papers in addition to co-
editing or co-authoring several
volumes.
About the Editors
R AMIRO S UAREZ S ORUCO is a
senior technical specialist at
Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales
Bolivianos, the Bolivian national
oil company. Ramiro was born in
Cochabamba in the Andes. He
completed his undergraduate
training at the Universidad
Nacional de La Plata and his
Doctorate in geology at the
Universidad de Buenos Aires,
both in Argentina. Since 1968, his
career has spanned GEOBOL and
YPFB as paleontologist, biostratig-
rapher, and technical services
manager. Ramiro’s research
interests have focused on inverte-
brate paleontology and Paleozoic
biostratigraphy and paleogeog-
raphy, subjects in which he has
published many papers. Through
this work, he has been involved in
several national and international
committees, including the IUGS
Subcommission on Devonian
Stratigraphy and the Academia
Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia.
H ERMAN W ELSINK is a senior
geologist in the exploration
department of Compañía Naviera
Perez Companc S.A.C.F.I.M.F.A. in
Neuquén, Argentina. He was
born in Haarlem, The Nether-
lands. He graduated with a
Doctoraal in geology from the
University of Utrecht; this work
included a thesis on an Eocene
basin in the Pyrenees. Since 1981,
Herman has worked in the oil
industry, where he has been
involved in exploration princi-
pally of extensional basins in
Canada, Bolivia, and Argentina.
His research interests and publi-
cations center on the formation
and deformation of sedimentary
basins, structural-stratigraphic
linkage, and their consequences
for hydrocarbon accumulation.
 About the Artists

E dgar Ortiz was born in Villa Dolores in the Province of Córdoba, Argentina. He studied
drawing and painting at the Manuel Belgrano School of Fine Arts. Today Ortiz is widely
regarded as one of Argentina’s outstanding watercolor artists, for which he has received numerous
awards. His work is inspired by the Argentinian landscapes and captures their changing seasons
and moods. His paintings are in numerous galleries as well as private collections in Argentina,
Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Canada, United States, Italy, and The Netherlands. Edgar now lives in La
Plata.

J eremy Tankard was born in Cape Town, South Africa. He is now resident in Canada, where he
studied drawing and printmaking at the Alberta College of Art. He is principally a figure and
portrait artist and works in most mediums. Jeremy lives in Calgary.
Petroleum Basins of
South America

edited by

A. J. Tankard

R. Suárez Soruco

H. J. Welsink

AAPG Memoir 62

Published jointly by

The American Association of Petroleum Geologists

Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos

Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia

Printed in the U.S.A.

 Copyright © 1995
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
All Rights Reserved
Published 1995

ISBN: 0-89181-341-1

AAPG grants permission for a single photocopy of an item from this publication for personal use.
Authorization for additional copies of items from this publication for personal or internal use is
granted by AAPG provided that the base fee of $3.00 per copy is paid directly to the Copyright
Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923. Fees are subject to change.
Any form of electronic or digital scanning or other digital transformation of portions of this publica-
tion into computer-readable and/or transmittable form for personal or corporate use requires
special permission from, and is subject to fee charges by, the AAPG.

Association Editor: Kevin T. Biddle

Science Director: Richard Steinmetz
Publications Manager: Kenneth M. Wolgemuth
Special Projects Editor: Anne H. Thomas
Production and Layout: Kathy and Dana Walker, Editorial Technologies

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS

(AAPG) DOES NOT ENDORSE OR RECOMMEND ANY PRODUCTS
OR SERVICES THAT MAY BE CITED, USED, OR DISCUSSED IN
AAPG PUBLICATIONS OR IN PRESENTATIONS AT EVENTS ASSO-
CIATED WITH AAPG.

ANTHONY TANKARD is a principal
of Tankard Enterprises, a
Calgary-based company. A native
of South Africa, he received B.Sc.
(Honours) and Ph.D. degrees
from Natal University and
Rhodes University, respectively.
Since 1970, he worked in research
institutions in South Africa and
the United States before entering
the Canadian petroleum industry
in 1981. Tony established Tankard
Enterprises in 1992. His work
includes basin evolution, stratig-
raphy, the way sedimentation
responds to structural develop-
ment, and the habitat of hydro-
carbon accumulation. He is
actively involved in AAPG affairs
and has published numerous
technical papers in addition to co-
editing or co-authoring several
volumes.
About the Editors
R AMIRO S UAREZ S ORUCO is a
senior technical specialist at
Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales
Bolivianos, the Bolivian national
oil company. Ramiro was born in
Cochabamba in the Andes. He
completed his undergraduate
training at the Universidad
Nacional de La Plata and his
Doctorate in geology at the
Universidad de Buenos Aires,
both in Argentina. Since 1968, his
career has spanned GEOBOL and
YPFB as paleontologist, biostratig-
rapher, and technical services
manager. Ramiro’s research
interests have focused on inverte-
brate paleontology and Paleozoic
biostratigraphy and paleogeog-
raphy, subjects in which he has
published many papers. Through
this work, he has been involved in
several national and international
committees, including the IUGS
Subcommission on Devonian
Stratigraphy and the Academia
Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia.
iii
H ERMAN W ELSINK is a senior
geologist in the exploration
department of Compañía Naviera
Perez Companc S.A.C.F.I.M.F.A. in
Neuquén, Argentina. He was
born in Haarlem, The Nether-
lands. He graduated with a
Doctoraal in geology from the
University of Utrecht; this work
included a thesis on an Eocene
basin in the Pyrenees. Since 1981,
Herman has worked in the oil
industry, where he has been
involved in exploration princi-
pally of extensional basins in
Canada, Bolivia, and Argentina.
His research interests and publi-
cations center on the formation
and deformation of sedimentary
basins, structural-stratigraphic
linkage, and their consequences
for hydrocarbon accumulation.
JUAN KEIDEL (1877–1954)
Geologist, teacher, and explorer.

Jeremy Tankard, 1994, watercolor, gouache, ink and

charcoal, 38 × 41 cm
 Dedication

B efore plate tectonics, there was continental drift, a concept pioneered largely by Alfred
Wegener. He showed that the geometric reconstruction of the supercontinents was more than
the fortuitous parallelism of the coasts on either side of the Atlantic. He also explained in an elegant
way the distribution of mountain belts, stratigraphy, and middle Paleozoic ice age deposits.
The reaction to these ideas was lukewarm at best in Europe and decidedly hostile in North
America. The geologists of southern Africa and South America were, however, more enthusiastic.
Prominent among these were Alex du Toit of South Africa and Juan Keidel of Argentina.
Juan Keidel provided some of the supporting evidence for the contiguity of Africa and South
America within Paleozoic Gondwana. His contributions are acknowledged by Wegener in his
classic book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (1915). Keidel demonstrated the relationships
between the Carboniferous–Permian Sauce Grande glacial deposits of Argentina and the Dwyka
tillites of South Africa, as well as the nature of their encapsulating stratigraphies. Only in a recon-
structed Gondwana did these glaciers have a rational distribution. The apparent continuity of the
Cape fold belt and the Sierra de la Ventana was noted. In his seminal paper of 1921, Keidel recog-
nized how widespread this Permian–Triassic deformation really was, forming a series of cordilleras
from Ventana to the Andean foothills. To describe these ancient cordilleras, he coined the name
Gondwanides. These interpretations were supported by field work on the Ventana System in the
province of Buenos Aires and by surveys in the western and northern Precordillera of Mendoza and
San Juan. This was also the start of his association with Alex du Toit, who visited Argentina in the
early 1920s.
Field expeditions took Keidel to the Andes, Patagonia, and Neuquén. In the Neuquén basin, he
was involved with the first oil well.
Juan Keidel was born in Gross Stoeckheim, Germany, in 1877. He studied at the Institute of
Mining in Berlin and completed a doctorate at Freiburg under Professor Steinmann. Dr. Keidel was
appointed the first head of what was to become the Geological Survey of Argentina. Subsequently,
he taught geology at the University of Buenos Aires. Keidel published more than 50 papers in an
illustrious career.
We dedicate this book, Petroleum Basins of South America, to the memory of Juan Keidel.

v
 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi

Regional Setting
Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
During the Phanerozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
A. J. Tankard, M. A. Uliana, H. J. Welsink, V. A. Ramos, M. Turic, A. B. França, E. J.
Milani, B. B. de Brito Neves, N. Eyles, J. Skarmeta, H. Santa Ana, F. Wiens, M. Cirbián,
O. López P., G. J. B. Germs, M. J. De Wit, T. Machacha, and R. McG. Miller
Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource Predictions in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
G. E. Kronman, S. W. Rushworth, K. Jagiello, and A. Aleman
Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
C. M. Urien, J. J. Zambrano, and M. R. Yrigoyen
Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
K. E. Williams
Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on
Hydrocarbon Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
J. L. Pindell and K. D. Tabbutt
Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
A. B. França, E. J. Milani, R. L. Schneider, O. López P., J. López M., R. Suárez S., H. Santa
Ana, F. Wiens, O. Ferreiro, E. A. Rossello, H. A. Bianucci, R. F. A. Flores, M. C. Vistalli,
F. Fernandez-Seveso, R. P. Fuenzalida, and N. Muñoz

Paleozoic Basins
Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and
Central South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
N. Eyles, G. Gonzalez Bonorino, A. B. França, C. H. Eyles, and O. López Paulsen
Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation in the Chaco Basin of Paraguay,
with Comments on Hydrocarbon Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
F. Wiens
Phanerozoic Evolution of Bolivia and Adjacent Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
T. Sempere
Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin and Significant Paleolatitudinal Shift,
Central Andes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
P. E. Isaacson and E. Díaz Martínez
Silurian–Jurassic Stratigraphy and Basin Evolution of Northwestern Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
D. Starck
Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
R. Mon and J. A. Salfity
Tectonics and Stratigraphy of the Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina and its
Regional Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
F. Fernandez-Seveso and A. J. Tankard

vii
viii Contents

Mesozoic Rifts
Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
H. J. Welsink, E. Martinez, O. Aranibar, and J. Jarandilla
Geometry and Seismic Expression of the Cretaceous Salta Rift System,
Northwestern Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
A. H. Comínguez and V. A. Ramos
Cretaceous Rifting, Alluvial Fan Sedimentation, and Neogene Inversion,
Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
C. J. Schmidt, R. A. Astini, C. H. Costa, C. E. Gardini, and P. E. Kraemer
Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the Cuyo Basin of Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
D. Dellapé and A. Hegedus
Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift in the Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt,
Mendoza, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
R. Manceda and D. Figueroa
Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
G. D. Vergani, A. J. Tankard, H. J. Belotti, and H. J. Welsink
Hydrocarbon Accumulation in an Inverted Segment of the Andean Foreland:
San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
G. O. Peroni, A. G. Hegedus, J. Cerdan, L. Legarreta, M. A. Uliana, and G. Laffitte

Andean Basins
Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
J. M. P. Mathalone and M. Montoya R.
Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
P. Baby, I. Moretti, B. Guillier, R. Limachi, E. Mendez, J. Oller, and M. Specht
Structural Geology of Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt in Northwestern Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . .459
D. Roeder and R. L. Chamberlain
Andean and Pre-Andean Deformation, Boomerang Hills Area, Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
H. J. Welsink, A. Franco M., and C. Oviedo G.
Devonian–Carboniferous Stratigraphy in the Madre de Dios Basin, Bolivia:
Pando X-1 and Manuripi X-1 Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
P. E. Isaacson, B. A. Palmer, B. L. Mamet, J. C. Cooke, and D. E. Sanders
Is the Bend in the Bolivian Andes an Orocline? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
B. M. Sheffels
Structural Styles and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Sub-Andean Thrust Belt
of Southern Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523
J. F. Dunn, K. G. Hartshorn, and P. W. Hartshorn
Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence in the Sub-Andean Fold and
Thrust Belt of Northern Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
H. J. Belotti, L. L. Saccavino, and G. A. Schachner
 Contents ix

Northern South America

Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: Reflection Seismic Expression
of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
H. R. Balkwill, G. Rodrigue, F. I. Paredes, and J. P. Almeida
Reservoir Characterization of the Hollin and Napo Formations,
Western Oriente Basin, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
H. J. White, R. A. Skopec, F. A. Ramirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla
Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru:
Sedimentologic and Tectonic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
R. Marocco, A. Lavenu, and R. Baudino
Basin Development in an Accretionary, Oceanic-Floored Fore-Arc Setting:
Southern Coastal Ecuador During Late Cretaceous–Late Eocene Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
É. Jaillard, M. Ordoñez, S. Benitez, G. Berrones, N. Jiménez, G. Montenegro,
and I. Zambrano
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
D. Roeder and R. L. Chamberlain
Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia: An Alternative Hypothesis . . . . . . . .647
P. B. Jones
Basin Development and Tectonic History of the Llanos Basin, Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
M. A. Cooper, F. T. Addison, R. Alvarez, A. B. Hayward, S. Howe, A. J. Pulham,
and A. Taborda
Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
H. Passalacqua, F. Fernandez, Y. Gou, and F. Roure
Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
F. Parnaud, Y. Gou, J.-C. Pascual, M. A. Capello, I. Truskowski, and H. Passalacqua
Jurassic–Eocene Tectonic Evolution of Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699
J. Lugo and P. Mann
Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration in a
Transect of the Eastern Venezuela Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .727
O. Gallango and F. Parnaud
Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741
F. Parnaud, Y. Gou, J.-C. Pascual, I. Truskowski, O. Gallango, H. Passalacqua, and F. Roure
Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics of the Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart
Basin, Venezuela and Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
C. E. Macellari

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
 Preface

T his memoir addresses the geology and dynamics of the principal petroleum basins of South
America from Venezuela to Argentina. Our understanding of the way these sedimentary
basins formed has advanced immensely in the last decade. This reflects improved data quality, a
different way of looking at the data, a new integrated approach to basin analysis, and a new genera-
tion of geologists. A wide variety of papers reviews the tectonic framework, comparative structural
styles, sequence stratigraphy, and the way these are interrelated. These basins were a long time in
the making. Most have evolved by repeated reactivation of preexisting fabrics. The structural devel-
opment, its timing, and the way sedimentation responded to this activity is of paramount impor-
tance to oil and gas exploration. Intentionally we do not review in any detail the Mesozoic basins of
the Atlantic margin because a subject so vast would require space of its own.
We are grateful to the following people for their generous assistance in many ways, for being
there when we needed them: Peter Aukes, Hugo Belotti, Nora Cesaretti, Miguel Cirbián, Al
Ferworn, Silvia González, Gary Howell, Bob Meneley, Luis Spalletti and Graciela Suárez Marzal de
Spalletti, Anne Thomas, Gustavo Vergani, and members of the AAPG staff. We thank Edgar Ortiz
and Jeremy Tankard for the paintings prepared especially for this volume. Copyediting and layout
were done by Kathy Walker. We are also grateful to Perez Companc for its support.

xi
xii Preface

All of the manuscripts were reviewed externally. We would like to thank the following for their
critical reviews:

J. Allan D. A. Lehto
R. B. Allen J. Letouzey
R. W. Allmendinger S. Liu
H. Arbe O. López Gamundi
C. D. Arregui O. López Paulsen
P. G. Aukes D. Loureiro
H. R. Balkwill J. D. Lowell
C. Barcat J. A. Maloney
H. Belotti P. Mann
K. T. Biddle R. Manoni
A. Boll J. R. McLean
G. C. Bond R. A. Meneley
A. J. Boucot E. J. Milani
R. L. Brown M. Mozetic
K. R. Butler A. C. Newson
R. Caminos H. Passalacqua
M. A. Cooper M. J. Perkins
M. C. Covey J. L. Pindell
L. Dalla Salda V. Ploszkiewicz
M. J. de Wit V. A. Ramos
J. F. Dunn J. Reynolds
A. Edwards G. Rodrigue
R. N. Erlich D. Roeder
N. Eyles F. Roure
R. D. Forsythe D. B. Rowley
J. Gallagher F. Schein
C. F. Garrasino D. W. Scholl
S. Greer T. Sempere
R. H. Groshong B. M. Sheffels
N. E. Haimila A. E. Slingsby
P. E. Isaacson L. R. Snowdon
M. P. A. Jackson C. R. Tippett
W. R. Jamison M. A. Uliana
W. A. M. Jenkins J. Utting
P. B. Jones B. van Hoorn
T. E. Jordan G. Vergani
J. W. Kerr J. N. J. Visser
E. Kozlowski C. Vistalli
C. Knutson H. J. Welsink
G. E. Kronman H. J. White
D. Larue P. A. Ziegler
L. Legarreta N. Zilli

This memoir was stimulated by a meeting on Gondwana geology held in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, in
August 1992. Financial support was provided by Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos,
Phillips Petroleum, Tesoro Bolivia Petroleum, Perez Companc, Mobil Boliviana Petroleum, Chevron
International (Bolivia), Exxon Company, and Texaco Bolivia.

Anthony Tankard
Ramiro Suárez Soruco
Herman Welsink
 About the Artists

E dgar Ortiz was born in Villa Dolores in the Province of Córdoba, Argentina. He studied
drawing and painting at the Manuel Belgrano School of Fine Arts. Today Ortiz is widely
regarded as one of Argentina’s outstanding watercolor artists, for which he has received numerous
awards. His work is inspired by the Argentinian landscapes and captures their changing seasons
and moods. His paintings are in numerous galleries as well as private collections in Argentina,
Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Canada, United States, Italy, and The Netherlands. Edgar now lives in La
Plata.

J eremy Tankard was born in Cape Town, South Africa. He is now resident in Canada, where he
studied drawing and printmaking at the Alberta College of Art. He is principally a figure and
portrait artist and works in most mediums. Jeremy lives in Calgary.

xiii
Petroleum Basins of
South America
Regional Setting

MACIZO DEL FITZROY or El Chaltén, Santa Cruz province, Argentina.

These granitic needles (3405 m) are part of the Paleocene–Eocene Serie
Andesítica, a string of plutons in the Andes Australes.

Edgar Ortiz, 1994, watercolor, 30 × 23 cm

 Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource
Predictions in Latin America

George E. Kronman

Sandra W. Rushworth

Keith Jagiello

Antenor Aleman
Amoco Production Company
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Abstract

M ore than 4500 wildcat wells were drilled from 1980 to 1990 in South America. Approximately 355 of
these resulted in hydrocarbon discoveries. An estimated 12% of the discoveries contain reserves
greater than 100 MMBO. Several of the larger finds (>500 MMBO), such as Cusiana (Colombia),
Furrial–Musipan (Venezuela), Caño Limón (Colombia), and Marlim (Brazil), are important among the giant
fields found worldwide since 1980. Most of the larger discoveries were made by national oil companies in
Venezuela, Mexico, and Brazil. The probability of finding large oil fields (>500 MMBO) is greatest in the
Campos, Llanos, Reforma-Campeche, Maracaibo, and Maturin basins. Smaller, but still significant fields
(50–250 MMBO) may still be found in the Neuquén, San Jorge, Austral, Tarija, Marañon-Napo-Putumayo,
Magdalena, and Tampico-Misantla basins. More than 170 BBO of proven reserves have been found in the
highest potential Latin American basins. Undiscovered oil resources of 40–80 BBO are estimated to remain in
the same group based on historical field size data and current geologic knowledge. Frontier and emerging
basins may also contain significant resources, but limited data makes it difficult to estimate their undiscovered
potential.

Resumen

M as de 4500 pozos de exploración se han perforado desde 1980 hasta 1990 en América Latina. Aproxi-
madamente 355 de estos resultaron en descubrimiento de hidrocarburo. Se estima que un doce por
ciento (12%) de los descubrimientos contienen reservas mayores que 100 MMBO. Varios de los hallazgos
mayores (>500 MMBO), tales como Cusiana (Colombia), Furrial/Musipan (Venezuela), Caño Limón
(Colombia), y Marlim (Brazil) clasifican entre los campos gigantes mas importantes descubiertos a nivel
mundial desde 1980. La mayoría de los descubrimientos mas importantes fueron hechos por compañias
nacionales en Venezuela, México y Brazil. La probabilidad de encontrar nuevos yacimientos gigantes de
petróleo (>500 MMBO) es mayor en las cuencas Campos, Llanos, Reforma-Campeche, Maracaibo y Maturin.
Yacimientos menores, pero aun importantes (50–250 MMBO) pueden todavía ser descubiertos en las cuencas
de Neuquén, San Jorge, Austral, Tarijas, Marañon-Oriente-Putumayo, Magdalena y Tampico-Misantla. Sobre
170 BBO de reservas probadas se han encontrado en el mismo grupo de cuencas. Se estima que los recursos de
hidrocarburo por descubrirse en las cuencas Latinoamericanas de mayor potencial, basado en los datos de la
historia del tamaño del campo y el conocimiento geológico actual, son de 40 a 80 MMBO. Las cuencas
nacientes y áreas exploratorias de frontera también pueden contener recursos significativos, pero los escasos
datos disponibles hacen difícil estimar su potencial.

Kronman, G. E., Rushworth, S. W., Jagiello, K., and Aleman, A., 1995, Oil and gas discov- 53
eries and basin resource predictions in Latin America, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and
H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 53–61.
54 Kronman et al.

INTRODUCTION
Latin America has the second largest oil reserves in
the world, after the Middle East (Figure 1). Increased
democratization, restructuring toward free market
economic systems, privatization, and growing confi-
dence in the potential for Latin America are attracting
significant interest in the area. As a result, many of the
world’s multinational petroleum companies are increas-
ingly pursuing exploration and production opportunities
in Latin America (Kronman et al., 1993).
This paper presents exploration wildcat well success
rates, estimated field discovery sizes, and competitor
information from 1980 to 1992 throughout Latin
America. We have used this information to estimate
remaining resources, as well as probabilities of finding
these resources in the larger producing Latin American
basins. The information presented here is based largely
Figure 1—Crude oil resources greater than or equal to
on an internal study done by Amoco on Latin America. 2 BBO recoverable by country as of January 1, 1991.
Data used for this study are complete through the end of (Source of information: Oil and Gas Journal Energy
1990. In some cases, our data base after 1990 is incom- Database.)
plete or unverified and thus is not used. For the purpose
of this paper, Latin America includes all countries from
Mexico to the southern tip of Latin America, including
the Caribbean nations (Figure 2).
The data used in this study are based on outside
resource estimates, Amoco’s proprietary database, and
estimates made by Amoco in-house experts in Latin
America. All field size data and estimates are recorded as
recoverable reserves. Gas reserves are converted to
barrels of oil equivalent (1 BOE = 6000 cf gas), and all
reserves are stated as barrels of oil or oil equivalent.

LATIN AMERICA FROM 1980 TO 1990

Wildcat Drilling
From 1980 to 1990, about 4522 wildcat wells were
drilled in ten principal oil-prone countries of Latin
America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Guatemala, Peru, Surinam, Trinidad, and Venezuela
(Figure 2). Mexican and Cuban wildcat well data were
unavailable. Approximately 82% of these wells were dry.
About 12% were considered “technical successes” to the
extent that they flowed some oil or gas on a production
test and reported an accumulation of less than 100
million barrels of oil equivalent (MMBOE). Many of
these wells were plugged and have questionable
economic viability. Another 4% of the wildcat wells led
to gas field discoveries. About 1% of the wildcats discov-
ered fields with resources between 100 and 500 million
barrels of oil (MMBO), and about 0.3% of the wildcat
wells led to the discovery of giant oil fields with reserves
greater than 500 MMBO.
When the percentages of wildcat success in Latin
America are compared with the rest of the world
(excluding the United States and Canada), there is a
strong correlation of results (Figure 3). The percentage of Figure 2—Map of Latin America showing major petroleum
wildcats in Latin America that discovered oil fields basins mentioned in this paper.
 Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource Predictions in Latin America
(a)
(b)
Figure 3—(a) Wildcat well field discovery percentages for
all wildcat wells drilled in 10 Latin American countries
(Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala,
Peru, Suriname, Trinidad, and Venezuela; data from Cuba
and Mexico not available). (b) Wildcat well field discovery
percentages for all wildcat wells drilled worldwide,
excluding the United States and Canada, for 1980–1990.
The field discovery percentages for Latin America are
similar to those worldwide.
between 100 and 500 MMBO and greater than 500
MMBO is comparable to worldwide discoveries. The
only significant difference is that the percentage of gas
fields discovered elsewhere in the world (7%) is higher
than in Latin America (4%). The reason for this difference
is unknown, but it may reflect the general lack of an
indigenous gas market or distribution system in parts of
Latin America, as a result of which some gas discoveries
are unreported.
The largest number of wildcat wells drilled in Latin
America during the 1980–1990 period was in Brazil,
followed by Venezuela, Argentina, and Colombia
55
(a)
(b)
Figure 4—Analysis of wildcat wells drilled in Latin America
for 1980–1990. (a) Total number of wildcat wells drilled in
10 Latin American countries, including a breakdown of
“successful” wildcat wells and percent success by
country. The same 10 countries listed in Figure 3 are
included here. (b) Total number and percent success of
wildcat wells drilled in the same countries shown on an
annual basis and as an average for 1980–1990. Note that
the largest number of wildcat wells were drilled in the early
1980s, but the average success percentage of wildcat wells
increased from 1985 to 1988.
(Figure 4a). Less than 100 wildcat wells each were drilled
in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Trinidad, Guatemala, and
Surinam. No data were available for Mexico and Cuba.
The average “success ratio” for wildcat drilling during
this period was highest in Ecuador (about 60%), followed
by Brazil (about 38%), Trinidad (about 32%), and Peru
(about 30%) (Figure 4a).
During this 1980–1990 period in Latin America, the
largest number of wildcat wells were drilled from 1980 to
1982. Between 550 and 650 wells were drilled each year
during these 3 years (Figure 4b). Subsequently, the
number of wildcat wells drilled declined to about 210 in
1990. The average number of wells drilled each year in
Latin America over the total 10-year period was 396.
Wildcat success rates were about 25% in 1980, declining
to less than 20% in 1983, and rebounding to almost 30%
in 1988 before falling again to 21% in 1990.
56 Kronman et al.
Figure 5—Major field discoveries for 1980–1990 greater
than 100 MMBO made (a) by country, (b) on an annual
basis, and (c) by company in Latin America. These discov-
eries are based on various external sources and the
Amoco Production Company Resource Assessment
Group. PDVSA (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Pemex
(Mexico) are responsible for most of the major discoveries
during this period.
Field Discoveries
There were 355 reported oil field discoveries in Latin
America from 1980 to 1990. All occurred within the
countries previously mentioned, except for two discov-
eries in Chile and one in Panama (information was not
available for Cuba). Forty-four of the Latin American oil
field discoveries (12%) are estimated to contain resources
greater than 100 MMBO.
Most of the larger field discoveries (>100 MMBO)
were made in Venezuela (fifteen), followed by Brazil
(twelve), Mexico (seven), Colombia (five), Ecuador (two),
and one each in Peru, Trinidad, and Argentina (Figure
5a). All of the field discoveries in Venezuela, Brazil, and
Mexico were made by their national oil companies,
which have exclusive rights to the discoveries.
Most of the large field discoveries (>100 MMBO)
occurred in 1980 (six), 1988 (seven), and 1989 (ten).
Figure 5b shows that the annual number of large field
discoveries declined from six in 1980 to one in 1983,
remained relatively stable from 1984 to 1987 (three to
five), and increased to ten in 1989.
The largest oil and gas fields discovered in the
principal Latin American countries from 1980 to 1992 are
listed in Tables 1 and 2. Fields estimated to be greater
than 1 BBO include Marlim in Brazil, Furrial-Musipan in
Venezuela, Euch in Mexico, and Cusiana in Colombia.
Gas fields greater than 1 tcf were found in Peru, Brazil,
Colombia, Venezuela, and Argentina.
Competitor Analysis
Three groups of competitors have been identified in
Latin America. The national oil companies (NOCs) and
multinational oil companies (MNCs) are the major
competitors. The activities of the smaller independents
are more limited, but in general, they have become
increasingly active and successful. NOCs are separate,
identifiable businesses that are engaged in either the
upstream or downstream parts of the petroleum
industry whose interest is controlled by a national
government and that serve national interests (Kronman
and Smith, 1993). The larger NOCs in Latin America
include Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) in Venezuela,
Petrobras in Brazil, Pemex in Mexico, Ecopetrol in
Colombia, and Petroecuador in Ecuador. Multinational
companies with a significant commitment and invest-
ment in Latin America include Occidental, Texaco, Elf,
Exxon, Royal Dutch/Shell, British Petroleum, Amoco,
Mobil, ARCO, Chevron, and Conoco.
During the 1980–1990 period, the Latin American
NOCs had 35 significant discoveries (greater than or
equal to 100 MMBO), which is four times greater than
the 8 significant oil discoveries made by the multina-
tional oil company group (Figure 5c). Two NOCs,
PDVSA (Venezuela) and Petrobras (Brazil), each made
more significant discoveries in the 1980s in their
countries than the combined discoveries of all the other
multinational companies in all of Latin America. This
most likely reflects the quality of reserve areas to which
the NOCs maintain exclusive exploration rights.
 Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource Predictions in Latin America 57

Table 1—Largest Oil Fields in Latin American Countries, Table 2—Largest Gas Fields in Latin American Countries,
1980–1992 1980–1992

BBO tcf
Country Field Year Operator (est.) Country Field Year Operator (est.)
Brazil Marlim 1985 Petrobras 5.40 Peru Cashiriari 1986 Shell 10.00
Mexico Uech 1986 Pemex 2.00 Brazil Marlim 1985 Petrobras 7.70
Venezuela Furrial- Colombia Cusiana 1988 BP 6.50
Musipan 1986 PDVSA 1.90 Venezuela Furrial-
Colombia Cusiana 1988 BP 1.70 Musipan 1986 PDVSA 5.65
Peru Cashiriari 1986 Shell 0.50 Argentina Ara-Hidra 1981 Total 0.98
Ecuador Ishpingo 1992 PetroEcuador 0.23 Mexico Cardinas 1980 Pemex 1.00
Argentina El Trapiel 1991 San Jorge 0.17 Trinidad Chaconia 1981 Tenneco 0.75
Trinidad NE Soldado 1981 Texaco 0.10 Bolivia Surubi 1992 Maxus 0.25
Surinam Tambarejo 1980 Statsole 0.06 Chile Lago
Mercedes 1992 Texaco 0.05

Based on the largest resources discovered per wildcat

well, the most successful multinational companies have
been Occidental, Royal Dutch/Shell, British Petroleum,
Total, and Conoco (Figure 6). A second group of
companies, including Mobil, ARCO, Chevron, Amoco,
Exxon, Elf, and Texaco, each found less than 5 MMBOE
per exploration well drilled.
Interestingly, the two most successful companies,
Occidental and Royal Dutch/Shell, have each partici-
pated in one major discovery (>500 MMBOE), Caño
Limón and Cashiriari, respectively, during the last
decade. Even without the benefit of this major discovery,
Occidental would still be among the more successful
companies. However, Royal Dutch/Shell would fall into
the second tier of companies.

Figure 6—Number of wildcat wells drilled in Latin America

BASIN RESOURCE ESTIMATES
The purpose of this analysis is to assess the prospec-
tivity of producing basins in order to establish priorities
for exploration. In 1989, Amoco began interpreting the
exploration maturity of a basin based on the field size
distribution and the exploration history of discoveries
using a methodology similar to that of the U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey (Dolton et al., 1981; Mast et al., 1989; Drew
and Shuenemeyer, 1993). Ideally, a minimum of 40
discoveries are required to do a rigorous trend analysis
(5% of 20 is one field). For this reason, we have applied
the statistical techniques toward emerging or mature
producing basins rather than frontier areas.
versus net oil found (by company) for 12 MNCs,
1980–1992. The points plotted on this graph give a semi-
quantitative assessment of the technical and oil-finding
success rate in each of the countries studied. Values are
plotted twice for Royal Dutch/Shell and Oxy to show the
effect that Cashiriari and Caño Limón had, respectively, on
the overall oil-finding success rate of each company.
(Wells drilled in Mexico, Cuba, and Brazil are not included.)
this evaluation were established by Amoco’s Exploration
Basin Analysis Group. Resource information from
commercial databases, as well as other scout informa-
tion, was used to analyze the discoveries.

Historical Field Size Analysis Exploration Efficiency

Historical field size analyses are estimates of the
remaining undiscovered field sizes in a basin. This statis-
tical analysis may be useful in focusing exploration
opportunities. The criteria for estimating a probability
that undiscovered fields exist is based on a combination
of basin analysis plots. These include exploration effi-
ciency, the 95th percentile of the most recent discoveries
from field size population statistics, and field size distrib-
ution plots. The population statistical techniques used in
Exploration efficiency is a measure of the historical
resource discovery success in a given basin. Tradition-
ally, the largest fields are discovered early in an effi-
ciently explored basin, and additional discoveries are
generally smaller through time. A basin with a 100%
exploration efficiency is demonstrated graphically on
curve A in both graphs in Figure 7. In an inefficiently
explored basin, large and small fields are discovered
randomly. Curve C in Figure 7 shows an exploration effi-
58 Kronman et al.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7—Exploration efficiency graphs for the (a)
Maracaibo basin and (b) Maturin basin, Venezuela. The
Maracaibo is an example of a basin with a high exploration
efficiency (54.3%), while the Maturin has a low exploration
efficiency (15.5%). Discoveries are listed chronologically
along the horizontal axis, and their corresponding field
sizes (vertical axis) are plotted cumulatively (curve B). An
idealized cumulative field size is shown in each graph
(curve A), which assumes that the largest fields are discov-
ered first in a basin and that smaller additional discoveries
are made over time. Curve C represents a hypothetical
basin with a 0% exploration efficiency.
ciency of 0%. The actual exploration efficiency value is a
measure that compares a basin’s exploration history
(curve B, Figure 7) with the idealized efficiently explored
basin (curve A). A high exploration efficiency implies
that the largest fields in a basin have already been found
and that a new play type or introduction of new tech-
nology is needed to find additional large fields, such as
the Maracaibo basin (Figure 7a). A low exploration effi-
ciency, such as the Maturin basin (Figure 7b), indicates
the possibility of discovering large fields because existing
play types may not have been fully exploited. Low
exploration efficiencies may be the result of successful
new technology or a play concept introduced late in the
history of the basin, licensing policy, or physical accessi-
bility such as drill depth or geopressure.
Figure 8—Comparison of (a) worldwide (excluding the
United States and Canada) and (b) Latin American field
sizes (median and 95th percentile) grouped by “sets” of
chronologically ordered discoveries. In (a) , set 1 contains
the first 400 discoveries, followed by set 2 which contains
the second 400 discoveries. In (b), Latin American fields
have 200 discoveries per set. A comparison of these two
graphs shows that the median and 95th percentile field size
declines over time.
Latin American basins can be divided into a two-
tiered classification of high (>50%) and low (<50%)
exploration efficiencies. The Middle Magdalena, San
Jorge, Marañon-Napo-Putumayo, Maracaibo, and
Reforma-Campeche basins are in the high tier, sug-
gesting that the bigger fields were found early in the
exploration of these basins. The Neuquén, Tampico-
Misantla, Llanos, South Basin (Trinidad), Austral, Upper
Magdalena, Maturin, and Campos basins have the
lowest exploration efficiencies, suggesting that large
fields remain to be discovered there.
Field Size Population Statistics
Field size population graphs record the change in field
size discoveries through time. Known fields are consecu-
tively ordered and chronologically grouped in sets and
plotted against the log of the field sizes discovered.
Various size percentiles for discoveries are calculated for
each set. The 95th percentile trend is significant because
it suggests the top 5% of the largest field sizes yet to be
discovered.
The worldwide field size statistics for liquid discov-
eries, excluding the United States and Canada, illustrates
the overall decrease in the 95th percentile or the top 5%
of the discoveries through time (Figure 8a). These discov-
eries are grouped in sets by consecutive discoveries of
 Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource Predictions in Latin America 59

(a)

Figure 9—The 95th percentile of field sizes for selected

Latin American basins, in MMBO. The 95th percentile is
extrapolated to predict the top 5% of the next set of discov-
eries for each respective basin.

400 fields. The 95th percentile decreases sharply from 1

BBO prior to about 1970, to 650 MMBO in the 1970s, and
to 150 MMBO after 1980. Figure 8a shows that it is
increasingly more difficult to discover giant fields greater
than 500 MMBO. The Latin American discovery size (b)
statistics, grouped in sets of 200 discoveries, show a
similar trend in the decrease in the 95th percentile over
time (Figure 8b). The 95th percentile also starts at 1 BBO,
falls to about 600 MMBO in the 1970s, and decreases
further to 100–250 MMBO in the 1980s.
The most important basins are ranked by their 95th
percentile field size in Figure 9. These 95th percentiles can
be extrapolated to predict the top 5% of the next set of
discoveries. Campos, Maturin-Furrial, Llanos, Maracaibo,
and Reforma-Campeche have 95th percentiles greater
than 1 BBO. Trinidad has 600 MMBO, and Tampico-
Misantla, Marañon-Napo-Putumayo, and Neuquén have
95th percentiles between 100 and 250 MMBO.

Field Size Distribution (c)

Arps and Roberts (1958) were the first to report a

lognormal distribution of oil field sizes with respect to
frequency above an economic threshold on the eastern
flank of the Denver basin. Other mature basins have also
shown a lognormal distribution of field sizes with
respect to frequency, such as the Western Canada sedi-
mentary basin (McCrossan, 1969; Kaufman et al., 1975),
the Gulf of Mexico (Schuenemeyer and Drew, 1983), and
the Permian basin (Schuenemeyer and Drew, 1983).
Undiscovered field sizes in a basin can be predicted
on the basis of theoretical field size population distribu-
tion and the exploration history of discoveries within the
basin. The overall distribution of hydrocarbon fields is
lognormal for a large number of smaller fields and a
decreasing number of larger fields (Figure 10a). The
economic truncation or avoidance toward finding
smaller fields causes the observed population to be
Figure 10—Theoretical population distribution of discov-
eries by field size class in a basin. (a) Field size distribu-
tions in basins generally approach a lognormal pattern.
Smaller fields commonly fall below the economic “trunca-
tion” or threshold. An exponential decrease is generally
seen in the number of fields as field size increases. An
underrepresented field size class along the lognormal
curve suggests that additional fields of that field size are
yet to be found. (b) Field size distribution for the Maturin
basin (Venezuela) prior to 1980. Based on this graph, the
number of fields in those field size classes with an arrow
over them are believed to be underrepresented. (c) Addi-
tional field discoveries made in the Maturin basin after
1980, many of which occurred in the underrepresented
field size classes.
60 Kronman et al.
Figure 11—Map of Latin America showing estimated
remaining discovery sizes by class for the major petroleum
basins. The estimated remaining discovery sizes are based
largely on field size statistical analysis. Frontier basins, or
those basins with limited data, are not included.
skewed in favor of larger fields. Some techniques use
these lognormal distributions to estimate undiscovered
resources and potential missing field sizes (Schuene-
meyer and Drew, 1983). For example, Figure 10b
displays the field size distribution in the Maturin basin
prior to 1980. Arrows denote possible missing field sizes
that fall below the lognormal curve. The fields discov-
ered after 1980 fill in the predicted distribution pattern
(Figure 10c). Undiscovered field sizes reinforce and
increase the confidence for prospects of a predicted field
size.
Basins that have a high probability of containing addi-
tional fields greater than 500 MMBO (Figure 11) are the
Maracaibo, Campos, Maturin, Llanos, and Reforma-
Campeche. Smaller but potentially economic discoveries
in the 50–250 MMBO range may yet exist in the
Tampico-Misantla, Neuquén, San Jorge, Astral, Tarija,
Marañon-Napo-Putumayo, and Magdalena basins.
Prediction of Undiscovered Resources
Estimates of the number and size of fields remaining
to be discovered that are above an economic threshold
are the undiscovered resources for that basin. These
estimates are integrated with the exploration efficiency
and field size population statistics before being evaluated
by experts familiar with the drilling history and hydro-
carbon system of the basin.
Basins with estimated undiscovered recoverable
resources exceeding 5 BBO are the Maturin, Reforma-
Campeche, Maracaibo, and Campos basins. A large
second tier of basins includes the Llanos, Ucayali,
Magdalena, Marañon-Napo-Putumayo, and Neuquén
basins, with undiscovered recoverable resources ranging
from about 1 to 5 BBO. A third tier of basins includes the
Tampico-Mislanta, Austral, Isthmus-Saline, San Jorge,
and South Basin (Trinidad), with remaining undiscov-
ered recoverable resources ranging from 0.5 to 1 BBO.
There are estimated to be 40–80 BBO of remaining recov-
erable resources in this group of 15 Latin American
basins. Approximately 170 BBO of ultimate reserves
(cumulative and proven) are estimated to occur in the
same basins.
The values for these undiscovered field size estimates
and resources must be used with due caution. There is an
obvious danger of overestimating a basin’s potential and
an even greater danger of ignoring a basin where the
next giant discovery has yet to be made. Mature basins
whose resource distribution is allegedly well understood
may offer new opportunities when a new play concept,
technological breakthrough, or political change opens
important new trends. In contrast, frontier basins
generally have too few data for rigorous analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
From 1980 to 1990, Latin America had an estimated
17% success rate in the more than 4500 wildcats drilled.
This percentage, as well as the percentage of significant
oil and gas discoveries (>100 MMBO) and giant oil and
gas fields (>500 MMBO), is comparable to the success
rates for the 19,790 wildcats drilled worldwide over the
same time period (excluding the United States and
Canada).
In the 1980s, ten major discoveries containing more
than 1 BBO each were made in four countries: Brazil
(three), Mexico (three), Venezuela (two), and Colombia
(two). These four countries account for 87% of the 70
significant discoveries greater than 100 MMBO. Three
NOCs—PDVSA of Venezuela, Petrobras of Brazil, and
Pemex of Mexico—have made 35 discoveries, four times
the number of discoveries made by the MNCs combined.
This most likely reflects the quality of the basins to which
the NOCs have exclusive rights.
Historical field size analysis based on exploration effi-
ciency, 95th percentiles, and historical field size distribu-
tion indicates that significant economically attractive
opportunities may still exist in Latin America. The 95th
percentile, or the top 5%, of the most recent discoveries in
all of Latin America is 100–250 MMBO.
Potential giant discoveries greater than 500 MMBO
may yet exist in the following basins:
• Campos basin in Brazil
• Llanos basin in Colombia
• Maturin and Maracaibo basins in Venezuela
• Reforma-Campeche basin in Mexico
 Oil and Gas Discoveries and Basin Resource Predictions in Latin America
Smaller but potentially economic discoveries in the
50–250 MMBO range possibly remain to be made in the
following basins:
• Neuquén, San Jorge, and Austral basins in
Argentina
• Tarija basin in Bolivia and northern Argentina
• Marañon-Napo-Putumayo basin in Ecuador,
Peru, and Colombia
• Tampico-Misantla basin in Mexico
• Magdalena basin in Colombia
Based on the statistical techniques used in this study,
about 40–80 BBO of undiscovered recoverable resources
remain in the basins analyzed. These basins at present
have approximately 170 BBO of proven and probable
reserves.
Acknowledgments Many colleagues at Amoco have
contributed to this study: Josh Rosenfeld, Carol Kazmer, Bob
Erlich, Don Felio, Larry Parks, Richard Steinmetz, Joe
Malagowicz, Peter Carragher, Lee Distefano, Don Regan, Jon
Blickwede, Robert Marksteiner, Eric Green, Bob Harper, Mike
Deming, Claudio Manzolillo, Wendy Hale-Erlich, Marcos
Roberto, Wolfgang Schollnberger, and Grant Emms. Informa-
tion was also provided by Amoco’s Resource Assessment and
Exploration Analysis groups. We thank Anthony J. Tankard,
Peter Aukes, and Robert A. Meneley for their excellent review
of this paper. Technical help from Lori Fortner, Joe Tunnell,
John Cain, Zoila Torres, and Jeff Suiter and drafting by Teresa
Holmes is also appreciated. We would also like to thank Amoco
for permission to publish this paper.
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Cretaceous oil on the east flank of Denver-Julesburg basin:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 42, p. 2549–2566.
Dolton, G. L., K. H. Carlson, R. R. Charpentier, A. B. Coury, R.
A. Crovelli, S. E. Frezon A. S. Khan, J. H. Lister, R. H.
McMullin, R. S. Pike et al., 1981, Estimates of undiscovered
61
recoverable conventional resources of oil and gas in the
United States: USGS Circular 860, 87 p.
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use of discovery process models at the United States
Geological Survey: AAPG Bulletin; v. 77, p. 467-478.
Kaufman, G. M., Y. Balcer, and D. Kruyt, 1975, A probabilistic
model of oil and gas discovery, in J. D. Haun, ed., Methods
of estimating the volume of undiscovered oil and gas
resources: AAPG Studies in Geology 1, p. 113–142.
Kronman, G. E., A. M. Aleman, S. W. Rushworth, 1993, Oil
discoveries and basin resource predictions in Latin
America: past, present, and future: AAPG Bulletin, v. 77,
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SEPM Convention, April, New Orleans, Louisiana,
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Mast, R. F., G. L. Dolton, R. A. Crovelli, D. H. Root, E. D.
Attanasi, P. E Martin, L. W. Cooke, G. B. Carpenter, W. C.
Pecora, and M. B. Rose, 1989, Estimates of undiscovered
conventional resources of oil and gas in the United
States—a part of the nation’s energy endowment: USGS
and Minerals Management Service, 44 p.
McCrossan, R. G., 1969, An analysis of size frequency distrib-
ution of oil and gas reserves of western Canada: Canadian
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Authors’ Mailing Address
George E. Kronman
Sandra W. Rushworth
Keith Jagiello
Antenor Aleman
Amoco Production Company
501 WestLake Park Boulevard
Houston, Texas 77253-3092
U.S.A.
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America:
An Overview

C. M. Urien J. J. Zambrano
Buenos Aires Technological Institute Regional Ground Water Institute
Buenos Aires, Argentina San Juan, Argentina

M. R. Yrigoyen
National Academy of Sciences
Buenos Aires, Argentina

Abstract

F rom the Cambrian to Late Jurassic, the basins and arches of southern South America were oriented
approximately north-south. Subsequently, southwest-northeast trending stresses related to the breakup
of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic imposed new structural alignments, the effects of which
were widespread. These two tectonic regimes encompass six stages of basin formation:

• Cambrian–Middle Devonian terrigenous clastics, carbonates, and intrusives occurred along the
western edge of the Brazilian, Puna, and Pampas shield areas.
• Carboniferous–Late Jurassic sedimentation in the intracratonic rifts was mainly of continental origin.
Marine clastics accumulated in a foreland basin in front of a volcanic arc on the western edge of the
continent. This period ended with the Late Jurassic breakup of Gondwana and extrusive magmatism.
• Late Jurassic extension marked by widespread marine flooding affected vast regions of the continent.
Clastics, evaporites, and acidic volcanics constitute the “Andean foreland” succession which was asso-
ciated with a volcanic arc system. In Patagonia, acidic volcanics covered the North Patagonia massif
and Deseado craton and earlier basins.
• After breakup, sedimentary prisms formed along the Atlantic margin on the western margin. Thick
sequences of shales, limestones, evaporites, and pyroclastics were associated with middle–Late Creta-
ceous volcanic arc and back-arc settings. New acidic intrusions and the Andean batholith are also
dated to this period.
• The Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary (Laramide) was marked by development of the Andean fold and
thrust belt and final emplacement of the Andean batholith. A flexural foreland basin formed in front
of the Andes. Passive margin sedimentation dominated the eastern margin.
• The Tertiary was a time of Andean mountain building and passive margin subsidence. The thrust belt
supplied thick sedimentary fills to the foreland basin. Shallow transgressions covered much of
Patagonia and the Pampa plains.

This tectonic evolution is expressed in a complex array of composite basins. These tectonic, structural, and
depositional patterns were also responsible for a suite of petroleum systems, many of them commercially
significant.

Resumen

D esde el Cámbrico hasta el Jurásico, las cuencas y arcos estructurales se orientaban aproximadamente
Norte-Sur. Posteriormente, como resultado de la fractura del Gondwana y la apertura del Atlántico
Sur, se produjeron esfuerzos con tendencia predominante Sudoeste-Noreste, que impusieron un nuevo orde-
namiento estructural cuyos efectos fueron de gran extensión. Estos dos regímenes tectónicos abarcan seis
etapas en la formación de las cuencas:

• Desde el Cámbrico hasta el Devónico Medio, se distribuyen clásticos terrígenos, carbonatos e intru-
sivos a lo largo del borde occidental de los escudos de Brasil, Puna y Pampeano.
• La sedimentación en el Jurásico Tardío en los rifts intracratónicos, fue principalmente de origen conti-
nental. En una cuenca antepaís, cerrada por el arco volcánico en el borde occidental del continente, se
acumularon sedimentos clásticos marinos. Este período concluyó con la fractura del Gondwana y el
magmatismo extrusivo del Jurásico Tardío.

63
Urien, C. M., J. J. Zambrano, and M. R. Yrigoyen, 1995, Petroleum basins of southern
South America: an overview: in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum
basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 63–77.
64 Urien et al.

• Extensión tectónica tensional durante el Jurásico Tardío, señalada por extensas invasiones marinas que
inundan vastas regiones del continente. Clásticas, evaporitas y vulcánitas ácidas constituyen la
sucesión de la cuenca andina de antepaís, relacionada con un sistema de arco volcánico. En la
Patagonia, vulcánitas ácidas cubrieron el Macizo Norpatagónico, el cratón Deseado y cuencas prece-
dentes.
• Luego de la ruptura continental, se formaron prismas sedimentarios a lo largo del margen occidental y
gruesas secuencias de esquistos, calizas, evaporitas y piroclásticas se asociaron a escenarios de arcos y
retro-arcos volcánicos del Cretácico Medio y Tardío. Nuevas intrusiones ácidas y el emplazamiento del
batolito Andino también datan de este período.
• El Cretácico Tardío/Terciario Temprano (Larámico) se caracterizó por el desarrollo de la Faja Andina
de Plegamientos-Corrimientos y el emplazamiento final del batolito Andino. Una cuenca flexural
antepaís se forma frente a los Andes. En el borde oriental predominaba una sedimentación de margen
pasivo.
• El Terciario fue época de elevación de las montañas de los Andes y de subsidencia del margen
atlántico pasivo. La Faja de corrimiento aportó gruesos rellenos sedimentarios a la cuenca del antepaís.
Transgresiones someras cubrieron gran parte de la Patagonia y las llanuras Pampeanas.

Esta evolución tectónica tiene expresión en un complejo sistema de cuencas compuestas. Esta configuracion
tectónica, estructural y sedimentaria fue también responsable de una serie de sistemas petrolíferos, muchos de
ellos comercialmente significativos.

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGIC SETTING

The southern part of the South American continent
has an arrangement of stable cratonic blocks and sedi-
mentary basins, which suggests that deformation and
basin formation have reactivated old terrane boundaries.
However, this tectonic–structural framework has been
largely obscured by subsequent magmatic events.
Nevertheless, the broadscale architecture of the conti-
nental platform is understood. Since the Precambrian,
this platform has been modified by tectonism and sedi-
mentation on the margin of the old cratonic core. This
basement and its lower Paleozoic cover built the foreland
complex onto which successive fore-arc and volcanic arc
tracts and the Andean orogenic belt have encroached
(Figure 1).
The southern part of the South American continent
underwent a complex evolution, reflecting interaction of
this basement framework with several episodes of
Cambrian–Jurassic tectonism, followed by widespread
extension related to continental fragmentation and
opening of the Atlantic (Uliana and Biddle, 1988). Many
of those basins are composite in form and have several
hydrocarbon habitats.
The most prolific hydrocarbon-bearing basins are
those forming the sub-Andean belt. These are a suite of
long-lived composite basins that have been subjected to a
foreland style of subsidence only since the Late Creta-
ceous. Most of the hydrocarbons are produced from
Mesozoic sequences (Upper Triassic, Jurassic, and Creta-
ceous), with local production from the Paleozoic section
(Silurian–Devonian and Carboniferous) and subordinate
Tertiary reservoirs.
The aim of this paper is to review the evolution of
these hydrocarbon-bearing basins through several
distinct tectonic episodes. We will discuss the petroleum
systems on this basis and will speculate on some
untested opportunities. The intention is to present a
“thumbnail sketch” of this complex history.
In southern South America, the upper Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary cover overlies older
basement, to a large extent early–middle Paleozoic in age.
In central western Argentina and especially Patagonia
(Figure 1), the basement has a variety of stratigraphic and
structural characteristics, but it is generally too young to
have been cratonized. It comprises mainly metasedimen-
tary and igneous assemblages.
The age of the intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
varies from Paleozoic to Late Jurassic. These igneous
complexes form large massifs (Figure 1). The North
Patagonia massif (or Meseta de Somuncurá of some
authors) is a complex of intrusives and extrusives that
resulted from successive magmatic episodes, dating from
Carboniferous to Permian–Triassic (Stipanicic, 1969a;
Pankhust et al., 1992; Rapela and Pankhurst, 1992).
Farther south is the Deseado massif, which forms the
northwestern sector of the larger Deseado-Malvinas
platform, a suite of intrusive uplifted blocks that are
covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanics (De Giusto
et al., 1980). They combined with other basement blocks
to build a series of fault-bounded ridges, between which
several sedimentary depocenters occur beneath the
Jurassic volcanic cover.
Therefore, south of the west Pampean region (south of
38˚ S lat.), the “basement” generally ranges in age from
late Paleozoic to early–middle Mesozoic (Forsythe, 1982;
Ramos et al., 1982; Gust et al., 1985). The topography of
this continental platform includes several conspicuous
elements (Figure 1):
• The Pampean-Transpampean-Puna arch formed
on Precambrian and Cambrian basement (Bracac-
cini, 1960; Amos, 1972; Aceñolaza et al., 1982).
• To the west, an early Paleozoic magmatic arc is
preserved in the frontal Cordillera and the San
Rafael uplift (Criado Roque and Ibañez, 1979).
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview 65

Figure 1—Architecture of southern South America, including basins, arches, and massifs.
66 Urien et al.
• The North Patagonia and Deseado massifs were
formed more recently by intense magmatic
activity. Although magmatism began in the
Carboniferous, the principal activity occurred in
the Late Jurassic.
• An acidic volcanic arc formed along the Andean
deformation belt. However, it did not stop marine
access to the back-arc basins of the region now
caught up in the main Cordillera.
The western and southern parts of the region were
constructed by accretion of successive volcanic and sedi-
mentary sequences along the margin of a dissected
cratonic platform. This succession was deformed in
several phases of Andean orogeny, mainly in the middle
and late Tertiary. Throughout the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic, these basins developed as intracontinental rifts
or sags and were separated from the Pacific margin fore-
arc system by marginal platforms (see Lister et al., 1986).
They were not totally open to the Pacific. Marine and
continental sedimentary successions alternate (Charrier
and Vicente, 1972; Auboin et al., 1973). Most of the
marine incursions were of a restricted nature (euxinic), as
reflected in the accumulation and preservation of
petroleum-prone source rocks. In contrast, the
nonmarine terrigenous clastics formed profilic reservoirs
in a succession of stacked sedimentary wedges.
The composite nature of these basins, their long and
complex tectonic history, the periodic marine incursions,
and the stacked reservoir intervals suggest a variety of
play types and exploration opportunities spanning the
entire stratigraphic column. It is these petroleum
systems, tested and untested, that are the focus of this
paper.
There are four principal families of basin-forming
basement:
1. First are Precambrian metamorphic rocks and
intrusives and Cambrian–Ordovician metasedi-
mentary and intrusive rocks (Baldis and
Bardonaro, 1984; Prozzi and Rosso, 1990). Taconic
tectonism closed this period (Figure 2a).
2. Silurian–Devonian clastic sedimentary cover was
subjected to low-grade metamorphism (Figure 2b).
These sequences were influenced by the Ocloyic
and Chanic diastrophisms (broadly equivalent to
the Caledonian) (Cuerda and Furque, 1979).
3. Volcanic rocks and plutons form a prominent
Permian–Triassic magmatic arc associated with
continental and marine sediments. These were later
deformed by Carboniferous–Early Permian
(Variscan) tectonism (Figure 2c) (Groeber et al.,
1952; Caminos, 1979a; Yrigoyen, 1979; Gust et al.,
1985; Pankhurst et al., 1992).
4. The Late Triassic to Middle–Late Jurassic migration
of the magmatic arc toward the west is recorded in
the pluton emplacements, volcanism, and volcani-
clastic rocks that are interbedded with continental
and shallow marine sequences (Figure 2d)
(Stipanicic and Rodrigo, 1969; Stipanicic and
Linares, 1975; Franchi et al., 1989).
A suite of paleogeographic reconstructions spanning
late Paleozoic–early Tertiary time are shown in Figures 3
to 8. These maps include the intrusive and extrusive
igneous rocks.
The Choiyoi basement of the Cuyo basin (Figure 1)
consists of Upper Permian–Triassic effusives and pyro-
clastic rocks (Rolleri and Fernandez Garrasino, 1979).
Cambrian–Lower Permian deposits are also known. In
the Bolsones basins north of Cuyo, upper Paleozoic–
Triassic stratigraphy is approximately continuous
without acid volcaniclastic rocks intervening; this succes-
sion overlies Precambrian basement.
The Neuquén contains a Jurassic–Cretaceous succes-
sion above an economic basement of Permian–Triassic
Choiyoi Group volcanics. Paleozoic and Triassic
sediments are believed to occur in the northeastern part
of the basin, suggesting that the basement may even
contain Devonian or Paleozoic intrusives and metamor-
phic rocks.
In the San Jorge basin of central Patagonia (Figure 1),
the Upper Jurassic–Cretaceous succession overlies
Middle–Upper Jurassic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks of
the Lonco Trapial Group and Chon Aike Formation
(Lesta et al., 1980). A complex stratigraphy of Carbonif-
erous, Permian, and Liassic rocks has been identified
beneath this volcanic assemblage (Piatnitzky, 1933;
Suero, 1948; Ugarte, 1966). Basement is an early Paleozoic
accretionary terrane. In the central parts of the San Jorge
and Magallanes (Austral) basins, the Middle–Upper
Jurassic volcanics and pyroclastics of the El Quemado
and Tobífera formations cover a series of north-south
trending half-grabens of Jurassic age that contain a conti-
nental fill.
The Magallanes (Austral) and Malvinas basins
(Figure 1) contain an Upper Jurassic and Lower Creta-
ceous sedimentary fill above Middle Jurassic acidic
volcaniclastic rocks and rift-like Lower Jurassic conti-
nental deposits. The upper Paleozoic basement consists
of pyroclastic and metamorphic lithologies (Riccardi and
Rolleri, 1980).
PHANEROZOIC BASIN EVOLUTION
The sedimentary basins of southern South America
preserve a complex record of Phanerozoic evolution,
repeatedly reactivating old lineaments in a variety of
regional stress settings. We will discuss this evolution in
three principal phases. First, the Paleozoic–Jurassic
evolution established the cover sequence of south-
western Gondwana. Second, major diastrophism in the
Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian, late Malm) produced an
unconformity in most of these basins. This is locally
known as the Auracanian orogeny, which initiated a new
cycle of basin behavior and established the present distri-
bution of basins. Third, latest Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
Cenozoic evolution included the extensional regime that
culminated in the Atlantic opening, as well as the
Laramide and Andean mountain building episodes. This
final phase established the modern subcontinent.
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview 67

Figure 2—Paleogeography of southern South America through four principal basin-forming stages: (a) Cambrian–Ordovician,
(b) Silurian–Devonian, (c) Carboniferous–Early Permian, and (d) Late Permian–Triassic. BS, Brazilian shield; NPM, North
Patagonia massif; PR, Pampean Ranges; PRC, Plata-Ribeira craton; TPR, Trans-Pampean Ranges; DM, Deseado massif.
68 Urien et al.
PALEOZOIC–MIDDLE MESOZOIC
DYNAMICS
Early Paleozoic Basins
Pre–Middle Ordovician
The western selvage of the subcontinent south of 25˚ S
lat, spanning Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile, was
generated at the beginning of the Paleozoic by accretion
of a magmatic arc and sedimentary wedges onto a
Precambrian core. The basement core is relatively young
(1800–570 Ma) and forms the Brasiliano platform (Brito
Neves and Cordani, 1991), or central cratogene of Brac-
cacini (1960). This tectonized terrace wedge formed west
of the Pampean cratonic block and Puna arch and was
bordered westward by oceanic crust.
This early Paleozoic passive margin succession was
built by deep water turbidite sedimentation over which a
clastic platform prograded (González Bonorino and
González Bonorino, 1991). Distally, this prism is believed
to have encroached on oceanic crust. Remnants of this
basin are preserved in the Altiplano and Eastern
Cordillera of Bolivia and northwestern Argentina and in
the Pampean Ranges. The grade of metamorphism
increases southward.
Middle–Late Ordovician
In the Middle Ordovician, igneous intrusive bodies
were emplaced in the cratonic crust, the erosion of which
is believed to have supplied voluminous clastics to the
Ordovician basins (Furque and Cuerda, 1979). The
Buenos Aires hills contain contemporaneous deposits of
a fringing shallow marine platform (Harrington, 1956;
Andreis et al., 1989).
Late Ordovician–Middle Devonian
The Late Ordovician–Middle Devonian episode began
with the earliest evidence of collision tectonics when a
magmatic arc was accreted to the continental margin. Its
remnants occur in the western Pampean Ranges.
Intrusive activity dominated the Famatina mountain
ranges. In the northern Chilean coastal Cordillera and the
eastern Pampean Ranges, plutonism was less extensive
(Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979; Pichowiak et al., 1987). The
far-flung effects of this plate margin collision formed a
remarkable intracontinental or epeiric basin in the Early
Silurian. This shallow basin complex once covered
Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Paraguay, where it is
known as the Chaco, Tarija, and Chaco-Paraná basins,
respectively. Anoxic environments attributed to
restricted circulation formed organic-rich source rocks,
especially in the Devonian Los Monos Formation (Pareja
et al., 1978; Pezzi and Mozetic, 1989).
This sequence forms a sedimentary belt in the Puna
and Pampean ranges, extending from the Altiplano to
northwestern Patagonia (Figure 2b). It also covers the
continental interior as far as Malvinas Island (Turner,
1972; Pareja et al., 1978). In the Southern Hills of Buenos
Aires, Silurian–Lower Devonian shelf clastic sequences
are preserved. The conjugate Cape basin of South Africa
was part of this Ordovician–Early Devonian depositional
landscape (Tankard et al., 1982).
Petroleum Geology
The Chaco and Tarija basins contain Silurian and
Devonian source rocks. The Silurian sequence is known
as the Lipeón and Copo formations. However, most oil
and gas generation is attributed to the Devonian Los
Monos shales, although the Santa Rosa and Tonono
formations also have potential. The estimated recover-
able reserves are 1.1 billion bbl of oil and 18.4 tcf of gas,
the Argentinian share of which is about 380 million bbl
of light oil and 12 tcf of gas (Yrigoyen, 1991a). In the
Altiplano and the northwestern Paraná basin, there are
coeval deposits that may have petroleum potential.
Silurian–Devonian flysch-like sediments are also known
in the Precordillera of San Jorge and Mendoza and the
San Rafael uplift. Their petroleum-generating potential is
unknown.
Late Paleozoic Basins
Devonian–Early Carboniferous
During Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous time,
intense deformation folded, and in places metamor-
phosed, the lower Paleozoic succession. This episode is
colloquially known as the Chanic orogeny and is
expressed regionally as a major unconformity. Early
Carboniferous subsidence was generally vigorous, but
reactivated old trends (Figure 2c).
The earliest deposits occur in the Tarija basin of
southern Bolivia and northwestern Argentina where they
are called the Machareti Group. Equivalent deposits in
the Chaco-Paraná basin form the Sachayoj Formation
(Padula and Mingramm, 1969; Pezzi and Mozetic, 1989).
Elsewhere, broadly contemporaneous deposits occur in
isolated depocenters. Examples include the El Toco
Formation of northern Chile, the Malimán Formation in
the Argentinian Precordillera (Scalabrini Ortíz, 1972), and
less well understood deposits of central and southern
Patagonia, such as the Tepuel Group and the Bahia de la
Lancha Formation (Riccardi and Rolleri, 1980).
In the middle–Early Carboniferous (Visean), right-
lateral wrenching dissected the Pampean basement into
a suite of pull-apart basins (Figure 3) (Fernandez-Seveso,
1995). These basins were initially isolated. Deposition
occurred in coarse alluvial systems that were stacked
against active boundary faults and in finer grained lacus-
trine and shallow marine settings. A periglacial climate is
suggested by the varved shales and dropstones. Eyles
(1993) suggests that glacial conditions were a response to
tectonism and uplift. The pull-apart basins in central
western Argentina are known as bolsones. By the end of
the Carboniferous and Permian, these fault-controlled
basins were joined together in a broad region of subsi-
dence (see Fernandez-Seveso, 1995, for a detailed
description). In Patagonia, sedimentary rocks of this age
rest on early Paleozoic basement (Uliana and Biddle,
1987, 1988). These Carboniferous–Permian basins were
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview
Figure 3—Paleogeography of southern South America
during the late Paleozoic. The legend shows the distribu-
tion of depositional environments.
inverted by Tertiary deformation of the Andean era,
forming a tilt-block basin province (Caminos, 1979a;
Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979; Lopez et al., 1989). The
fluvial, lacustrine, and restricted marine deposits are
now exposed in the Pampean, Transpampean, and
Famatina ranges.
A magmatic arc with acidic intrusions and extrusions
formed along the western margin of the subcontinent,
what is now the Argentinian–Chilean Frontal Cordillera
(Groeber et al., 1952; Caminos, 1979b).
The greatest intensity of volcanism occurred during
the Late Permian and Early Triassic (Figures 2d, 3, 4). We
believe that this magmatic arc may explain why some
69
Triassic basins were cut off from marine circulation.
Permian–Triassic volcanics and volcanoclastics beneath
these intracontinental rifts are assigned to the Choiyoi
Group.
Petroleum Geology
Potential Carboniferous–Permian source rocks have
been reported from many basins, but so far appear to
have attracted little commercial interest. In the Tarija
basin of northwestern Argentina and Bolivia, the Upper
Permian Vitiacuá Formation is an oil-prone lacustrine
mudstone. Its counterpart in the Paraná basin of Brazil is
the Iratí Formation, which locally averages about 10%
total organic carbons (TOC) and has been mined.
In the intermontane basins of central western
Argentina, lagoonal and lacustrine organic-rich carbona-
ceous shales (e.g., Patquía Formation of the Paganzo
basin) contain type I and II kerogens. Numerous oil
seeps occur along old strike-slip fault zones. The San
Rafael uplift may contain similar petroleum potential.
Source rocks and reservoirs rocks are known. The risk
would appear to be maturation and seals.
Thick upper Paleozoic shallow marine and deltaic
sedimentary rocks are exposed in the Pampa de Agnia
basin of southern Patagonia. These rocks are believed to
extend southward to the western San Jorge basin. We
speculate that the offshore Colorado basin may have
similar potential considering its proximity to Upper
Permian Iratí equivalents in Uruguay.
Triassic Rift Basins
Basin Development
The Late Permian–Early Triassic landscape of south-
western Gondwana was disrupted by an orogenic
episode that deformed and inverted many of the late
Paleozoic basins. This deformation is expressed in the
Cape foldbelt of South Africa and in the Sierras de la
Ventana and Pintada of Argentina. This is not a contin-
uous mountain belt, but has several offsets that reflect
accommodation zones between the original basins. An
important consequence of this deformation was the
postorogenic relaxation of compressive stresses and the
formation of a suite of extensional basins by orogenic
collapse (Figure 4). Extension persisted intermittently
into the Early Jurassic (Stipanicic, 1969b). These Triassic
basins were essentially landlocked and contain thick
sequences of continental deposits (fluvial, lacustrine, and
deltaic). The Cacheuta source rock in the Cuyo basin, for
example, has generated prodigious amounts of oil.
Petroleum Geology
These essentially intracontinental rifts differ from
those of the sub-Andean belt by the large amounts of
hydrocarbons they have produced. For example, the
Cacheuta depocenter of the Cuyo basin complex
produced over 20 million bbl in 1992. Triassic source
rocks are widespread: Cuyo-Cacheuta region, Mendoza,
San Juan Precordillera, and intermontane basins such as
70 Urien et al.
Figure 4—Paleogeography of southern South America
during the Late Permian–Early Jurassic. Heavy lines are
faults. Legend same as in Figure 3.
Ischigualasto basin. The Cuyo basin (Figure 1) contains
the most prolific lacustrine bituminous shales of Late
Triassic age. These are the Cacheuta and Potrerillos
formations. Estimated ultimate recoverable reserves in
the Cuyo basin are about 1.3 billion bbl of 30˚ API oil and
290 bcf of gas.
Early–Middle Jurassic Basins
Basin Development
Widespread extension affected the Patagonian crust in
the Sinemurian, forming a linked system of northwest-
southeast trending basins (Figure 5). The thickest rift fill
is in the Neuquén basin, which was a marine-influenced
basin throughout much of the Early–Middle Jurassic
(Digregorio and Uliana, 1980). This tract of extensional
basins extended as far north as the Oriente basin of
Ecuador (Groeber et al., 1952; Auboin et al., 1973).
Marine and continental deposits of Early Jurassic age
onlap the basement in these rift basins, from Neuquén
basin to the central and southern Patagonia embayments
(Lesta et al., 1980). Important source rock intervals were
deposited in these basins, such as the Los Molles source
Figure 5—Paleogeography of southern South America
during the Early–Middle Jurassic. Heavy lines are faults.
Legend same as in Figure 3.
rock in the Neuquén basin with its marine faunas and
turbidite sandstones. This phase of basin subsidence
come to an end in the Oxfordian with a reorganization of
stress fields. Old extensional structures were inverted. In
the Neuquén basin, inversion processes formed the
conspicuous east-west trending Huincul arch (Neuquén
dorsal). Figure 6 shows the Late Jurassic–Early Creta-
ceous successor basins.
During Middle Jurassic time, a new, predominantly
acidic magmatic event spread lavas and tuffaceous
volcanoclastic materials throughout Patagonia covering
large parts of the preceding depocenters. Although the
sea had withdrawn from much of central Patagonia, the
Neuquén basin was still inundated (Lesta et al., 1980;
Digregorio and Uliana, 1980). A new area of extension
began in southern Patagonia and the Malvinas plateau
(Supko and Perch-Nielsen, 1977; Yrigoyen, 1989a). This
was the first indication of rifting in the southernmost tip
of South America and South Africa.
Petroleum Geology
A noteworthy characteristic of these Early Jurassic
extensional basins was their restricted marine circula-
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview
Figure 6—Paleogeography of southern South America
during the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. Heavy lines are
faults. Legend same as in Figure 3.
tion, which resulted in a diversity of thick deposits of
organic-rich marine shales. Organic-rich marls and lime-
stones also occur throughout the stratigraphic column.
Transgression had flooded several basins, including
Neuquén, San Jorge, the Malvinas plateau, and South
Malvinas.
In the Neuquén basin, the Pliensbachian–Oxfordian
Los Molles and Chacay Melehue formations are rich in
marine black shales and limestones. In some areas, this
organic matter has been matured to a gas-producing
stage. These Jurassic source rocks are an important
reason for the basin’s prospectivity. (Lower Cretaceous
source rocks are discussed later.)
The NNW-SSE trending rift system of central
Patagonia accumulated a thick succession of lacustrine
bituminous shales in the Oxfordian. These are the
Cañadón Asfalto and Aguada Bandera formations. In the
Malvinas plateau and the South Malvinas basin,
Oxfordian marine organic-rich shales have been encoun-
tered by JOIDES drilling (Supko and Perch-Nielsen,
1977). Recent exploration drilling suggests that these
potential source rocks may be widespread and extend
eastward.
71
ARAUCANIAN OROGENY AND
EXTENSION
Late Jurassic –Neocomian Basins
Basin Development
A Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) orogenic event
marked the end of the previous pattern of basin
formation and the beginning of a new one. Extensional
faults of the Early Jurassic basins were reactivated in a
reverse sense, resulting in widespread inversion. This
affected basins such as the Neuquén, forming the east-
west Huincul arch, and the Paganzo, where the pull-
apart basins were inverted. This event is known as the
Araucanian orogeny.
After the Araucanian diastrophism, extension reached
a new climax. Subsidence affected the Neuquén basin,
the Central Valley of Chile, western San Jorge basin, and
the Magallanes and Malvinas basins (Charrier and
Vicente, 1972; Stipanicic, 1969a; Yrigoyen, 1989b). For the
first time, Mesozoic extension spread across the older
cratonic interior, affecting basins as diverse as the Orán-
Lomas de Olmedo rift, the Altiplano, and the Paraná
basin. Continental types of deposition dominated.
Along the western margin, a new magmatic arc was
formed as subduction accommodated the Atlantic
opening. The magmatism included andesitic composi-
tions and plutons (Aguirre et al., 1974; González Diaz
and Nullo, 1980; Riccardi and Rolleri, 1980). Basic
volcanism also occurred in the intracratonic basins
(Sprechmann et al., 1981). Some parts of the Cuyo basin
and northern and central Patagonia were also affected
(Uliana and Biddle, 1988).
Figure 6 summarizes the Late Jurassic–Neocomian
basins along the new Atlantic margin. These basins
involved extensional and strike-slip processes. Sedimen-
tation started with fluvial and lacustrine depositional
systems and were subsequently subjected to marine
transgression as extension proceeded (Zambrano, 1980).
Examples are the Punta del Este and Salado basins. The
Colorado basin formed on the grain of the late Paleozoic
Ventana foldbelt (Urien and Zambrano, 1973; Urien et
al., 1981).
The Valdés-Rawson basin complex is believed to have
formed on a volcanic basement, similar to the Colorado
and San Jorge basins, and was filled with Late Jurassic
and Cretaceous synrift alluvial and lacustrine deposits
(Zambrano and Urien, 1974; Yrigoyen, 1989a). Farther
south, the San Julián and North Malvinas basins underlie
the continental shelf. Because they are part of the process
of Gondwana extension and fragmentation, their sedi-
mentary fills can be inferred. We believe that they
contain alluvial sandstones and lacustrine shales similar
to the Rawson and eastern San Jorge basins. East of the
Patagonian continental margin, fault-bounded half-
grabens are overlain by a passive margin terrace wedge.
Along the Andean margin, a new marine transgres-
sion was more widespread than those of the previous
Jurassic. This trangressive sequence is preserved in the
Cordillera of Chile and Argentina (Groeber et al., 1952;
72 Urien et al.

Yrigoyen, 1979). These transgressive–regressive

sequences attain their maximum development in the
Neuquén, Magallanes, and Malvinas basins. Further-
more, marine highstand sequences were also widespread
in Neocomian time, such as the deltaic and marine shales
of the Katterfeld Formation in the western San Jorge
basin (Scasso, 1989). The progressive flooding that
started along the Pacific margin in Tithonian time had
reached the eastern edge of the Patagonian platform by
the Barremian (Urien et al., 1981; Zambrano, 1982). This
was probably the route by which the newly evolving
Atlantic rifts were flooded.
Volcanism persisted along the Andean margin
(Aguirre et al., 1974; Muñizaga et al., 1984). Andesitic
lavas and pyroclastics were widespread in western
Patagonia up to Neuquén latitudes (González Diaz and
Nullo, 1980). The distribution of this activity was
probably controlled by old structural fabrics that were
reactivated by extensional and transtensional processes.
Basaltic effusions also occurred in the Pampean ranges
(Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979; Zambrano, 1987; Uliana
and Biddle, 1988). The early Mirano tectonic phase of the
Barremian and Aptian ended this tectonosedimentary
and magmatic cycle (Stipanicic, 1969a).
Petroleum Geology
The Tithonian and Neocomian were characterized by
substantial accumulations of oil-prone source rocks and a
favorable burial history. The greatest volumes of source
rocks occur in southern Argentina. We believe that this
was the principal Mesozoic hydrocarbon-generating
period. The most prolific accumulations occur along the Figure 7—Paleogeography of southern South America
western flank of the subcontinent, from the Malvinas during the Middle Cretaceous. Heavy lines are faults.
plateau toward Mendoza, and probably include the Legend same as in Figure 3.
Central Valley of Chile and the western Altiplano of
Bolivia.
In the Neuquén basin, sea level fluctuations generated excellent oil source properties. The organic material is in
intervals with evaporites, such as the Barda Negra, La the oil window, yielding large amounts of hydrocarbons.
Manga, and Auquilco formations. These were followed This source interval has generated estimated ultimate
by the Tordillo, Vaca Muerta, Quintuco, and Agrio recoverable reserves of 1.4 billion bbl of oil and about 22
formations, which are also attributed to widespread tcf of gas. In the Argentinian part of the Magallanes
transgressive–regressive cycles. The shallow, restricted basin, ultimate recoveries are over 850 million bbl of oil
marine setting is reflected in some of the richest source and 14 tcf of gas (Yrigoyen, 1991a).
rocks of the region. The Vaca Muerta is the principal On the Atlantic margin of southern South America,
source rock in the Neuquén basin (Urien and Zambrano, there are several Late Jurassic–Neocomian rift basins.
1994). The estimated proven and probable reserves in the Lacustrine and shallow marine oil-prone source rocks
Neuquén basin are about 2.3 billion bbl of oil and 18 tcf are anticipated. The primary exploration risk would be
of gas. Oil gravity is 29.5˚–32.2˚ API (Yrigoyen, 1991b). the large quantities of sand shed from the collapsing and
Thick, black, organic shales in the San Jorge basin were eroding Ventana orogeny and potentially poor seals.
deposited in continental environments, including lakes, This tract of basins includes the outer sectors of the
swamps, and estuaries. These are known as the Aguada Salado, Colorado, Rawson, San Julián, and North Mal-
Bandera, Cerro Guadal, and D-129 formations and are the vinas basins, which are still untested.
main rocks of the central and western basins. The
estimated proven and probable hydrocarbon reserves, Middle–Late Cretaceous Basins
which accumulated mainly in lenticular sandstone reser-
voirs of Cretaceous age, are 3.0 billion bbl of 23˚ API oil Basin Setting
and about 4 tcf of gas (Yrigoyen, 1991b).
In the Magallanes basin, widespread sequences of The Aptian brought to a close the Early Cretaceous
continental and marine bituminous shales are docu- history of marine-influenced sedimentation in the
mented. The Cerro Katterfeld, Río Mayer, Springhill, and Neuquén basin. The transition to a new style of subsi-
Palermo Aike formations have black shale intervals with dence (Figure 7) is marked by evaporites such as the
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview 73

Huitrin Formation (Groeber et al., 1952; Digregorio and

Uliana, 1980). After this tectonic phase, the Neuquén
basin experienced progressive subsidence dominated by
alluvial sedimentation. Zambrano (1980) speculates that
subsidence may in fact have been of a regional nature,
spanning from the Neuquén to the Colorado basin. This
suggests postrift thermal subsidence. The Cenomanian is
marked by a major unconformity in the Neuquén basin,
reflecting a period of inversion. This event was followed
by red bed accumulation in the Neuquén basin (Urien et
al., 1981).
Alluvial and red bed deposition was ubiquitous,
occurring throughout the Bolsones, Pampas (Laboulaye,
Macachín, and Rosario), San Jorge, Salado, Colorado,
and Rawson basins (Sprechmann et al., 1981; Urien et al.,
1981; Zambrano, 1987). These sedimentary assemblages
comprise reservoirs and seals that were sourced from
earlier lacustrine source rocks.
Marine circulation persisted in the Magallanes and
Malvinas basins with the local development of muddy
calcareous platforms along the rim of the basin (Riccardi
and Rolleri, 1980). The Colorado, Salado, and Rawson
basins coalesced in a broad area of subsidence beneath
the present Atlantic continental slope.
The Andean batholith was probably emplaced in the
Cordillera of southern Patagonia during the Barremian–
Aptian Mirano deformation (Aguirre et al., 1974; Ramos,
1979; Ramos et al., 1982; Muñizaga et al., 1984). This
intrusion was associated with mountain building that
formed a barrier to further marine encroachment from
the Pacific. Magmatic intrusions are also documented in
the coastal Cordillera of Chile. Andesitic compositions Figure 8—Paleogeography of southern South America
and pyroclastics are common in west-central and during the Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary. Heavy lines are
northern Patagonia, as well as in southern Mendoza faults. Legend same as in Figure 3.
(Aguirre et al., 1974; Mingramm et al., 1980)
Although widespread, there was a pattern to this
magmatism. It was generally associated with tectonism
the flexural foreland basin (Zambrano, 1987). This
and transtensional reactivation of old structures. These
shallow foreland basin was covered by a restricted and
intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks appear to be
discontinuous sea from the Pampean region to the
related to strike-slip processes rather than compres-
Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia (Zambrano, 1987). Clastic
sional tectonics. This deformation is expressed in an
depositional systems predominated, including some
angular unconformity in the main Cordillera of
prominent calcareous and evaporitic sequences such as
Mendoza (Polanski, 1964). Marine incursions locally
the Salta and upper Puca groups (Mingramm et al., 1980;
exploited breaks in the tectonic relief of the northern
Cherroni Mendieta, 1977).
Patagonian Cordillera (Auboin et al., 1973; Vicente et
The northern part of Patagonia, including the
al., 1973).
Neuquén basin and the Patagonian platform, were trans-
gressed by a sea that linked the Atlantic with the Pacific,
leaving only the northern Patagonian massif as an
ANDEAN DEFORMATION AND emergent highland (Franchi et al., 1984). Terrigenous
FORELAND BASINS clastics and subordinate carbonates were deposited
(Figure 8).
Intrusive volcanism occurred in the coastal Cordillera
Early Sub-Andean Basins of Chile, in the main and northern Patagonian
cordilleras, and in the sub-Andean belt of central
Basin Setting Patagonia (Groeber et al., 1952; Vergara and Drake, 1979;
The first phase of mountain building, representing the Lesta et al., 1980). There was Late Cretaceous–early
start of Andean deformation, is dated to Late Creta- Tertiary andesitic volcanism in the Andean and sub-
ceous–Paleocene time. This is broadly contemporaneous Andean ranges between 30˚ and 40˚ S lat. Several tectonic
with Laramide deformation of North America. episodes and corresponding magmatic events occurred
Encroachment of these early thrust belt loads initiated in the Andean and sub-Andean ranges. Syntectonic
74 Urien et al.
transgressive-regressive cycles also occurred during the
early Maastrichtian, Paleocene, and late Eocene. The
earliest Oligocene Incaic movements ended this period
(Yrigoyen, 1979).
Petroleum Geology
Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene limestones and shales of
the Salta Group are believed to have generated oils in the
Orán-Metán basin complex of northwestern Argentina
(Figure 1). Caimancito, Martinez del Tineo, and Puesto
Guardian are examples of these oil fields. Black shales in
the Olmedo Formation and marls and limestones in the
Yacoraite Formation are the principal source rocks in the
Orán and Metán basins. The proven and probable
reserves in the Cretaceous Orán basin (= Lomas de
Olmedo basin) are 116 million bbl of 44˚ API oil and 220
bcf of gas (Yrigoyen, 1991b).
The Ñirihuau basin of west-central Patagonia contains
Paleocene shallow marine and lagoonal shales, as does
the neighboring Navidad depocenter of Chile. There are
organic-rich strata and seeps in the marine Salamanca,
Paso del Sapo, and Ñirihuau formations. Similar occur-
rences in some Neuquén and Mendoza localities may
reflect migration from older units. Tertiary tar deposits
and oil seeps are common, but are generally believed to
have been sourced from pre-Tertiary stratigraphy,
including San Jorge, Mendoza, northwestern Argentina
(Ischigualasto basin), and the Andean margin of the
Magallanes basin. Many of these seeps appear to be
related to old strike-slip fault zones.
The Atlantic passive margin and the Malvinas basin
contain Tertiary successions that are more than 3000 m
thick. In South Malvinas, flysch and thermal conditions
are favorable hydrocarbon indicators. The Ciclón x-1
well, near the Fagnano-Burdwood structural trend,
shows the presence of hydrocarbons. Reservoirs may be
the risk. Turbiditic and deltaic depositional systems in
the passive margin terrace wedge are untested.
Paleogene Andean Basins
In the middle Paleogene (late Eocene–Oligocene),
compressive deformation inverted many of the pre-
existing extensional basins and initiated the fold and
thrust belt of the modern Andean ranges. Compressive
deformation also reactivated many preexisting structures
in a strike-slip sense, depending on their relative orienta-
tion. By the middle Miocene, a tilt block province of
rotated blocks and deep basins formed in the
Precordillera and Sierras Pampeanas (Cuerda and
Furque, 1979; Fielding and Jordan, 1988). These processes
formed the Precordillera as we known it today.
Middle Tertiary
Fluvial and eolian landscapes dominated the early
Neogene Pampean plains. In the Puna and Bolivian
Altiplano, subsidence was rampant. Terrigenous clastic
sediments, basic lavas, and pyroclastic material were
deposited in these basins. The Cuyo foreland basin of
west-central Argentina consists of a westward-thick-
ening wedge of eolian sandstones above an angular
unconformity (Rolleri and Fernandez Garrasino, 1979).
Similar depositional settings characterized the middle
Tertiary basins of Patagonia.
Several compressive phases have been documented.
Three contractional episodes were associated with the
Miocene Pehuenche phase alone (Groeber et al., 1952;
Yrigoyen, 1979). Compression was also associated with
tilt block tectonics in the Pampean ranges and with
increased magmatic activity. Intrusions in the main
Cordillera and the Pampean Cordillera have been dated
to the Oligocene and early Miocene. Other volcanic
centers were the Puna, North Patagonia Cordillera,
Neuquén basin, and North Patagonian massif.
Sub-Andean Belt and Foreland Basin
The climax of Andean deformation and development
of the modern fold and thrust belt occurred in the middle
Miocene–Pliocene. At this time, the sub-Andean belt or
foothills developed by forward propagation. The
Andean orogenesis deepened the foreland basin consid-
erably. Old structures beneath the foreland cover were
reactivated, and new structures formed in the foothills.
This was an important period of hydrocarbon trap
formation. Some of the best examples are found in the
Chaco basin of Bolivia. Impressive foreland deformation
includes the tilt block province of the Sierras Pampeanas
and the Izozog arch of Bolivia. The latter caused uplift
and erosion of much of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic
cover. Alluvial fan and fluvial processes dominated the
tilt block basins (Uliana and Biddle, 1988).
The Pampean and Chaco plains underwent a transgres-
sion that covered the greater part of their surface, followed
by a gradual regression during the late Miocene–Pliocene.
Subsequently, during the late Pliocene–Quaternary, fluvial
and eolian deposits accumulated.
This middle Miocene phase of Andean orogenesis is
known as the Quechua event. The present topographic
expression of the Andean and sub-Andean ranges, the
Sierras Pampeanas, and the frontal Cordillera were
established at this time (Mingramm et al., 1980; Uliana
and Biddle, 1988). Uplift of the old volcanic massifs
established new volcanic centers.
CONCLUSIONS
The sedimentary basins of the southern part of South
America preserve a long and complex record of linked
basin evolution. Since their inception in the early
Paleozoic by reactivation of inherited basement fabrics,
each stage of basin development has reactivated its
predecessor in a new way. These basins are composite in
structural architecture as well as stratigraphically. They
have a long history of repeated inundation by restricted
seas that were at times anoxic, progradation of reservoir-
rich depositional systems, and recurrent structural
episodes. Several basins are prolific oil producers, while
others remain largely untested.
 Petroleum Basins of Southern South America: An Overview
Acknowledgments This contribution is based on the results
of many years of fieldwork and geologic surface and subsurface
observations sponsored by Urien and Associates, whose
financial support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors are
indebted to A. J. Tankard for his invitation to participate in this
project and especially for his critical review and correction of
the manuscript. Recognition is likewise due to González
Upton, P. Cazenave, B. Fos, and M. Virasoro for their assis-
tance in editing, drafting, and layout and to G. Ortíz for
typing the finished text.
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 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic
Paleogeography of Gondwana

Kenneth E. Williams
Texaco Inc.
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Abstract

C alibrated geohistory analyses of single data points and cross sections are used to construct tectonic
subsidence curves. There are a limited number of distinct curve types, of which seven end-members are
discussed. These curve types and their shapes are genetically related to plate tectonic processes. One regional
backstripped cross section across South America is discussed. The tectonic subsidence curves are used as cali-
bration for a paleogeographic analysis of Gondwana in the Phanerozoic. It is suggested that the southern part
of South America and parts of Antarctica are composed of terranes that were formerly located west of the
present position of the Arequipa massif in Chile and Peru. These displaced terranes formed the western edge
of Gondwana from the Cambrian–Ordovician to the end of the Devonian. During these periods, they were
involved in intracratonic rifting. During the time of the basal Carboniferous unconformity, the terranes were
translated southward to approximately their present positions. Seven reconstructions are presented that are
representative of the major episodes in the development of Gondwana.

Resumen

L os análisis calibrados de geohistoria de los perfiles y puntos de datos simples, se usan para construir de
hundimiento tectónico. Existe una cantidad limitada de tipos distintos de curvas de los cuales comen-
tamos siete miembros de extremo. Estos tipos de curvas y sus formas están genéticamente relacionados a los
procesos de placas tectónicas. Se comenta un perfil regional retrodespejado a través de Sudamérica. Las curvas
de hundimiento tectónico se usan como calibración para un análisis paleogeográfico de Gondwana en el
Fanerozoico. Se sugiere que la parte meridonal de Sudamérica y partes de Antártida están compuestas de
terrenos que estaban situados al oeste de la posición actual del macizo Arequipa en Chile y Perú. Estos terrenos
desplazados formaron el borde occidente de Gondwana del Cambrico-Ordoviciano hasta el final del Devónico.
Durante estos periodos, estuvieron implicados en un agrietamiento intracratónico. Durante el tiempo de la
disconformidad del Carbónico basal, los terrenos se transladaron hacia el sur adoptando aproximadamente sus
posiciones actuales. Se presentan siete reconstrucciones. Los mismos representan los episodios principales en el
desarrollo del Gondwana.

INTRODUCTION deposited during this interval in several basins in South

In this summary of the Phanerozoic history of
Gondwana, special emphasis is placed on the reconstruc-
tion of the geologic history and paleogeography of
southern South America and the surrounding areas. The
temporal development of the Gondwana margin is also
examined.
The Patagonian microplate initially failed to rift from
its original position adjacent to the Arequipa massif
during the Ordovician. It was eventually sheared away
in the Early Carboniferous and translated southward
toward its present position. Compression firmly sutured
this block onto the continent by the end of Permian time.
A series of seven reconstructions are presented that
summarize the major episodes in the development of
Gondwana. Source, seal, and reservoir rocks were
America. Changing patterns of subduction along the
early Pacific margin are reflected in several regional
unconformities that bracket the principal geologic
episodes of South America.
During the Paleozoic, Gondwana was in a polar
position. A southern ice cap is present on all of the
Paleozoic reconstructions. The maps are shown on a
stereographic south polar projection based on the Paleo-
geographic Atlas Project (Scotese et al., 1979). The recon-
structions were tested against a set of tectonic subsidence
and geohistory plots and a set of regional cross sections.
There appear to be a limited number of distinct tectonic
subsidence curves, each of which is representative of a
different tectonic style. These curves were used to
calibrate and test the consistency of the paleogeographic
data during construction of the maps.

Williams, K. E., 1995, Tectonic subsidence analysis and Paleozoic paleogeography of 79

Gondwana, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South
America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 79–100.
80 Williams

TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

AND DATA POINTS

Tectonic Subsidence Curves

Figure 1 shows a typical tectonic subsidence and
geohistory plot. The data used in the analysis were
derived from the geology of the area, in this example,
from the Serranias Chiquitanas (zona Robore) of eastern
Bolivia (Yacimentos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos,
1972). The location of the dataset is shown as point 6 on
Figure 2. Ages, thicknesses, lithologies, maturity of
organic matter, and estimates of the duration and
amount of erosion were used. In this example, modeling
of the Devonian units assumes that they are within the
oil generative window at present. The data were back-
stripped using the methods described by Sclater and
Christie (1980). Each tectonic subsidence curve was cali-
brated to as much of the available information as
possible. The most common calibrator is vitrinite
reflectance (Cole et al., 1987). This and other indicators of
organic maturity preserve a record of the maximum
temperature to which the rock was subjected and, by
inference, the maximum depth of burial of the sediment
where paleogeothermal gradients can be inferred or
determined (Tissot et al., 1988). Fission track analysis
(Gleadow et al., 1983) was also important since it can
often indicate the time at which the sediments last cooled
below 100˚C. The fully calibrated geohistory analysis
was also compared with adjacent points and distant
points in the same and nearby basins to ensure the
consistency of the interpretation. This was best done on Figure 1—Single data point analysis: (a) tectonic subsi-
reconstructed cross sections based on the backstripped dence data and (b) geohistory analysis. Complete model of
a dataset is based on a calibrated geohistory analysis and
geohistory data (Beaumont et al., 1988). incorporates all available information from nearby datasets
as well as vitrinite reflectance and fission track analyses.
The dataset is from the Sierras Chiquitanas, point 6 on
Tectonic Subsidence Curve Analysis Figure 2. U, unconformity.
Tectonic subsidence curves are sensitive indicators of
the processes that cause basins to subside. They have Voorhoeve and Houseman, 1988). Multiple iterations of
been corrected for sediment loading, paleowater depth, the analysis are generally required in the calibration of
and sediment type and were calibrated on the basis of the curves. Lerche (1990) describes a more mathemati-
geohistory analysis. Comparison of the curves directly cally rigorous technique. These two rift types are the
addresses the questions about what forces were active to result of lithospheric extension. Their analysis may be
cause the basin to subside in its unique way. Figure 3 complex depending on the quality of the data (Karner
shows a classification of tectonic subsidence curves. and Dewey, 1986).
There are seven basic types. Fast flexure is the typical response of a foreland basin
The open rift and closed rift types are the familiar curve to an applied load (Allen et al., 1986; Beaumont et al.,
shapes described by McKenzie (1978). The open rift type 1988). An unconformity at the base of the sediment
characterizes continental borderlands such as the package may mark translation and erosion of the
Atlantic margin of the United States (Watts and Thorne, forebulge (Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984). Examples of
1984) and the west African margin (Brun and Lucazeau, this foreland basin curve type are common worldwide.
1988). The closed rift subsidence curve type is similar, The North Alpine basin (Allen et al., 1986) and the
but is generally intracratonic, such as a failed rift (Burke, Bolivian Chaco basin of Tertiary age are examples.
1977). Examples of this type include the early Paleozoic Distance from the tectonic load is reflected in decreasing
subsidence history of the Anadarko basin of North magnitude of subsidence and the shape of the curve. Far
America (Feinstein, 1981) and the early Paleozoic Chaco from the overthrust load, the curve resembles the slow
basin of Bolivia (Figure 1). A calculated beta (β) flexure or intracratonic curve form. With increased
stretching factor (Watts, 1981) and an extrapolated paleo- distance, the effects of more distant stresses are seen. The
temperature profile facilitate the calibration of the local characteristics of a stress regime become more
geohistory plots (Lucazeau and LeDouaran, 1984; diffuse and less distinctive depending on the distance to
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana
Figure 2—Index map and reconstruction of Gondwana at
340 Ma. The location of ten data points (stars) and one
cross section (line through point 7) are indicated.
the stress source and the lithospheric response to that
externally applied stress.
The slow flexure response has been described as expo-
nentially positive (Thorne and Watts, 1989). It is com-
monly associated with strike-slip faulting of varying
magnitudes, depending on proximity to the driving
force. Examples of the lithospheric response to external
stresses include the Los Angeles basin (Mayer, 1987) and
the Paraná basin. Strike-slip faulting cannot be demon-
strated in all basins where this curve type is seen. This
curve type indicates only that the stress regime acting on
the point was influenced by geographic, time, and
strength variations. The patterns of subsidence and uplift
change depending on how the anisotropic lithosphere
responds to different directions and magnitudes of exter-
nally sourced stresses.
The cratonic response to tectonic subsidence reflects a
weak stress regime and distant forces. Many interior
basins have subsided intermittently in a series of small
pulses of subsidence. This is called the intracratonic curve
type. The shape of each pulse resembles the rift pattern
on a small scale. Its duration is generally about 30 m.y.,
with initial rapid subsidence of 1–4 m.y. duration. This is
characteristic of third-order tectonic cycles (Lambeck et
al., 1987; Cloetingh, 1988). Examples of the intracratonic
curve are the Williston basin (Quinlan, 1987) and
Michigan basin (Marshak, 1986) of the central United
States. A second type of cratonic response is a stasis
81
Figure 3—Typical tectonic subsidence curve types from
various tectonic settings. Curve types are indicative of the
tectonic settings of the basins.
curve, which is characterized by uplift and erosion. The
amount of uplift and erosion is determined by the
regional geology and by calibration of the geohistory
charts (Waples et al., 1992).
In areas where the magnitude of the subsidence
curves is relatively small, the effects of parameters other
than the major plate-driving forces can sometimes be
discerned. Lithospheric buoyancy that results from
rheologic differences, as well as plate-bending stresses,
create compressional or tensional forces that are
modified locally by the curvature of the earth (Dallmus,
1958). Deviatoric stresses are locally important (Dewey,
1988).
A pattern of rapid initial subsidence followed by a
longer period of exponentially decreasing subsidence
rates, commonly referred to as rift-drift subsidence, is seen
in open rift basins along continental margins (Watts and
Steckler, 1981). Closed rift basins form in continental
interiors as a result of deviatoric stresses or by other
processes of lithospheric extension. The fast flexure of
foreland basins changes gradually to slow flexure and
ultimately to a cratonic pattern as the distance from the
driving force is increased.
Data Point Analyses
Several selected data points and one regional cross
section were chosen to illustrate and constrain the paleo-
82 Williams
Figure 4—Data point analysis for the Bolivian Andes and
the Anadarko basin in the United States. (a) Depositional
pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels. (b) Basement subsi-
dence rate. Circled numbers in Figures 4–9 refer to the
ages of the paleogeographic maps: 1, Cambrian; 2,
Silurian; 3, Devonian; 4, Early Carboniferous; 5, Carbonif-
erous; 6, Permian; and 7, Triassic–Jurassic. The upper
dashed line on this plot is the tectonic subsidence curve
for the Anadarko deep basin of southern Oklahoma.
Location shown in Figure 2.
geographic analysis of Gondwana. The locations of the
presented data points are shown in Figure 2. The strati-
graphic section requires at least age, thickness, and
lithology information for a minimum analysis.
Figure 4 summarizes the dynamics of Phanerozoic
basin evolution in Bolivia. Subsidence began in the
Cambrian and continued at a rapid rate into the Ordovi-
cian, when more than 7000 m of clastic sediments were
deposited. A stretching factor of β = 2.0 was required to
model this rift. The initial mechanical subsidence and
subsequent thermal equilibration provided the accom-
modation space for the observed sediment fill (McKenzie,
1978). The top dashed line in Figure 4 is a comparative
tectonic subsidence curve for the Anadarko deep basin of
southern Oklahoma (Coffman, 1988). Both the timing
and magnitude of the two basins are similar. There may
in fact have been a tectonic relationship between the two
regions based on these similarities and their apparent
proximity at that time (Ronov et al., 1984). Subsidence
continued at a slower rate in the Silurian due to thermal
subsidence. In the Devonian, a new episode of subsi-
dence and sedimentation affected the basin (Isaacson,
1975), coinciding with regional tectonism and uplift west
of the Chaco basin.
A substantial erosional hiatus characterizes the Early
Carboniferous. It was during this time that the major
terranes west of the basin were translated southward
along strike-slip faults to their present positions, as postu-
lated in this paper. Carboniferous sedimentation was
fundamentally different from that of the early Paleozoic
(Sempere, 1995). Compared with the underfilled marine
basin in the Devonian, the Carboniferous Chaco basin
was overfilled. The stratigraphy is dominated by glacial
Figure 5—Data point analysis for the Paraná basin, Brazil.
(a) Depositional pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels. (b)
Basement subsidence rate. Numbers as in Figure 4;
location shown in Figure 2.
deposits (Helwig, 1972; Castanos and Rodrigo, 1980).
Permian sedimentation continued at a slower rate and
ended with a marine transgression. The Bolivian region
was little affected by the Triassic and Jurassic events of
the Andean belt. There are few sedimentary rocks of this
age in the central part of the basin, although they may
have been stripped by Early Cretaceous erosion, which is
marked by a major unconformity. Subsidence has
continued episodically to the present. A major increase in
the rate of subsidence in the late Tertiary coincided with
renewed uplift of the Andes (Lohmann, 1970; Urien et
al., 1981; Cobbing, 1985).
Compared with the Bolivian data, the Paraná basin
(Figure 5) followed a significantly different subsidence
and depositional pattern (Northfleet et al., 1969; Fulfaro
et al., 1982; Goulart and Jardim, 1982). The early
Paleozoic subsidence that was so significant in the
Bolivian basin had little or no effect in the Paraná.
Silurian glaciation left a thin cover of mainly continental
rocks. In the Paraná basin, the Devonian was a time of
marine deposition and source rock accumulation.
Compared with the vigorous subsidence in the Bolivian
basin, Paraná subsidence was relatively slight. This is
reflected in the Devonian stratigraphic columns: 3200 m
in Bolivia compared with 1050 m in the Paraná basin.
However, post-Devonian regional erosion was as signifi-
cant. This unconformity implies a widespread tectonic
event (Miliani, 1992). The Precordillera, Chilenia, and
Patagonian terranes are believed to have been translated
southward to their present locations during this time.
During the Carboniferous, the Paraná basin was
subjected to greater subsidence and was inundated with
great thicknesses of glaciofluvial and glaciomarine rocks
(Franca and Potter, 1988). Permian subsidence was much
greater in the Paraná basin than in the Bolivian Chaco.
Excellent source rocks of the Irati Formation were
deposited in this interior seaway. Triassic subsidence
was minor and mainly continental (Zalan et al., 1990).
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana
Figure 6—Data point analysis for the Huallaga Basin, Peru.
(a) Depositional pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels. (b)
Basement subsidence rate. Numbers as in Figure 4;
location shown in Figure 2.
Figure 6 shows the depositional and subsidence
pattern of the Huallaga basin of Peru (Vargas, 1988),
located on the western flank of the Brazilian shield. The
data point is east of the locus of Cambrian–Ordovician,
Devonian, and Early Carboniferous tectonism. In its
early history, subsidence resembled that of the Paraná
basin, with thin lower Paleozoic rocks blanketing a
basement that apparently had high lithospheric rigidity
and low subsidence rates. Slightly higher subsidence
rates occurred in the Permian and Triassic. It was not
until the Cretaceous and Tertiary that rapid subsidence
occurred in response to development of the fold and
thrust mountain belt.
There are major differences in the appearance of the
curves derived from the Chaco, Paraná, and Huallaga
basins that resulted directly from their relative positions
and the changing tectonic stress fields of South America.
Each basin responded differently to the stress fields
resulting from the same basic tectonic events. Each
response is due to differences in basement composition
and lithospheric rigidity, distance from the tectonic
driving force, different stress orientations relative to the
crustal fabrics, and different sedimentary sources.
A data point analysis from the Permian basin of West
Texas (Matchus and Jones, 1984) is shown in Figure 7.
This basin had a passive margin setting throughout most
of the Paleozoic. A curve for the Amazon basin of Brazil
(Mosmann et al., 1986) is included for comparison (top
dashed line in Figure 7). The geologic histories of these
two seemingly unrelated regions of the world are
surprisingly similar. Both were facing the Pacific Ocean
during most of the Paleozoic and have similar patterns of
subsidence. About 2100 m of sediment accumulated in
each basin from Cambrian–Ordovician to Carboniferous
time. The curves confirm that each basin was on a
trailing edge, thermally subsiding margin during this
time. Subsidence was slow and decreased with time. In
the middle Carboniferous–Permian, both basins were
83
Figure 7—Data point analysis for the Permian basin, West
Texas, and the eastern Amazon basin, Brazil. (a) Deposi-
tional pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels. (b) Basement
subsidence rate. The upper dashed line is the tectonic
subsidence curve for a data point in the Amazon basin of
Brazil for comparison. Numbers as in Figure 4; location
shown in Figure 2.
subjected to increasing subsidence rates. The Triassic was
marked by a significant decrease in the rate of subsi-
dence and a change to continental deposition.
Both of these regions were subjected to similar
tectonic processes in the Paleozoic. Both overlie conti-
nental crust that was attenuated at the end of the
Precambrian (β = 1.4). Devonian tectonism was not
significant. In Carboniferous time, North and South
America converged as part of Pangea. This tectonic
episode, and accretion of the Mexican and Central
American microplates west of the two basins, is reflected
in new and increasing rates of subsidence. Both regions
were subjected to similar amounts of stress, although
neither data point was close to the edge of its respective
microplate. The margins of the two microplates
underwent considerably more tectonism and deforma-
tion than at the data points themselves. By Triassic time,
the stress regimes in the two basins had decreased in
magnitude.
The depositional and subsidence data from South
Africa (Figure 8) illustrates development of the Cape and
Karoo basins (Dingle et al., 1983). The subsidence event
that initiated the development of the early Paleozoic
Cape basin reactivated Eocambrian Pan-African fabrics
(Tankard et al., 1995). The entire lower Paleozoic section
was deposited along an extensional trailing edge margin.
A major unconformity at the end of the Devonian was
the result of uplift and erosion of significant amounts of
the pre-Karoo section. Ramos (1986) correlates this latest
Devonian diastrophism with accretion of the Chilenia
terrane in southern South America. This is also the time
when the Malvinas (Falkland) Plateau (believed to have
been part of the Patagonian microplate) was accreted to
the edge of the South African Kaapvaal craton and
provided a provenance for Karoo foreland basin sedi-
84 Williams

Figure 8—Data point analysis for southern Africa. (a) Depo-
sitional pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels. (b) Basement
subsidence rate. Numbers as in Figure 4; location shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 9—Data point analysis for two locations in Antarc-
tica. (a) Depositional pattern. See Figure 1 for curve labels.
(b) Basement subsidence rate. Solid curve, Pensacola
Mountains; dashed curve, north Transantarctic Mountains.
Numbers as in Figure 4; location shown in Figure 2.

Figure 10—Index map for Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil showing the location of the regional cross section and positions
of the principal basins and uplifts During the Paleozoic, the Chaco-Tarija, Chaco-Paraná, and Paraná basin complex was
continuous. They were separated by Mesozoic extension.

mentation (DeWit and Ransome, 1992). Dwyka sedimen-
tation suggests a highland source area to the south
(Visser, 1987). Continued compressional tectonics in the
Late Permian and Triassic resulted in the Cape foldbelt
and its counterpart in South America, the Ventana fold-
belt (Ramos, 1986). Triassic subsidence is attributed to
extensional processes that resulted from orogenic
collapse.
Curves from two data points in Antarctica (St. John,
1986; Bradshaw and Webers, 1988) are illustrated in
Figure 9. The same tectonic episodes affected both but in
different ways depending on their distance from the
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana
Figure 11—Regional cross section for Silurian–Carbonif-
erous time slices. Location shown in Figure 10. Stars show
the top of the oil generative window.
source of the stress and the stress orientation. Three
major episodes of subsidence are recognized in these
curves. The first occurs only in the Pensacola Mountains
where a Cambrian–Ordovician succession indicates
extensional subsidence. In the Devonian, tectonic reacti-
vation of the Wilson terrane caused an episode of rapid
subsidence. An unconformity or very slow subsidence in
the Early Carboniferous characterizes this part of Antarc-
tica. It is attributed to accretion of the Patagonian terrane
and possibly some parts of the Antarctic Peninsula onto
the main Gondwana landmass. Subduction of oceanic
crust below the Antarctic continental crust in the
Permian may be the reason for an increased subsidence
rate. This event affected the marginal northern
Transantarctic Mountains more than the other area. In
both areas, subsidence essentially ceased in the Triassic
with formation of an unconformity.
85
Figure 12—Regional cross section for Permian–Triassic
time slices. Location shown in Figure 10. Stars, top of oil
generative window; equal signs, depth to 93˚C.
Sequential Cross Sections
The location of a composite cross section for the
Chaco-Paraná latitudes is shown in Figure 10. This cross
section (Figures 11, 12, 13) illustrates the regional nature
of the unconformities and the stratigraphic relationships.
It traverses the Chaco basin of northern Argentina,
crosses the Asuncion arch of Paraguay and the Paraná
basin of southern Brazil, and continues to the Ponta
Grossa arch near the coast. The western part is in
northern Argentina, south of the principal depocenter of
the Bolivian Chaco basin. The section is composed of 14
data points spread over 1500 km. The data include seven
wells on the section, three outcrops, and four points
derived from regional structural and isopach mapping.
Where possible, these data points are calibrated to the
geochemical data, which indicate former depth of burial
86 Williams
Figure 13—Regional cross section for Jurassic–Recent
time slices. Location shown in Figure 10. Stars, top of oil
generative window; equal signs, depth to 93˚C; plus signs,
base of oil generative window.
and locally may constrain the paleogeothermal gradient
(Malizia et al., 1993). Four points were available for this
type of calibration along the cross section.
Figure 11A shows the modeled configuration along
this profile at the end of Silurian time (about 408 Ma). The
Asuncion arch in the middle of the section formed the
hingeline and eastern margin of the Silurian basin. The
Chaco-Paraná basin and the Chaco basin were yoked
together in the early Paleozoic before Mesozoic extension
separated them (Starck, 1995). The early Paleozoic pattern
of deposition where the section thickens dramatically to
the west across the Asuncion arch in the direction of the
Bolivian basin continued into the Devonian (Figure 11B).
This established the basin architectural pattern by the end
of the first major depositional sequence. Figure 11C
(about 340 Ma) shows the structural and stratigraphic
relationships at the pre-Carboniferous unconformity. This
unconformity was significant to the basins on either side
of the arch. There is much more section preserved west of
the Asuncion arch than on the east, partially reflecting
original deposition, tectonism, and erosion. The section
crosses the Las Brenas basin of Pezzi and Mozetic (1989),
which has a thick lower Paleozoic section preserved
(point 6 in Figure 10).
Following the major unconformity, the basins
subsided again beneath a varying thickness of Carbonif-
erous and Permian sediments (Figures 11D, 12A). The
Asuncion arch is the major positive feature on this
profile. This arch and a highland east of the coast were
scoured by Carboniferous glaciers (Visser, 1987; Franca
and Potter, 1988). The Paraná basin developed a distinct
separate identity only in the Carboniferous. The
thickness of the Carboniferous–Permian section that was
deposited and then removed by erosion was not directly
measured. The thicknesses presented here are based on
regional analysis and mapping and are partially
constrained by maturity modeling.
The post-Permian unconformity (Figure 12B) was a
major tectonic event that left the Paraná basin isolated as
a separate depocenter. The Asuncion arch was uplifted
and eroded at this time, much more so than the Ponta
Grossa arch. A significant volume of sediment was also
preserved in the Chaco basin. Overlying the Permian
rocks is the Triassic continental succession (Figure 12C).
This part of the stratigraphy contains widespread
eolianite deposits, indicating an arid paleogeography.
The Serra Geral Formation (Figure 13A) is reported to be
the world’s largest accumulation of basaltic flows on
continental crust. These extrusives cover almost all of the
Paraná basin of Brazil and extend into the Chaco-Paraná
basin in the subsurface. By the end of the Cretaceous
(Figure 13C), erosion had stripped much of this volcanic
layer from the Paraná basin. The Chaco and Paraná
basins subsided in the Cretaceous. Figure 13D shows the
present configuration of the profile.
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS
The paleogeographic maps presented here (Figures
14–21) are based on work by Scotese et al. (1979). South
polar reconstructions were used, with the south pole at
the center. Africa was arbitrarily designated as “up” on
the Gondwana reconstructions. Microplates that did not
interact with Gondwana were not analyzed. The maps
summarize the paleogeography for seven Phanerozoic
time slices.
Ordovician Paleogeography
Figure 14 shows a Gondwana reconstruction for the
Ordovician, approximately 475 Ma. Gondwana was the
southern continent, with the North American and
European landmasses more equatorial. Lash (1987) has
described the collision between North America and
Europe. A volcanic arc appears to have been present off
the northern margin of Gondwana, the remnants of
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana 87

Figure 14—Paleogeographic map for the Ordovician, 475 Ma. Legend is for Figures 14–21. Data for the presence of glaciation
at each time interval came from various sources, principally Caputo and Crowell (1985), Chatterjee and Hotton (1986), St.
John (1986), and Van Houten and Hargraves (1987).
88 Williams
which are now located in the Andes of Colombia (Burgl,
1967; Barrett, 1988). A large ice cap is believed to have
been located in central Africa based on numerous glacial
indicators shown on the paleogeographic reconstruction.
An oceanward-dipping subduction zone was present
along the Antarctic and Australian margin (Veevers,
1980; Kleinschmidt and Tessensohn, 1987). Other authors
infer the presence of a landward-dipping subduction
zone at this time (St. John, 1986). The Wilson terrane was
accreted onto Antarctica along the Ocloyic-Ross-
Delamerian-Adelaide orogenic belt (Figure 14) (Coira et
al., 1982; Stump, 1987).
A large landmass is believed to have existed west of
present-day Peru and Bolivia in the Ordovician and is
shown in Figure 14 as the Patagonian block. It has been
variously described in the literature as the Arequipa
massif (Cobbing, 1985; Isaacson, 1975), Belen and Mejil-
lones (Ramos, 1986), southeast Pacific paleocontinent
(Dalmayrac, 1988), proto-Puna (Herve et al., 1987), and
Pampean massif (Helwig, 1972). At that time, there was
no continental landmass forming the southern tip of
South America (Ramos, 1989; Visser, 1993). Ordovician
extension affected the southwestern margin of
Gondwana, forming a tract of intracratonic rift basins in
Bolivia and northern Argentina (Cobbing, 1985; Dal-
mayrac, 1988; DeWit and Ransome, 1992). Over 7 km of
sediments accumulated in this rapidly subsiding rift
system. Rifting was extensive, but not enough to create
oceanic crust. Counterclockwise rotation of a portion of
the remaining remnant of the Arequipa massif is
recorded as having occurred in latest Cambrian–Early
Ordovician time (Forsythe et al., 1993). A small volume
of Ordovician volcanics is present in the Bolivian Andes
(Padula, 1972). The landward margin of the rift system
was probably marked by the Asuncion arch. The
regional cross section (Figures 11–13) suggests a
threefold increase in the thickness of the sedimentary
section west of the Asuncion arch in Paraguay.
This inferred highland west of the Bolivian rift system
was a source area for the voluminous clastic rocks that
filled the basin (Cobbing, 1985). The Brazilian shield was
probably not elevated enough to form a substantial
source area (Figures 5, 6). To the south, the Pampeanas
terrane was the site of major volcanic activity attributed
to an accreting island arc (Acenolaza, 1976; Coira et al.,
1982; Ramos et al., 1986; Herve et al., 1987; Wilner et al.,
1987)
Middle Silurian Glaciation
The Middle Silurian (Figure 15) was a time of wide-
spread glaciation about 425 Ma (Grahn and Caputo,
1992). The distribution of these glacial sediments
suggests that the south pole was centered in the interior
of Africa near the center of the landmass (Caputo and
Crowell, 1985; Van Houten and Hargraves, 1987; Cocks
and Fortney, 1988). Minor accretion occurred along the
Antarctic and Australian margin of Gondwana. This
tectonic event has been referred to as the Borchgrevink–
Tasman orogen (St. John, 1986). Some Silurian outcrops
in the Andes (e.g., the association of Silurian warm water
limestones and Silurian diamictites) indicate the possi-
bility of lateral displacement (Martinez, 1980). This lateral
faulting episode is postulated to have occurred in the
early Carboniferous.
Volcanics in the Sierras Pampeanas terrane of Argen-
tina indicate that extensional activity persisted into the
Silurian (Ramos et al., 1986). Subsidence continued in the
Bolivian Chaco basin as shown by the tectonic subsi-
dence curves. However, the rate was much slower than
in the Cambrian–Ordovician, indicating that extension
was superseded by a cooling phase. Sand-prone facies
are more prevalent on the southwestern margin of the
basin than along its northeastern flank (Cobbing, 1985).
This was a continuation of the pattern established in the
Cambrian–Ordovician.
Devonian Paleogeography
Devonian marine shales (380 Ma) are the best known
source rocks in the Bolivian and northern Argentinean
producing basins (Illich et al., 1981), and sandstones of
that age are significant reservoirs. Consequently, the
Devonian has significant commercial interest. Shales of
Devonian age also form source rocks for hydrocarbons in
the Permian and Anadarko basins of North America
(Schmoker, 1986) and in the Amazon basin of Brazil
(Mosmann et al., 1986).
The south pole was located on the margin of
Gondwana in the Devonian (Figure 16) (Scotese et al.,
1979). The climate was warmer and the ice caps slightly
smaller than in the Silurian. Glacial deposits have been
reported from the Amazon basin (Mosmann et al., 1986;
Van Houten and Hargraves, 1987; Veevers and Powell,
1987) at a latitude close to 30˚S on the reconstructions of
Scotese et al. (1979). Glacial diamictites occur in the
Upper Devonian of the Solimoes (western Amazon) and
in the Amazon and Parnaiba basins of Brazil. This was
most likely in a temperate climatic zone. The occurrences
are in an east-west trending tract of basins and are attrib-
uted to Alpine glaciation along their southern margin.
The Brazilian shield is also believed to have supported
glaciers.
Colombia was characterized by marine shale deposi-
tion in the Devonian and an Appalachian fauna similar
to counterparts in North America (Copper, 1977; Barrett,
1988; Van Der Voo, 1988). The Gondwana Malvinokaffric
faunal province and the Appalachian faunal province are
believed to have been separated by the same topographic
high that separated the Bolivian and Amazon basins. The
Devonian of South Africa was dominated by deltaic
deposition (Theron and Loock, 1988). Marginal marine
environments persisted through most of the Devonian.
Devonian rocks deposited in the Chaco and Chaco-
Paraná basins were derived from the Brazilian shield as
well as a western source terrane. Sandstone facies are
more abundant along the basin margins (Cobbing, 1985).
The Chaco-Paraná basin of Paraguay contains a largely
argillaceous fill. In the Chaco basin of Bolivia and north-
western Argentina, the western orogen was the primary
source of sediment (Mingramm et al., 1972; Isaacson,
1975; Sempere, 1995). In fact, the western source was
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana 89

Figure 15—Paleogeographic map for the Middle Silurian, 425 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.

considerably more substantial than the present-day
Andean belt (Isaacson, 1975). This voluminous sediment
supply was accommodated by a greater rate of subsi-
dence in the Bolivian Chaco basin, as shown by the
tectonic subsidence curves (Figure 4). The present author
believes that this enormous volume of sediments is
explained by a growing orogen augmented by the Pata-
gonian microplate which was then located west of
northern Chile and Peru (Figure 16). Bird and Molenaar
(1992) have resorted to a similar interpretation to explain
a northerly source of sediments for the Paleozoic North
Slope of Alaska.
Figure 16 shows the Patagonian terrane west of the
Peru–Chile coast and west of the Arequipa massif. The
Chilenia terrane of Ramos et al. (1986), located just to the
south of the Patagonian terrane, is believed to have
moved to its present position along a strike-slip system.
Intrusive and extrusive volcanics are present along the
Sierras Pampeanas and along the western margin of the
subsiding Chaco basin (Ramos et al., 1986; Wilner et al.,
1987). Late Devonian uplift also affected the Amazon
basin region. This interpretation implies that there was
no continental crust forming the southern tip of South
America. Devonian compressional tectonics in northern
Argentina are referred to as the Chanic orogeny (Coira et
al., 1982; Cobbing, 1985).
An isolated remnant of the Devonian warm water
Appalachian fauna is present west of the Arequipa
massif in southern Peru (Cobbing, 1985). This assem-
blage best matches analogous outcrops in Ecuador. This
90 Williams
Figure 16—Paleogeographic map for the Devonian, 380 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.
outcrop appears to be located on one of the many
displaced terranes that underwent southward transla-
tion.
Early Carboniferous Paleogeography
At the end of the Devonian about 340 Ma, a major
change in the paleogeography of Gondwana occurred
(Figure 17). It is characterized by a widespread unconfor-
mity. Evidence is abundant that several intracratonic
highland regions developed in South America at this
time. Translation of the various terranes to their present
positions in southern South America and Antarctica also
probably occurred at this time.
Interaction between the major plates of Pangea
created the Appalachian orogeny of eastern North
America (Hatcher, 1988). Thrust faulting occurred as far
south as the Ouachita Mountains of the Arkoma basin
where deformation was relayed to oceanic crust between
North America and Gondwana (Thomas and Schenk,
1988). Stresses relayed from the linked oceanic crust also
affected the landmass as far away as the Amazon basin
region (Figure 7). It is likely that the oceanic crust of the
Pacific region changed from passive cooling to active
subduction at this time. All tectonic subsidence curves in
this paper (Figures 1, 4–9) show a simultaneous uncon-
formity. Interactions between the major plates of the
oceanic Pacific region and those of continental
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana 91

Figure 17—Paleogeographic map for the base Carboniferous unconformity, 340 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.

Gondwana were the driving force for this tectonic episode.
Southward translation of the microplates from their
initial positions west of the Arequipa massif to their
respective locations in Patagonia and Antarctica
probably occurred during the Late Devonian and Early
Carboniferous. The precise timing is obscured by
younger tectonism, deformation, and erosion. However,
this history is recorded in a major unconformity that
spans much of southwestern Gondwana. This is the
Eohercynian unconformity of some authors (Lopez-
Gamundi and Rossello, 1993).
Figure 18 shows an attempt to reconstruct this terrane
translational history, although the order in which these
microplates moved is speculative. It is probable that the
Precordillera terrane moved at an early stage because it
was outboard of the large western terrane and accumu-
lated carbonates on a trailing margin in the Ordovician.
Extensive deformation affected its western margin after
emplacement. The Patagonian, Chilenian, and other
associated terranes probably moved later. The Paganzo
basin is located on the northern boundary of the
Precordilleran terrane. It subsided rapidly in the
Namurian (Archangelsky et al., 1987) immediately after
accretion of the displaced terranes and may reflect a
period of local extension. Volcanics and inferred
magmatic arc rocks possibly record accretion of the
Patagonian–Malvinas terrane complex 340 Ma (Ramos,
1986). In this context, the train of volcanics marks the
92 Williams
Figure 18—Inferred reorganization of terranes. PB,
Paganzo basin. 1, Precordillera; 2, Patagonia; 3, Chillenia;
4, Parts of Antarctica and other scattered terranes.
suture zone. The terrane boundary of the northern edge
of Patagonia is south of the Sierra de la Ventana and is
obscured by younger sedimentary deposits. The absence
of contemporaneous compressional deformation
suggests that the left-lateral movement had a transten-
sional sense of behavior.
Several highland or mountainous areas owe their
uplift to this tectonic episode. Examples include the
Asuncion arch and the region of the truncated Arequipa
massif (Messner and Wooldridge, 1964; Franca and
Potter, 1988). These highlands formed local glacial
centers at various times during the Carboniferous.
This interpretation of the Patagonian block is based on
Martinez (1980), but it differs from his in that translation
is believed to have occurred over a short period of time
in the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous during the
Chanic tectonic episode. The present interpretation
involves several small blocks. Besides the left-lateral
scheme emphasized here, there were apparently also
local right-lateral movements (Acenolaza and Toselli,
1976; Ramos, 1989). These opposing senses of displace-
ment are not mutually exclusive and are common in
wrench fault terranes, such as the Garlock fault in the
Death Valley area of California (King, 1977).
Carboniferous Paleogeography
The Carboniferous reconstruction (Figure 19) shows
the paleogeography at about 290 Ma for one of the many
glacial maxima that affected Gondwana. That waxing
and waning of ice sheets occurred on numerous occasions
is shown by the large number of cyclothems in Kansas
and Oklahoma that have been attributed to glacial
eustatic sea level oscillations and the effects of tectonism
(Lopez-Gamundi, 1989; Klein and Kupperman, 1992).
Gondwana was subjected to continental ice sheets
(Veevers and Powell, 1987; Visser, 1987; Eyles et al., 1995).
Pangea was fully assembled at this time (Figure 19).
The Amazon basin subsided rapidly as a result of
convergence of the two supercontinents as well as subsi-
dence along the western margin of the continent
(Mosmann et al., 1986). Low hills fringed the southern
margin of the basin; these were erosional remnants of the
earlier mountain belt that had been the source of glacial
deposits in the basin (Figure 17). There was also signifi-
cant tectonism along the Antarctic–Australian margin as
a result of landward-dipping subduction, reflected in
volcanics and mountain building (St. John, 1986; Veevers
and Powell, 1987; Audley-Charles, 1988).
There is significant commercial oil and gas production
from Carboniferous glaciofluvial rocks in Oman (Levell
et al., 1988) and from the Chaco and Tarija basins of
Bolivia and northern Argentina. Both regions were
located at about 30˚ S lat during the Carboniferous, at the
limit of glacial influence. Based on experience in Bolivia, I
suggest that in both regions the deposits were sourced by
mountain glaciation. The paleogeography of the western
Chaco basin consisted of wide glaciofluvial valleys with
northward-flowing streams (Helwig, 1972; Tankard et
al., 1995). The depositional landscape consisted of valleys
up to 500 m deep that were filled with stacked glacioflu-
vial complexes, lacustrine shales that were locally
varved, and glacial diamictites with striated clasts. It was
an extremely sand-prone depositional setting but which
became more argillaceous to the north (Castanos and
Rodrigo, 1980). Glaciers are believed to have existed in
the fold and thrust belt that formed the western flank of
the Chaco basin and on the elevated cratonic highlands
to the east.
There were several marine incursions deep into the
interior of South American Gondwana (Northfleet et al.,
1969; Frakes and Crowell, 1972; Soares et al., 1977; Franca
and Potter, 1988). The incursions into the Paraná basin of
southern Brazil are well documented. These seas
probably flooded from the south (Figure 19).
Glacial marine and glaciofluvial depositional systems
influenced the Paraná basin of southern Brazil and
northern Argentina (Mingramm et al., 1972; Soares et al.,
1977). In South Africa, the same evidence of massive
glaciation is preserved (Visser, 1987). According to
Dingle et al. (1983), the Cape foldbelt in South Africa and
its counterpart, the Ventana foldbelt in Argentina, both
began deformation at this time by inversion of older
extensional depocenters. This deformation is attributed
to readjustment of the accreted microplates of the Pata-
gonian block.
Permian Paleogeography
Pangea was influenced by a wide variety of stresses in
the Permian at about 250 Ma as a precursor to the frag-
mentation that would occur in the Mesozoic (Veevers et
al., in press). The south pole was located off Antarctica
(Scotese et al., 1979; Caputo and Crowell, 1985) (Figure
20), which resulted in a warmer climate than in Carbonif-
erous–Early Permian time. Glaciation was more
restricted (Veevers and Powell, 1987).
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana 93

Figure 19—Paleogeographic map for the Carboniferous, 290 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.

A major orogenic episode affected the southwestern
margin of Gondwana in the middle Permian–Triassic
interval (Lawver and Scotese, 1987). A broad tract of fold
mountains was created in Australia, Antarctica, southern
Africa, and South America by selective inversion of older
extensional basins. It is believed that there was a left-
lateral component of shearing in South America that
reflects adjustments of the Patagonian terrane (Figure 20).
This strike-slip behavior may also explain the juxtaposi-
tion of reefal carbonates and cold water faunas (Helwig,
1972; Martinez, 1980). Sedimentary basins were yoked
together along this tectonic belt (Veevers, 1980). Extrusive
and intrusive volcanics were relatively common along the
continental margin.
Permian glaciation along the margin of Antarctica and
Australia deposited sediments in a back-arc basin setting
that was apparently related to landward-dipping
subduction (Elliot, 1975). The island arc system died out
during the Permian. By the end of the Permian, there
was an active subduction zone along the northern
margin of Australia (Veevers, 1980; Audley-Charles,
1988). The Permian was also a time of shrinking glaciers
and climate amelioration.
In India, a radiating suite of rift basins was invaded by
a marine transgression (Chatterjee and Hotton, 1986).
This extensional system and the interior rift of Australia’s
Cooper basin (Wopfner, 1981) reflect the tectonic linkage
across Gondwana or the farfield effects of intraplate
94 Williams
Figure 20—Paleogeographic map for the Permian, 250 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.
stresses (Cloetingh, 1988).
Parts of the Bolivian Chaco basin subsided during the
Permian, while other parts appear to have been eroded.
The shallow Copacabana seaway collected terrigenous
clastics and carbonate sediments as well as volcanic
detritus (Cobbing, 1985). The sequence thickens toward
the northwest and Peru (Castanos and Rodrigo, 1980).
Overall, the subsidence of the Chaco basin was minimal.
In contrast, the Paraná basin subsided continuously
during the Permian. Several internal arches and local
depocenters reacted differently to prevailing stress fields.
In particular, the Asuncion, Ponta Grossa, and Rio Grande
arches were periodically uplifted so that sediments
onlapped and blanketed them (Gama et al., 1982).
Permian tectonism and volcanism were widespread
along the length of southern South America (Martinez,
1980; Coira et al., 1982; Ramos et al., 1986). A wide band
of volcaniclastics, basic flows, intrusives, and shearing
occurs north of the Patagonian terrane in southern
Argentina (Miller, 1981). The progressive accretion of
terranes is recorded in the radiometric ages that get
younger in that direction (Forsythe, 1982; Herve et al.,
1987).
The most promising hydrocarbon source rock in the
Paraná basin is the Irati Formation (Padula, 1969). It has
been sufficiently deeply buried to be mature over a large
part of the basin (Cerqueira and Neto, 1986). In South
Africa, the equivalent of the Irati formation is the
 Tectonic Subsidence Analysis and Paleozoic Paleogeography of Gondwana 95

Figure 21—Paleogeographic map for the Triassic, 200 Ma. Legend same as in Figure 14.

Whitehill formation of the Karoo basin (Anderson and
McLachlan, 1979). The glacial deposits of the Paraná
Itarare Formation are equivalent to the Dwyka Group of
South Africa.
The Cape foldbelt was initiated during the Permian.
Cratonward, the flexural Karoo basin subsided in
response to an applied load. Dingle et al. (1983) have
suggested that the Malvinas plateau south of the Karoo
basin also formed a highland. Continued compression
and inversion of the Cape foldbelt is attributed to adjust-
ments of the Patagonian terrane resulting from
continued oceanic–continental plate interactions
End of Triassic Paleogeography
Continental conditions prevailed throughout
Gondwana during the Triassic, leaving a widespread
record of eolianites and redbeds (Figure 21). A large
unconformity at about 200 Ma marks the base of the
Mesozoic over most regions (Padula, 1972; Milani, 1992).
Extension affected Patagonia and Africa. Volcanic
activity occurred locally. The landmass was farther from
the south pole, which explains the warmer climates
(Scotese et al., 1979).
Mountain building by intracratonic inversion
96 Williams
continued into the Triassic. In southern Africa and
southern South America, inversion was a selective
process and affected basins that were already offset
across accommodation zones. The result was an irregular
orogen with marked offsets (Tankard et al., 1995). Later
Triassic extension by orogenic collapse affected both
sides of the Atlantic. Basins such as the Cuyo in
Patagonia and the Moltero in South Africa were land-
locked and accumulated organic-rich lacustrine source
rocks and braided fluvial deposits shed from the orogen
(Uliana and Biddle, 1987; Tankard et al., 1995). In Antarc-
tica, several terranes display strike-slip and transpres-
sional movements related to Triassic subduction (Elliot,
1975; Wilson et al., 1989).
SUMMARY
The southern part of South America and the margin of
Antarctica were apparently built by a mélange of exotic
terranes and microplates that were originally located
west of the present-day Arequipa massif in Chile. These
terranes formed the western edge of Gondwana until the
end of the Devonian. In the early Paleozoic, the region
was affected by intracratonic rifting. Separation and
southward translation of the terranes is marked by a
conspicuous Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous uncon-
formity. The younger Paleozoic paleogeographies are
very different as a result of the movement of large land-
masses along the continental margin. The resulting
tectonism and plate readjustments culminated in the
Permian–Triassic Ventana and Cape foldbelts. The later
Mesozoic was marked by rifting and the breakup of
Gondwana.
Ordovician rifting in the Bolivian Chaco basin caused
the accumulation of more than 7000 m of sediments. A
large percentage of these deposits had its source from a
large landmass located west of the present edge of South
America. I believe that this landmass consisted of a
mosaic of terranes, including those that would eventu-
ally build Patagonia and the Antarctic Peninsula. In
Silurian time, the Chaco basin continued to subside and
accumulate sediment from the Patagonian microplate.
Glaciation occurred over large parts of the continent. In
the Devonian, higher rates of subsidence in the Chaco
basin are attributed to subduction of oceanic crust to the
west of the Patagonian microplate. The Devonian
sequence contains prominent source and reservoir rocks
in the Chaco and Amazon basins. The Late Devonian–
Early Carboniferous unconformity represents the time of
lateral southward translation of the Patagonian,
Precordillera, and other terranes to approximately their
present positions. Highlands were created in the interior
of Gondwana as a result of intraplate stresses.
The Carboniferous was characterized by overfilled
sand-prone basins and widespread glaciation (Figure 19).
Waxing and waning of ice sheets deposited repeated
cyclothems. On the fringes of the ice sheet, mountain
glaciers were an important source of sediments in Oman
and Bolivia. In Permian time, mountain building,
volcanism, and emplacement of batholiths imply
subduction along the margin of the continent. Organic-
rich shales formed in the intracratonic basins (e.g., Irati
shales of Brazil and Whitehill shales of South Africa).
Nonmarine conditions prevailed over much of the
continent during the Triassic.
Acknowledgments I thank Glenn Ware and Don Irwin for
their support and Oscar Lopez-Gamundi for discussions on
some of the concepts pursued in this paper. Jim Kotchavar
drafted the paleogeographic maps. Margy Walsh is thanked for
her library searches. I also wish to thank Texaco for support
and permission to publish this paper.
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 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and
Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems

James L. Pindell Kenneth D. Tabbutt

Department of Earth Sciences Evergreen State College
Dartmouth College Olympia, Washington, U.S.A.
Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A.

Abstract

P alinspastic paleogeographic maps of western and northern South America, including the entire 8500-km
“Andean system” from Trinidad to Cape Horn, are presented for nine Mesozoic–Cenozoic time
intervals. The maps show (1) the spatial record of formational lithostratigraphic units; (2) continental, shallow
marine, and deeper marine paleoenvironments and the location of active magmatic arcs through time; (3)
progressive structural and tectonic development; (4) relative motions of adjacent plates affecting the Andes;
and (5) paleolatitude. Phases and causes of geologic development are summarized from the maps and other
information. Depositional systems are related to tectonic evolution, with implications drawn for hydrocarbon
systems and history. It is shown that tectonic, depositional, and hydrocarbon histories are closely interrelated,
having occurred in fairly discrete pulses through time, each with its own significance to hydrocarbon potential.

Resumen

S e presentan mapas paleogeográficos palinspasticos de Suramerica septentrional y occidental, de todo el

“Sistema Andino” de 8500 km de largo desde Trinidad hasta el Cabo de Horno, para 9 intervalos de
tiempo del Mesozoico-Cenozoico. Los mapas muestran: La distribución de las unidades litostratigráficas
formacionales; paleoambientes continentales, marinos someros, y marinos mas profundos y la ubicación de los
arcos magmáticos a través del tiempo; el desarrollo progresivo estructural y tectónico; los movimientos
relativos de las placas adyacentes afectando los Andes; y las paleolatitud. Se resumen las fases y las causas del
desarrollo geológico a través de los mapas y de otra información. Se relacionan los sistemas deposicionales a la
evolución tectonica, y sus implicaciones para los sistemas y la historia hidrocarburifera. Las historias tectónicas,
deposicionales, y hidrocarburiferas estan intimamente relacionadas, habiendo occurrido en pulsos bastante-
mente discretos a través del tiempo, cada uno con su propio significado para el potencial hidrocarburifero.

INTRODUCTION tion of regional and local Phanerozoic geologic histories

During the period 1988–1992, we conducted an
extensive and comprehensive analysis of the Andean
system of western and northern South America (Pindell
et al., 1992) to refine the paleogeographic evolution, to
define the main tectonic and sedimentary relationships
controlling basin development, and to assess the hydro-
carbon history and habitat along the chain. That study
included the following elements: (1) up-to-date assess-
ments of relative and absolute plate motions, (2) creation
of an integrated paleogeographic database and plotting
program with over 8400 lithochronologic control points
compiled mainly from the public domain and our
personal studies, (3) palinspastic reconstruction of
Phanerozoic compressional and extensional bulk strain
and block displacements along the chain, (4) documenta-
and integration with modern concepts of geologic
processes, (5) in-depth assessments of Neogene–Recent
“Andean phase” strain and orogenic history, and (6)
considerations of hydrocarbon history and habitat along
strike. The present paper presents an abbreviated version
of the aforementioned study’s Mesozoic–Cenozoic paleo-
geographic assessment, regional tectonic history, and
aspects of basin development and hydrocarbon history.
Much of the length of the Andes has been the site of
arc magmatism during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time. It is
therefore useful to think of the Andes as an evolving arc
system whose development was dominated by arc
processes which were in turn controlled by the motion of
South America relative to the mantle and the adjacent
plates. We find that, in general, the concepts on arc
behavior synthesized by Dewey (1980) describe quite

Pindell, J. L., and Tabbutt, K. D., 1995, Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean paleogeography and 101
regional controls on hydrocarbon systems, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J.
Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 101–128.
102 Pindell and Tabbutt
well the successive periods of historical development of
the Andean chain. Dewey’s arc models stress the signifi-
cance of a kinematic framework defined by the position
of the subducting slab in the mantle. The motion of the
overriding plate (South America) relative to the slab
helps to control many elements of the arc, such as the dip
of the Benioff zone, topographic expression of the arc
system, convergent or divergent tectonics within the arc,
back-arc extension or foreland thrusting, chemistry and
intensity of magmatism, erodability of the arc as a source
of sediment, and sense of shear at trench-parallel faults
within the arc. Synthesis of these types of geologic obser-
vations at arc segments over time can be used to infer
past aspects of subduction and to iteratively deduce pale-
ogeographic development. These in turn can be applied
to understanding plate boundary history and basinal
dynamics, with direct implications for hydrocarbon
history and habitat. The synopsis presented here adheres
to this philosophy. It is useful for understanding regional
Andean evolution, arc behavior over time, and Andean
basinal dynamics with implications for hydrocarbon
systems.
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS
The goal of creating paleogeographic maps (Figures
1–9) is to portray the relative positions of plates, paleo-
sedimentation patterns and environments, structural and
tectonic features, paleolatitude, and other information as
it existed in the past. To improve the accuracy of spatial
reconstruction through time, it is necessary to estimate
and restore bulk strain by working backward in time so
that the maps represent palinspastic reconstructions of
geologic development. Creation of such maps involves a
fairly straightforward process of integration (Ziegler et
al., 1985; Pindell, 1985). Nevertheless, the methodology
we used to estimate bulk strain in the palinspastic recon-
structions deserves some explanation.
Palinspastic Reconstruction
Satisfactory assessment of former terrane accretion,
back-arc and inter-arc extension, intra-arc and foreland
shortening, and margin-parallel slip are the main
elements of bulk palinspastic reconstruction of strain. For
the Andes, our objective is to recreate the original
geographic and geometric attributes of depocenters and
structural provinces through time. This allows geologic
processes and systems to be more readily inferred
relative to inferences derived from the present-day
deformed geologic record.
Accreted terranes and episodes of Mesozoic–Cenozoic
accretion include the following:
1. The Caribbean nappes of northern South America,
diachronous Maastrichtian–Miocene accretion
(MacDonald et al., 1971; Tschanz et al., 1974;
Stephan et al., 1980; Case et al., 1984; Avé-
Lallemant, 1990; Pindell and Barrett, 1990)
(Figures 7–9)
2. The Amaime-Chaucha complex of the western
flank of the central Cordillera of Colombia and
northern Ecuador, Early Cretaceous accretion
(Aspden and McCourt, 1986) or Late Cretaceous
accretion, preferred here (see Pindell and Erikson,
1994) (Figures 5, 6)
3. The western Cordillera of Colombia, latest Creta-
ceous–early Paleogene accretion (Bourgois et al.,
1987; Daly, 1989; Pindell and Erikson, 1994)
(Figure 6)
4. The Panamanian arc and basement (Choco
terrane), Eocene?–Recent accretion (Pindell and
Dewey, 1982; Grosser, 1989; Pindell, 1993)
(Figures 7–9)
5. The Pinón Formation and Costa Province, Late
Cretaceous–early Paleogene accretion (Daly, 1989)
(Figures 3, 6)
6. Macuchi arc, northern Ecuador (Daly, 1989)
(Figure 5)
7. Rocas Verdes complex, southern Chile, Late Creta-
ceous back-arc closure and arc accretion (Dalziel,
1986) (Figures 2–5).
Prior to their respective times of accretion, these terranes
were not a part of the autochthonous South American
shield and are shown on the paleogeographic maps as
arriving or developing at the various times due to
relative plate motions.
To assess extension and shortening, we broke the
Andes south of central Colombia into 23 segments along
strike. We then assigned estimated azimuths and values
of shortening or extension for each segment by tectonic
event. Strain values were estimated for each segment
working back in time so that values were compounded
for each previous tectonic event. For example, values for
the late Miocene–Recent shortening range from 20–35
km for segments in Ecuador and southern Patagonia to
250–300 km for segments in the central Andes. Older
shortenings were then added to these values for the
appropriate times. Shortening was approximately
removed on the maps by homogeneously stretching each
segment in the direction opposite to shortening, as
estimated by structure and plate motions, if known.
Likewise, judging from red bed thicknesses and subse-
quent sedimentation rates due to thermal subsidence,
Triassic–Jurassic extension of a few tens of kilometers is
estimated for Ecuador to northern Argentina, ranging to
about 100 km for both the central Colombian segment
(eastern Cordilleran back-arc basin; Figures 2, 3) and the
collective rifts of southern Patagonia (Figures 1–3). In
these cases, extension was removed by closing individual
rifts between transfer zones.
Margin-parallel and other strike-slip offsets must also
be nested into the successive palinspastic restorations.
For example, the pre-Neogene reconstruction of the
numerous blocks between high-strain zones in the
northern Andes (central Colombia to western Venezuela)
is achieved by finite-difference solution (Dewey and
Pindell, 1985, 1986). The maps restore 110 km of dextral
shear and 25 km of shortening in the Merida Andes, 115
km of sinistral shear along the Santa Marta fault, 30 km
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems
of total shortening across Sierra Perijá, and 65 km of
dextral shear along the Oca fault, west of the Perijá
(Figure 9). Finite-difference solution with these values
yields a total shortening in the northernmost eastern
Cordillera of Colombia in excess of 150 km, with a net
direction toward the east-southeast.
In a system with as many diverse opinions on
evolution as the Andes, particularly in light of the
multiple deformation events, it is unrealistic to expect
different methods or biases of estimating strain to yield
bulk strain values through time that agree with high
precision. We can only strive at this point for internal
consistency in the methods applied, ensuring that the
values used are in line with most others offered. This
study has integrated numerous types of information in
the hopes of satisfying the majority of data. We are thus
confident that the successive palinspastic restorations
provide an autochthonous framework of features for the
past that is far closer to former reality than the present-
day geography of features and that allows a much more
accurate depiction of the original shapes and former rela-
tionships of basins and uplifts. Successive palinspastic
restorations can be seen on the maps by shifts in the
positions of the faint (present-day) and bolder (former)
geographic lines.
Construction of the Maps
Figures 1–9 are simplified reductions of more detailed
maps created in Mercator projection at 1:5,000,000. On
palinspastically restored base maps of western and
northern South America, these simplified maps show the
following features: (1) the migration of plates and
terranes that have affected the Andes, (2) paleosedimen-
tation patterns by paleoenvironment and formation
name, (3) designation of main source rock and reservoir
rock intervals, (4) primary structural and tectonic
features, (5) the trace of arc magmatism, and (6) paleolati-
tude. Faint geographic lines (coast lines, political bound-
aries, and lakes) are present-day positions; bolder equiv-
alents are relative paleopositions of the same. Depicted
paleoenvironments include continental, shallow marine
(less than ~200 m paleowater depth), deeper marine
(greater than ~200 m), and the axis of the magmatic arc,
which takes preference over other paleoenvironments
(e.g., the shallow marine Triassic Payande unit of Colom-
bia is covered by the arc pattern) (Figure 1).
The maps were created as follows. Phanerozoic time
(including the Paleozoic) was divided into 16 intervals
for which a general tectonic or depositional style
prevailed. The age of each map (in Ma) is shown in its
key and falls about midway within the time increment.
On geographic base maps, all of the lithochronologic
data in the databases (lithology, thickness, formation,
and contact relationships) within a given map’s time
increment, both isotopic and stratigraphic, were plotted
in present-day coordinates. Next, structures with known
ages matching the various time increments were added
in present-day coordinates. At this point, the maps were
present-day plots of lithologic and paleostructural data
for each increment in time.
103
Next, the base map geographic features, the struc-
tures, and the lithologic data were palinspastically
restored as previously outlined. The differences in the
positions of the faint and bolder geographic lines allow
visual observation of the palinspastic differences for each
segment along strike. Structural lines crossing segment
boundaries with different shortening values were then
made continuous by smoothing any offset that might
have existed after restoration. Paleoenvironment bound-
aries were drawn separating regions of equivalent paleo-
environment, indicated by the patterns, as defined by the
raw lithochronologic data. Paleolatitudes (after Scotese et
al., 1987), key cross sections, notes on paleogeographic
development, tectonic processes, and sandstone prove-
nance were then added to complete the 1:5,000,000 scale
maps. The Mesozoic and Cenozoic intervals of these
maps were then reduced and simplified to create Figures
1–9 in this paper. Lithochronologic data, notes, and cross
sections were removed, and formation names of regional
extent were added, with notations for source and
reservoir units. Thus, the maps in Figures 1–9 are graphi-
cally as accurate as the larger versions but lack the
control points, lithologic designations, and interpreta-
tional detail.
Phases of Paleogeographic Evolution
Primary Andean developments, their causal mecha-
nisms, and their impact on Andean hydrocarbon systems
are summarized in Table 1 and are more fully outlined in
the following paragraphs.
Beginning in the Late Permian in the central Andes
and continuing along the entire Andes by the Triassic,
back-arc extension formed a series of restricted troughs
(extensional arc in the sense of Dewey, 1980) in which red
beds, arc volcanics, and marine strata accumulated
(Figure 1). Some of the marine units such as the Santiago
and Pucara are, or were, oil-prone source rocks whose
deposition probably fits models of rifted basins with
marine access and restricted circulation. Other rift basins
farther south did not experience a marine transgression
and instead accumulated nonmarine organic-rich source
rock units such as the Los Molles Formation of the
Neuquén basin and, a little later, the Pozo D-129 unit of
the San Jorge basin (Figures 2, 3). In the north, westward-
propagating intracontinental rifting between Yucatan
and Venezuela heralded the Proto-Caribbean seaway,
which opened in a fan-like fashion (Figures 1, 2). In
Patagonia, a series of en-echelon rifts developed along
preexisting structural trends associated with pre-
Mesozoic accretion of arc terranes (Figures 1–3). This
period of extension and breakup is directly tied to the
breakup of Pangea: Andean back-arc extension was
probably due to subduction zone rollback, with which
the South American craton did not keep pace (Dewey,
1980). All of the back-arc troughs along the Andes
became sites of thermal subsidence in the Middle
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (Figure 2), depending on
location. Arc morphology was subdued, typically with
volcanic islands surrounded variably by marine
seaways.
104 Pindell and Tabbutt

Table 1—Main Andean Developments, Causes, and Impact on Hydrocarbon Systems

Andean Driving Cause of Impact on Hydrocarbon

Development Development Systems
Triassic–Jurassic Subduction zone rollback, Deposition of nonmarine/
rift basins along arc axis rifting from Yucatan marine source rocks in rift
and northern passive margin. during Pangean breakup. basins from Ecuador south.

Early Cretaceous expansion Thermal subsidence after Transgressive reservoir sand-

of epicontinental seas and area rifting, rising long-term stone deposition, carbonate
of sedimentation. eustasy. deposition, locally reservoir.

Albian onset of convergent Aptian onset of north Africa– Initial (Albian) source rock
tectonism and foredeep geometry South America separation deposition,central Andean
in central Andes. in equatorial Atlantic, foreland, continue transgressive
initiate convergent arc. reservoirs.

Middle Cretaceous drowning High long-term sea level, Best regional source rock int-
of northern shelf platform, distant strand lines, erval deposited regionally, in
expansion and deepening of starvation of clastic areas intersected by oxygen
epicontinental seas elsewhere. materials from depocenters. minimum zone.

Late Cretaceous arc collision
and onset of east-dipping
subduction in north and south,
begin foredeep geometry in Col-
ombia/western Venezuela and
southern Chile/Argentina, infilling
of epicontinental seaways.
Westward drift of South
America closed back-arcs,
convergence continued by
subduction at new Benioff
zones. Late Cret lowering
of long-term sea level.
End source rock deposition,
begin progradational reservoir
rock deposition as seas
regressed. Possible local onset
of maturation at thrust zones
and sedimentary buildups.

Paleogene removal of seas from
much of craton, uplift and creation
of continuous Andean barrier, begin
large scale eastward shedding of
detritus from Andes. Begin eastward
migrating foredeep in Venezuela.
Incaic uplift due to W accel-
eration of South America
across mantle, rapid sub-
duction rates. Onset of
oblique Caribbean collision.
Deposition of important
fluvial reservoirs in foreland
areas (sub-Andes), major
phase of maturation and east-
ward oil migration. Eastward
migrating maturation
mechanism in Venezuela.

Late middle Cenozoic waning of
orogenesis and foreland develop-
ment. Continue Caribbean fore-
deep migration.
Slowing of South America
across the mantle and of
subduction. Continue
Caribbean–South America
relative motion.
Filling of Incaic structures by
migration from Incaic kitchens,
deposition of additional fluvial
reservoirs in foreland.

Late Cenozoic rejuvenation Acceleration of South Second primary maturation

of orogenesis (Andean), rapid
uplift, molassic deposition and
foredeep development. Carib-
bean foredeep now in Maturin
and Trinidad area.
America across mantle
and of subduction rate,
and, in north, intensification
of Panamanian collision.
Progressive younging of
crust entering Andes trench.
phase in Andes, eastward
migration of thrust front/foredeep
axis and local eastward jumping
of foreland deformation.
Primary maturation phase in
eastern Venezuela Basin.

For much of the Andes, epicontinental marine and
nonmarine deposition east of the arc dominated the
Early Cretaceous, indicating generally stable tectonic
conditions typified by mainly thermal subsidence
(Figure 3). However, extensional tectonism persisted
along the Chilean portion of the back-arc, with the Rocas
Verdes basin of southern Chile developing a basement of
oceanic crust (De Wit, 1977). Such extension appears to
have been continuous from the Jurassic, still related to
rollback. In the north, southward transgression across the
passive portion of the margin was underway. Probable
southward-propagating opening of a back-arc basin
along Colombia left the central Cordillera as a remnant
arc passive margin after Triassic–Middle Jurassic
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems
plutonism had ceased (Figures 3, 4). The Andean arc,
which was ensialic in the central Andes, probably trended
offshore at Ecuador to connect with the Amaime-
Chaucha arc terrane (Figures 3, 4). These continued north
into the Greater Antilles arc and the North American arcs
of Mexico and the Chortis block to the northwest
(Pindell, 1993).
During the Aptian, this Aleutian-like intraoceanic arc
apparently flipped polarity, with the associated creation
of blueschists and other metamorphic rocks at the onset
of west-dipping Aptian–Albian subduction along the
eastern side of the arc. These metamorphic rocks are now
found in obducted masses all around the Caribbean and
along the eastern limit of the Amaime terrane in
Colombia. From the Albian, the arc migrated eastward
toward the remnant Colombian and northern Ecuador-
ian margin and the Proto-Caribbean seaway to the north.
Plutonism in this east-facing arc is well known in the
Antilles. Likewise, the Buga batholith of the Amaime
terrane (~99 Ma) (Aspden and McCourt, 1986) may
represent Antilles equivalent arc magmatism during
closure of the Colombian back-arc (Pindell, 1993; Pindell
and Erikson, in press).
By the end of Albian time (Figure 4), marine water
depths in the north were sufficient for initiation of source
rock deposition and preservation. South America was
migrating toward the Amaime terrane. Peruvian orogen-
esis in the northern Central Andes had started, probably
related to the same causal mechanisms that flipped the
offshore arc to the north. Pindell (1993) suggested that
this orogenesis was due to the early Aptian onset of the
opening of the equatorial Atlantic (Pindell and Dewey,
1982; Pindell, 1985), which markedly accelerated South
America westward across the mantle, thereby trans-
forming the Central Andes into a convergent arc in the
sense of Dewey (1980). Peruvian orogenesis lightly
loaded the interior craton, creating additional accommo-
dation space and water depths for marine units such as
the Napo and Chonta formations. Evidence for compres-
sion is found along the entire length of the Andes and
Amaime-Chaucha terrane, except perhaps in northern
Argentina, although the intensity varies considerably.
The back-arc of Chile, including the Rocas Verdes basin,
began to close, and continental rift basins of central
Argentina were influenced by compression and foredeep
deposition (Dalziel and Forsythe, 1985; Hallam et al.,
1986).
The middle Cretaceous (Figure 5) marked the
maximum extent of the seas across the craton, especially
in the north where Andean trends intersected the
passive margin trends. There, thermal subsidence of
numerous Jurassic intracontinental and back-arc rifts
combined to produce a broad, slowly subsiding epicon-
tinental platform. The strand line was so far inland that
deposition did not keep pace with subsidence. Pelagic
material accumulated at relatively high rates due to
upwelling-enhanced productivity to produce world
class source rocks (e.g., La Luna Formation). Preserva-
tion was maintained by the intersection with the shelf
surface of the oxygen minima zone. In Ecuador and
Peru, foredeep subsidence allowed accumulation and
105
preservation of organic-rich shales (e.g., Napo and
Chonta formations). Farther south, in Bolivia and
Argentina, tectonism and associated lithospheric flexure
were relatively less and shallow marine to nonmarine
molasse mainly accumulated.
By the end of the Cretaceous (Figure 6), falling long-
term sea level and infilling of epicontinental accommo-
dation space heralded the removal of the seas from the
craton, with generally regressive deposits marking the
migrating marine margins. The Campanian(?) accretion
of the Amaime-Chaucha terrane (Pindell and Erikson, in
press) loaded the central Cordillera and created the
Umir-Colon basin to the east with asymmetric foredeep
geometry. The deposits in this basin prograded north-
ward toward the Proto-Caribbean seaway, leaving a
paralic to nonmarine depocenter in the wake of the
marine basin. After accretion of the Amaime, continued
South American–Caribbean plate convergence in the
northern Andes was accommodated by initiation of east-
dipping subduction of Caribbean crust outboard of the
terrane. Progressive accretion of offscraped upper
Caribbean plate materials probably formed most of
Colombia’s western Cordillera, west of the already
accreted Amaime terrane. The eastward continuation of
the Panamanian arc (Figure 6) defined the western and
southern margins of the Caribbean plate from the
Santonian or the Campanian (Pindell and Barrett, 1990).
This arc probably first encountered the Andes within
Ecuador because this was the boundary between volumi-
nous and widespread plutonism and volcanism to the
south (rapid subduction of normal Farallon plate) and
limited and localized volcanism or plutonism to the
north (slow, shallow-dipping? subduction of the 12–25-
km-thick Caribbean plate).
Along the Andes, sands prograded into the foreland
area from both the east and west. Throughout the central
Andes, marine accumulations became restricted to only
locally transgressive areas. Farther south, where Atlantic
influences could be felt, marine conditions continued to
prevail. A general decrease in Late Cretaceous subsi-
dence rates within the sub-Andean foredeep basins
could have been due to the waning of Peruvian compres-
sional deformation.
In the early Paleogene (Figure 7), westward drift of
South America caused the relative eastward advance of
the Caribbean plate, which had a slight northward
component of relative motion as well. The triple junction
defined by the eastward continuation of the Panamanian
arc and the Andean trench thus migrated slowly
northward, leading to much faster subduction of
Farallon crust along the Andes in its wake. In turn, the
volume of arc magmatism appears to have increased
northward, first in Ecuador and then into Colombia. By
early–middle Eocene time, crustal elements and accreted
material of the southeastern Caribbean plate (Caribbean
nappes) began to load the western and Maracaibo
portion of the northern margin’s shelf, creating a
northward-deepening foredeep geometry (Trujillo and
Misoa formations) that triggered oil maturation along the
northern shelf of northwestern South America (Pindell,
1991).
(text continues on p. 124)
106 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 1—Triassic–Early Jurassic (about 190 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes. Scale is
denoted by latitude and longitude ticks approximately 110 km apart.
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 107

Figure 1 (continued)
108 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 2—Middle–Late Jurassic (about 145 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 109

Figure 2 (continued)
110 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 3—Neocomian (about 125 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 111

Figure 3 (continued)
112 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 4—Aptian–Albian (about 105 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 113

Figure 4 (continued)
114 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 5—Cenomanian–Santonian (about 90 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 115

Figure 5 (continued)
116 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 6—Campanian–Maastrichtian (about 70 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 117

Figure 6 (continued)
118 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 7—Paleocene–Eocene (about 45 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 119

Figure 7 (continued)
120 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 8—Oligocene–middle Miocene (about 25 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 121

Figure 8 (continued)
122 Pindell and Tabbutt

Figure 9—Late Miocene–Recent (about 10 Ma) paleogeographic map of the Andes.

 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems 123

Figure 9 (continued)
124 Pindell and Tabbutt
In the late Eocene–early Oligocene, between ano-
malies 13 and 18 (~33–38.5 Ma) (Cande and Kent, 1992),
there was a marked (about twofold) westward accelera-
tion of South America across the mantle (e.g., Müller et
al., 1993). We suggest that this triggered the Incaic phase
of Andean tectonism (intensification of the convergent
arc) (Dewey, 1980), marked by eastward and westward
thrusting at the Andean flanks along most of the length
of the Andes. The chain was uplifted drastically at this
time, with erosion and deposition of considerable
volumes of offlapping erosional materials in both the
back-arc and fore-arc regions. In the southern Andes,
compression and uplift were not as severe and the
eastward extent of eroded molasse was limited. The
persistent epicontinental marine basins of southern
Argentina maintained contact with the Atlantic Ocean
throughout the Paleogene.
In the middle Tertiary (Figure 8), relative advance of
the Caribbean plate continued and more buoyant parts
of the Costa Rica–Panama arc began to collide, initiating
Panama’s oroclinal geometry and eastward thrusting of
Colombia’s Central Cordillera over the Gualanday
foredeep basin. The Caribbean foredeep south of the
Caribbean nappes was located in central Venezuela at
this point (La Pascua and Roblecito formations), with an
east-west strike-slip regime developing between the two
plates in the Falcon area north of Lake Maracaibo. A late
Oligocene–early Miocene slowing of the rate of motion of
South America relative to the mantle may have been
responsible for the period of generally finer grained
deposition (less convergent arc) in the Andean foreland
basins, such as the middle Magdalena’s Mugrosa
Formation in the north (Figures 8, 9). Although the
intensity of shortening for this period based on indi-
vidual accumulation rates seems less than for the Incaic
phase, the Andes to the south continued to develop at
this time into a continuous geographic barrier between
marine systems of the fore-arc and the foreland. They
provided a continuous source of molasse for the
remainder of the Tertiary.
Finally, in the middle Miocene–Recent (Figure 9),
increased “Andean” orogenic uplift and development of
present-day relief (rejuvenation of convergent arc)
appears to have been driven by several factors: (1)
another, but less drastic, westward acceleration of South
America across the mantle; (2) a progressive decrease in
the age of crust entering the trench along the length of
the Andes, causing resistance to subduction; and (3)
rapidly increased rates of subduction of the Nazca plate
in the Miocene, which increased volcanism along the
chain and may have thermally softened the belt, making
it more deformable (Pitman et al., 1992). Erosion of the
chain has produced massive volumes of Miocene–Recent
molassic detritus, creating thick foredeep sections that
extend well to the east and across most of the western
fore-arc basins.
Eastward advance of the thrust belt has cannabalized
parts of the former (e.g., Incaic) foredeeps, thereby
creating the sub-Andes fold and thrust belt. In the north,
thrusting has jumped cratonward to the Eastern
Cordillera and the Merida Andes of Colombia and
Venezuela. The continued Panamanian collision has
assisted with east-west convergence in this area, leading
to more than 100 km of lateral tectonic escape by the
roughly triangular Maracaibo block toward the free face
of the Caribbean Sea. To the south, eastward migration
of the thrust front generally cannabalized the earlier
foredeep and pushed the evolving foredeep axis craton-
ward. Numerous inter-Andean basins began to develop,
especially in Peru and Bolivia, where the width of defor-
mation was the greatest, possibly assisted by late
Paleozoic evaporitic décollement horizons. Segmentation
of the subducting Pacific plate further influenced
magmatism and deformation style along strike, with flat-
slab, nonmagmatic segments driving foreland deforma-
tion in the Pampean and other ranges (Figure 9).
HYDROCARBON CONSIDERATIONS
Settings for Source Rock Accumulation
and Preservation
The paleogeographic maps (Figures 1–9) show that
five main Mesozoic–Cenozoic settings exist for source
rock deposition and preservation in the Andean system.
These are indicated by formation names followed by a
circled “s” symbol. The first setting is restricted rift
basins with varying access to the sea during times of
back-arc extension. Examples include the Pucara and
Santiago formations, deposited in the Triassic–Jurassic
back-arc basins of Peru and Ecuador (Figure 1). The
second setting is thermally subsiding passive margin
sections that developed during periods of slow sediment
accumulation and high long-term relative sea level,
where upwelling and the oxygen-minimum zone inter-
sected the shelf. Examples are the middle Cretaceous La
Luna, Querecual, Gautier, and Villeta formations in the
north and the Lower Cretaceous Inoceramus Shale in the
south (Figures 4, 5). The third setting, related to the
second but noteworthy on its own, is the rift structures
that cross southern South America, aulacogens of the
South Atlantic (e.g., San Jorge basin; Figures 2, 3), in
which nonmarine and marine source rocks were
deposited early on.
The fourth setting is the tectonically downflexed
foredeep basins that formed east of the developing Andes
at times of high long-term eustatic sea level (during
Peruvian orogeny), when the epicontinental strand line
was far to the east. Examples are the middle Cretaceous
Napo and Chonta formations of the north-central and
central Andes (Figure 5). The thick Devonian–Carbonif-
erous source-prone section of Bolivia and southern Peru
was probably also deposited in this tectonic setting
during the sinistrally transpressive accretion of the
Arequipa massif (approximate location on Figure 1). The
fifth setting is along the Andean fore-arc at various times
in areas where terrigenous sedimentation was slow due
to low Andean relief, vegetational retention, or dry
climate (Ziegler et al., 1981) and where upwelling and
other oceanographic factors presumably helped with
bioproductivity and maintainance of suboxic bottom
conditions. A possible example is the Upper Cretaceous
Redondo Shale of the Talara basin of Peru.
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems
As for the marine source rocks in all these settings,
both eustasy and tectonism helped to control source rock
deposition and preservation. Both combined to control
accommodation space and water depth, while high
eustatic sea levels maintained a distant strand line in
some settings during middle Cretaceous time and
limited the input of sand.
Classes of Sandstone Reservoir Deposition
Formations with known or potential reservoir
potential are indicated in Figures 1–9 by a circled “r”
symbol following the formation name. Although produc-
tion is achieved from some carbonate units, such as the
latest Cretaceous Yacoraite Formation of the north-
western Argentine basin (Figure 6) and the Cogollo
Group limestones of the western Maracaibo basin
(Figure 4), quartzose sandstones provide most of the
Andean reservoirs. Sandstones came from four primary
provenances throughout the Phanerozoic: metamorphic
rocks of the Precambrian shield, reworked sedimentary
rocks of the Andean thrust belt, masses of crystalline
basement exposed in the thrust belt, and plutons and
volcanoes of the magmatic arc. In the sub-Andean
basins, the most important reservoir sandstones were
derived from the metamorphosed, highly quartzose
Precambrian shield areas to the east of the Andean belt.
Formation of fault-controlled rift basins which then
thermally subsided (Permian–early Mesozoic) was
followed by flexural deflection of the crust due to short-
ening and loading of early Andean thrust belts and sedi-
mentary rocks (late Mesozoic–early Cenozoic). These
processes created a “downhill” condition from the
shields to the back-arc and foredeep region (the present
eastern Andes). This broad, gentle slope allowed
westward-migrating fluvial sands to become clean,
mature, and highly quartzose. Their point of final depo-
sition and their westward extent was a function of the
position of the strand line and paleoslope of the marginal
seas. These were in turn dependent on eustatic sea level
and the intensity of orogenic development (downward
foredeep flexure or thermal uplift and subsidence) at the
time. Thus, fluvial to coastal to shallow marine blanket-
like sandstone deposits are common along the western
margins of the Precambrian shields and eastern flanks of
flexural foredeep and thermally subsiding rift basin
sections.
Easterly derived sandstone horizons generally
coalesce with their vertical neighbors toward the east
(i.e., shales pinch out to the east where basinal conditions
were less developed). Likewise, shield-derived sand-
stones pinch out toward the west away from the fluvial
and coastal input of the eastern source area. This creates
an interfingering of sandstones (reservoirs) and shale
(seals) that become sand-dominated to the east and
shale-dominated to the west. In contrast, due to their
general narrow and elongate character and the influence
of more local faulting, the facies of the early Mesozoic rift
basins tend to be less extensive and lithologic changes
(pinching out of sandstones) are more abrupt than those
of the foredeep basins.
125
The second source of sand was the uplifted and
exposed thrust sheets in the deformation belts of the
Cordillera. The likelihood of these sandstones func-
tioning as reservoirs depends on two factors: (1) the
lithology of the strata being eroded and (2) the extent of
sorting that occurred during the transport of the detritus.
If the thrust sheets that were eroded did not contain
lithologies (e.g., quartz grains) conducive to maintaining
porosity upon redeposition and lithification, reservoir
potential will be low. Local variations in the exposure
can be very important in reservoir development. Since
much of the strata exposed in the Cordillera is either fine-
grained (carbonates, shales, or siltstones) or poorly
sorted sandstones, the ability of the depositional system
to enhance the sands by sorting is critical. In general,
those sediments that were deposited proximal to the
thrust sheets tend to be poorly sorted and make poor
reservoirs, while those more distal to the region of defor-
mation may be mature enough to serve as reservoirs.
Along the western side of the Andes, sandstone units
within deltas that formed in the fore-arc region often
function as reservoirs. These deltas were associated with
fluvial systems that drained the arc system or the interior
adjacent to the deformation front.
The source of the third sandstone class is again from
the Andes, but specifically from metamorphic or
plutonic basement core areas that do have a significant
quartz component. The Santander and Garzon massifs of
the mainly sedimentary eastern Cordillera of Colombia
are examples (Figure 9). Although these areas are
presently exposed, they have not always been so. Thus,
their contribution of reservoir quality clastics is periodic,
commonly contaminated by Andean volcanic and sedi-
mentary sources. Additionally, massifs that are presently
covered by sediments or volcanics may have been
exposed and eroded during an earlier period. Uplift and
exposure of the metamorphic terranes tend to coincide
and persist after compressional deformation.
The final sandstone class is the volcanogenic sandstone
from the Andean magmatic rocks. Although most of the
plutonic rocks of the Andes are described in the literature
as “granitoids” or “granitic,” these are often intermediate
in silica content and only occasionally have high concen-
trations of free quartz that can produce good quality
reservoir sandstones. Thus, “sand” eroded from magmatic
areas of the Andes does not usually produce quality
reservoir sandstones. There are hypothetical exceptions,
such as from areas where plutons may be tonalitic (inter-
mediate but with free quartz crystals). But tonalites are
rarely distinguished in the literature from “granitoids,”
which are typically dacitic or andesitic dominated by
feldspars and pyroxenes that degrade into clays.
In the sub-Andean basins, there have been western
and eastern sources of sands, with the latter usually
producing the better quality reservoir sandstone (higher
quartz content). The region of interfingering of western
and eastern sources of sandstone has been an important
zone throughout the history of the basins for hydro-
carbon potential. Depending on the type of basin
flanking the Andes at various times, however, a wide
swath of basinal deposits (marine and lacustrine shales,
126 Pindell and Tabbutt
limestones, evaporites, cherts, and fine clastics) often
intervened. These are the sediment sequences that tend
to have source rock potential. Such was the case during
at least two styles of tectonic history: back-arc rifting and
subsequent thermal subsidence (Triassic–Early Creta-
ceous) and foredeep basin flexure due to eastward over-
thrusting from the west (middle Cretaceous–early
Cenozoic). In most regions along the present eastern
Andes, eastward-migrating thrusts carrying sediments
originally deposited in the central basin have overridden
or interthrusted the quartz-rich easterly derived flanking
sandstones, so that updip migration from beneath or
within the thrusts has tended toward the quartz sand-
stones. Prior to the Cenozoic, westerly derived sand-
stones from the Andes interfingered with the basinal
deposits and are in many places now metamorphosed
and structurally interwoven with the intervening basinal
sedimentary sections.
Locally during the Paleocene, and more commonly by
the Eocene, eastward migration of clastic sediment from
the developing Andes mountains drowned out the
eastern source such that clastic migration was eastward
away from the Andes, or at least to foreland fluvial trunk
systems that ran parallel to the Andes. At least part of the
cause of this drastic change was that late Eocene
compression and orogenesis (Incaic phase), and hence
erosion, were sufficiently intense that the shear volume
of Andean clastics overwhelmed the component from
the eastern source. The line between clastic realms
simply shifted eastward to the point where there was
essentially no topographic depression (foredeep) for
easterly derived sands to fill. This occurred despite the
fact that subsidence rates accelerated in most areas of the
eastern foredeeps during this phase of Cenozoic deposi-
tion. This condition led to a geometry in which the basal
surface of Cenozoic sandstones dips westward, while the
Eocene–Recent geomorphic surface has dipped generally
eastward. Thus, the latter Cenozoic “brown beds” form a
thick cover above the Cretaceous section, thickening
toward their westerly source area. These Cenozoic
molassic beds are only locally important from a reservoir
standpoint because their porosity is limited and they lack
seals within them. Nevertheless, they are critical for
hydrocarbon systems in that they have played a major
role in driving Cenozoic maturation by burial. Accurate
dating of these beds is critical for accurate prediction of
hydrocarbon maturation in many of the basins.
Regional Maturation Mechanisms
Our assessment of Andean tectonics and sedimenta-
tion allows general statements to be made about the
generation and accumulation of hydrocarbons. As previ-
ously outlined, the Andes have evolved in a series of
tectonic pulses, mainly controlled by changes in plate
motions, each of which has played some role in the
overall hydrocarbon history. That source rock units as
old as Ordovician and as young as Neogene have both
become mature in the Neogene phase(s) of basin devel-
opment attest to the significance of these pulses in
relation to hydrocarbons. This is because the Cenozoic
phases of orogenesis and associated basin subsidence
(addition of overburden) have been extremely intense
and rapid. In addition, subsequent events have affected
slightly different areas of the original autochthonous
depocenters, with relatively fresh source rock horizons
quickly entering the oil maturation window during these
successive periods of rapid tectonic and sedimentary
loading.
Early Mesozoic rifts were sites of restricted environ-
ment source rock deposition. High heat flow associated
with rifting may have driven early maturation in parts of
these basins, perhaps into Early Cretaceous time, as
indicated in Colombia’s eastern Cordilleran back-arc
basin by detrital asphalt pebbles in the Hauterivian
section (Campbell and Burgl, 1965) (Figure 3). Starting
first in the Peruvian and southern Ecuadorian region,
middle Cretaceous onset of convergent arc behavior (late
Albian, Peruvian orogeny) helped to create the first
“foredeep” conditions, which were sites of additional
source rock deposition (Napo and Chonta formations),
due to tectonically and eustatically created accommoda-
tion space. These are correlative to the higher quality
passive margin source rock units of Colombia, Vene-
zuela, and Trinidad to the north.
Maturation of all these Cretaceous source rock units,
as well as the remaining source potential of the
Triassic–Jurassic units, would become a function of
burial, hydrothermal effects, or structural thickening
during the subsequent successive tectonic pulses.
However, anomalous basement heat should be a factor
in areas that have undergone Cenozoic rifting,
volcanism, or ridge subduction. Examples of this type of
area include the central Andean Altiplano (Figures 8, 9),
the arc axis, various strike-slip basins of the fore-arc, the
Nazca–Antarctica–South America triple junction in Chile
(Figure 9), and western Colombia, where an extinct ridge
system entered the trench from Oligocene to late
Miocene time (Hardy, 1991) (Figure 9). In the sub-Andes
basins, each successive advance of the thrust front and its
associated molassic foredeep depocenter shifted the belt
of hydrocarbon maturation correspondingly eastward.
In the north, foreland thrusting with development of
foredeep depocenters occurred in the Campanian–Maas-
trichtian (Umir-Colon and Mito Juan formations), in the
late Eocene–Oligocene Incaic phase (eastward thrusting
and deposition of the Gualanday Group and equiva-
lents), and in the middle(?) Miocene–Recent Andean
phase (Neogene molasse units, uplift of eastern
Cordillera). The first phase probably did not initiate oil
generation, but the second and third phases certainly
did. Incaic oil migration reached the Llanos basin, as the
eastern Cordillera was not yet elevated. In the central
Andes, the Peruvian phase may have triggered local
maturation, but the Incaic and Neogene phases were
stronger and fully capable of generating hydrocarbons.
In the southern Andes, evidence for Cretaceous compres-
sional deformation is meager, and Incaic deformation is
relatively less than to the north, but Neogene phases
were strong. At the extreme southern end of the chain,
the Rocas Verdes marginal basin was closed during the
middle Cretaceous and experienced moderate Incaic and
Neogene phases of convergent deformation and
orogenic sedimentation.
 Mesozoic–Cenozoic Andean Paleogeography and Regional Controls on Hydrocarbon Systems
In addition to these primary phases of tectonism and
associated pulses of maturation and migration, the
original regional extent of source rock occurrence is
another critical factor in assessing remaining potential.
For much of the eastern and sub-Andes belts, the swath
of source rocks was fairly narrow, located in back-arc
areas due to rifting or Cretaceous tectonic loading. In
contrast, toward the north in Colombia and western
Venezuela, the Cretaceous source rock depocenter was
far wider in the east-west dimension because of the more
regional occurrence of Jurassic lithospheric rift basins that
underwent thermal subsidence and marine transgression
in the Cretaceous. With each successive phase of
tectonism and foredeep deposition, more and more of the
swath of source rocks was exhausted from west to east.
In the Cenozoic, the earlier Incaic phase probably
triggered maturation of huge quanitities of oil because
few of the source rocks had been depleted by that time.
Subsequent phases not only had less source rock area to
mature but the quality of the remaining source rocks was
poorer due to greater depositional proximity to the
shield. Therefore, along much of the Andes, Neogene
phases of tectonism have probably generated relatively
lesser volumes of oil. However, in the north, the original
source rock limit was sufficiently far east that the advent
of Colombia’s eastern Cordillera thrust belt and foredeep
basin occurred well within the limits of excellent source
rocks. Hence, more Neogene oil was probably generated,
although not necessarily trapped, in Colombia’s eastern
Cordilleran foothills and the Llanos basin than in more
southward segments of the sub-Andes belts. In addition,
the intermontane Maracaibo basin of western Venezuela
also underwent a major Neogene phase of generation
due to the uplift of and sedimentation from the Merida
Andes, Santander massif, and Sierra Perijá. With respect
to oil generation, the Neogene of the northern area is
more like the Eocene of more southward parts of the
Andes.
Another factor to consider that applies mainly to the
southern Andes (northwestern Argentine basin and
southward; Figures 2, 3, 4) is that Jurassic–Cretaceous
rifts, associated with both the opening of the Atlantic and
back-arc extension, cross the continent westward to at
least the sub-Andes belts (Figures 1–3). Early source rock
deposits in these basins represent “paths of oil potential”
extending eastward from under the Andes foothills and
foredeeps. The western ends of these paths have entered
maturation as they were progressively overthrust and
buried by the Andes and foredeep sediments. These
basins possess an important pulse of Neogene matura-
tion that may be in addition to an Incaic pulse. In areas
between these rift basins, source rocks are of poorer
quality and Neogene oil generation is therefore limited.
The considerations just discussed suggest an episod-
icity of oil generation in the Andes that is directly tied to
the episodicity of thrust belt development and foredeep
deposition. This applies to both the sub-Andes basins
and the western fore-arc margin because episodes of
uplift will also drastically accelerate fore-arc sedimenta-
tion and burial maturation. This process is modified by
climate to varying extents. For example, aridity greatly
127
reduces the volume of clastic material derived from
uplifted areas, particularly along parts of the western
flank of the Andes (Ziegler et al., 1981), with a corre-
sponding reduction in burial maturation in the adjacent
basin. Despite such deviations, knowledge of the precise
age of uplift and associated basinal subsidence can be
used to predict the onset of peak pulses of maturation.
Migration routes and trapping can then be assessed by
considering the paleogeography and structural configu-
ration of the basin at the time. It should be noted,
however, that successive orogenic episodes are likely to
affect trapping potential and thermal conditions of struc-
tures developed during previous orogenic episodes.
There is a tendency for old oil generated during earlier
orogenic phases to be remigrated, lost from the system,
or driven to gas during subsequent phases of tectonic
development.
CONCLUSIONS
Our analysis shows that tectonic, depositional, and
hydrocarbon histories are closely interrelated, having
occurred in fairly discrete pulses through time, each with
its own significance to hydrocarbon potential. Source
rock units can be deposited during periods of rifting,
passive margin sedimentation, and foredeep develop-
ment during long-term sea level highstands, when the
strand line is far from the depocenter, and along the fore-
arc when clastic dilution is low and oceanic conditions
are favorable. Quality reservoir units can be deposited,
depending on reworking and transport history, during
cratonal transgression and regression and when quartz-
bearing blocks or strata in the Andes are eroded during
uplift. Oil generation can be triggered by early rift-
related heat flow, but more commonly by accumulation
of sufficient overburden, either thrust wedges or
orogenic erosional products. In the sub-Andes, succes-
sive eastward-advancing tectonic phases drove over-
burden development which, where sufficient, triggered
associated phases of hydrocarbon generation. The newly
created potential of each successive phase in a given area
was dependent on the quality and distribution of source
rocks there. Neogene phase(s) generated large volumes
of oil from Mesozoic source rocks in the northern and
southern Andes where the platformal and rift-bounded
source rock units, respectively, extended well east of the
Incaic (late Eocene–Oligocene) foredeep basins. The
middle Paleozoic source rock units of the central sub-
Andes were also affected by eastward-stepping phases.
In all areas, preservation of older oil was reduced by
Neogene destruction of preexisting (Incaic) structures,
which in many cases were once filled.
Acknowledgments We thank John F. Dewey, Walter C.
Pitman, and Steve Cande for collaboration and assistance on
various parts of our Andean study, and Sam Algar for helping
to reduce our paleogeographic maps to the format presented
here. Grants from Texaco and Mobil provided the initial means
for much of this synthesis and are greatly appreciated.
128 Pindell and Tabbutt
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
James L. Pindell
Tectonic Analysis Inc.
P.O. Box 87, One Lyme Common
Lyme, New Hampshire 03768
U.S.A.
Kenneth D. Tabbutt
Evergreen State College
Olympia, Washington 98505
U.S.A.
Paleozoic Basins

VOLCAN LANIN in the Cordillera Patagónica, Neuquén province,

Argentina. The Holocene basaltic cone of Lanín (3776 m) owes its elevation to
the support of the underlying Faja Batolítica, a Permian–Triassic granodioritic
basement.

Edgar Ortiz, 1994, watercolor, 30 × 23 cm

Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins
of Southern and Central South America

N. Eyles A. B. França
Department of Geology Nexpar, Petroleo Brasileiro S.A.
University of Toronto Curitiba, Brazil
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
C. H. Eyles
G. Gonzalez Bonorino Department of Geography
Department of Geology McMaster University
Conicet–University of Buenos Aires Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Buenos Aires, Argentina

O. López Paulsen
YPFB, Gerencia de Exploración
Santa Cruz, Bolivia

Abstract

A lthough glaciated basins are usually associated with nonproductive, poorly sorted strata, hydrocarbons
occur in several late Paleozoic glaciated basins of central and southern South America. In Bolivia, the
Chaco-Tarija basin has commercial production from more than 30 fields in glacially influenced submarine
channel systems (Palmar, Santa Cruz, and Bermejo fields) that accounts for about 60% of current national
reserves. Correlative deposits in Argentina host the Campo Durán and Madrejones oil fields. In Brazil, the
Paraná basin has significant but as yet subcommercial gas shows in thick marine turbidite sandstones of the
glacially influenced Itararé Group. The Chaco-Paraná basin of Argentina is one of the largest onshore targets
for exploration in South America, but it is virtually untested.
Glacially influenced foreland basins of Argentina (Tepuel and Paganzo-Maliman) contain complex
glacigenic stratigraphies of interbedded tillites and poorly prospective sandstones. In contrast, the glacially
influenced marine infills of intracratonic basins in Brazil (Paraná), Bolivia, and Argentina (Chaco-Tarija and
Chaco-Paraná) contain thick sequences of pebbly mudstones and regionally extensive reservoir quality sand-
stones. The key to the occurrence of good reservoirs and associated trapping mechanisms in these intracratonic
basins is the interplay of sediment supply, regional tectonics, and relative sea level changes. Glacial scouring of
extensive cratons by ice sheets resulted in the delivery of huge volumes of glaciofluvial sand to deltas. Struc-
tural control of drainage patterns on the craton by basement lineaments resulted in persistent sediment sources
and depocenters. Frequent earthquake activity along reactivated basement lineaments resulted in downslope
mass flow of deltaic sediments and the deposition of thick, amalgamated sand turbidites (reservoirs). Pebbly
mudstone seals most likely record higher relative sea levels, resulting from basin subsidence, and deposition
from suspended sediment plumes and icebergs. Source rocks are provided by Devonian and Permian shales.
This model may be applicable to other parts of Gondwana that contain thick, prospective sandstones in
glacially influenced intracratonic basins.

Resumen

L as cuencas glaciares estan usualmente asociadas a estratos pobremente escogidos y carentes de atractivo
comercial desde el punto de vista de hidrocarburos, sin embargo en varias cuencas glaciares del Paleo-
zoico tardio en el sur y centro de Suramerica, se ha probado la existencia de petroleo. En Bolivia, la cuenca
Charco-Tarija tiene produccion comercial en mas de 30 campos ubicados en sistemas de canales submarinos
con influencia glacial (e.j., campos Palmar, Santa Cruz, y Barmejo), que representan aproximadamente el 60%
de las reservas nacionales. Depositos correlativos en Argentina corresponden a los campos petroliferos de
Duran y Madrejones. En Brasil, la cuenca Paraná tiene cantidades significativas de gas (en condiciones
subcomerciales) en las espesas areniscas marinas turbiditicas con influencia glacial del grupo Itarare. La
Cuenca Chaco-Paraná de Argentina es uno de los objetivos costeros mas grandes para la exploracion en
Suramerica pero virtualemente no ha sido probada.

Eyles, N., G. Gonzalez Bonorino, A. B. França, C. H. Eyles, and O. López Paulsen, 1995, 165
Hydrocarbon-bearing late Paleozoic glaciated basins of southern and central South
America, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South
America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 165–183.
166 Eyles et al.

Las cuencas foreland con influencia glacial ubicadas en Argentina (Tepuel y Paganzo-Maliman), contienen
complejas estratigrafias glaciogenicas de tilitas interestratificadas con areniscas pobremente prospectivas. En
contraste, los rellenos marinos con influencia glacial de las cuencas intracratonicas de Brasil (Paraná), Bolivia y
Argentina (Chaco-Tarija), Charco-Paraná), contienen gruesas secuencias de lodolitas gravosas (diamictitas,
sellos) y areniscas con calidad de yacimientos de extension regional. La clave para la formacion de buenos
yaciementos y mecanismos de entrampamiento asociados en estas cuencas intracratonica es las interaccion
entre el aporte de sedimentos, la tectonica regional y los cambios relativos en el nivel del mar. La socavamienta
glacial de extensos cratones por la accione las acumulaciones de hielo, resulta en el transporte de volumenes
muy grandes de arenas glaciofluviales hacia los deltas: el control estructural sobre los patrones de drenaje del
craton, ejercido por las alineaciones en el basamento, resulta en fuentes de sedimento y depocentros persis-
tentes. La actividad frecuente de terremotos a lo largo de las alineaciones reactivadas del basamento, ocasionan
flujos masivos descendentes de sedimentos deltaicos y la sedimentacion de grueasa aremas turbiditicas amal-
gamadas (yaciementos). Los lodolitas gravosas que actuan como sellos muy problemente registran niveles del
mar relativamente mas altos, resultantes de la subsidencia de la cuenca, y de la depositacion por corrientes de
sedimentos suspendidos y tempanos de hielo. Las rocas generadoras son lutitas de edad Devonico y Permico.
Este modelo puede ser aplicable a otras partes de Gondwana que contiene areniscas espesas y prosectivas en
cuencas intracratonicas con influencia glacial.

INTRODUCTION depositional environments and the stratigraphy of

Late Paleozoic glacioclastic strata occur in many sedi-
mentary basins in South America, southern Africa, India,
the Arabian Peninsula, Australia, Antarctica, and
Malaysia (Hambrey and Harland, 1981). Glaciation of the
southern continents between about 360 and 250 Ma
coincided with the greatest episode of coal deposition in
earth’s history (Langford, 1991). Late Paleozoic glacio-
clastic strata are associated with significant hydrocarbon
resources in Australia (Youngs, 1975; Williams et al.,
1985; Goldstein, 1989; Redfern, 1991), Oman (Levell et al.,
1988), and South America (Montes de Oca, 1989; França
and Potter, 1991). Many basins, particularly in Australia
and parts of South America, contain thick, prospective
sandstone intervals in otherwise poorly sorted glacially
influenced strata (e.g., O’Brien et al., 1992). The origin of
these sandstones is not well understood.
In South America, the presence of late Paleozoic glacial
deposits was first recognized in the closing decades of the
nineteenth century. Extensive outcrops in Brazil were the
first to be documented (Derby, 1888; Coleman, 1926), and
late Paleozoic glacial horizons were of central importance
in Du Toit’s (1927) and Wegener’s (1929) correlations
across the South Atlantic. Details of the glacial record in
South America and elsewhere in Gondwana have been
presented by Frakes and Crowell (1969), Crowell (1983),
Caputo and Crowell (1985), Dickins (1985, 1993), and
contributors to the compilation of Hambrey and Harland
(1981). Renewed economic interest in hydrocarbons in
glaciated basins in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and
Brazil has promoted the study of facies, sequence strati-
graphy, and age relationships across the continent. A
major focus of this work is identification of glacial deposi-
tional environments, better understanding of tectonic
setting, and closer resolution of the controls on deposi-
tional sequences, such as climate and eustatic sea level
changes. Unfortunately, many data are proprietary and
there is a dearth of published literature.
This paper reviews what is currently understood of
the depositional fills in late Paleozoic glaciated basins in
southern and central South America and relates this to
exploration for hydrocarbons. Selected aspects of glacial
glaciated basins are first discussed, stressing the signifi-
cance of regional tectonics and the selective preservation
of glacially infuenced marine sediments. Reworking of
glacioclastic sediment in marine settings is the key to the
occurrence of hydrocarbons in the late Paleozoic
glaciated basins discussed here.
The Chaco-Tarija basin is the most important since it
has commercial production in Bolivia and Argentina.
Glacially influenced strata of the Bermejo, Palmar, and
Santa Cruz fields are important oil producers in Bolivia,
where about 60% of current reserves occur in glacially
influenced deposits. Correlative deposits in Argentina
host the Tranquitas, Campo Durán, Icua, and Madre-
jones oil fields and about 80% of national reserves. The
Paraná basin in Brazil has significant but as yet subcom-
mercial gas shows in the glacigenic Itararé Group, and
important coal deposits also occur in early postglacial
strata of the Rio Bonito Formation. The Chaco-Paraná
basin of northeastern Argentina is one of the largest
onshore targets for exploration in South America that is
virtually untested. In western Argentina, the Paganzo-
Maliman and Tepuel basins are nonproductive, high risk
areas but are of considerable interest because their
extensive outcrops yield valuable information about
facies and geometries of glacial deposits in the subsurface.
SELECTIVE PRESERVATION OF
GLACIALLY INFLUENCED MARINE
SEDIMENTS IN GLACIATED BASINS
Ancient glacial strata are commonly interpreted in
terms of what is understood of deposits at the margins of
modern and Pleistocene continental ice masses. These
deposits are usually dominated by poorly sorted, often
bouldery sedimentary facies referred to as “tills” and are
associated with complexly structured ice contact strati-
graphies and glaciotectonically deformed substrates
recording the subglacial bulldozing and deformation of
preexisting strata (e.g., Brodzikowski and Van Loon,
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America 167

1991; Eyles and Eyles, 1992). Correspondingly, pre-Pleis-

tocene stratigraphic intervals containing multiple tillite
horizons are often interpreted in terms of climatically
driven advances and retreats of grounded terrestrial ice
margins (Hambrey and Harland, 1981).
Other investigators of earth’s long glacial record
instead stress a history of selective preservation of
glacially influenced strata in marine basins (e.g., Frakes
and Crowell, 1969). Using Pleistocene basins as analogs,
Eyles (1993) estimated that less than 6% by volume of the
pre-Pleistocene glacigenic rock record consists of conti-
nental glacial deposits. The primary record of glaciation
is stored in marine basins that developed in a wide range
of tectonic settings adjacent to glaciated areas. The direct
role of ice was limited in most cases to the areal scour of
continental surfaces and the production and delivery of
considerable volumes of glaciofluvial sand and mud to
basin margins where it was then reworked and depo-
sited by normal marine processes. The term glacially
influenced has been used to describe such basins (Eyles et
al., 1985) in recognition of the indirect depositional role
played by glaciers. Basin fills are distinguished by
marine strata dominated by thick sandstones associated
with complexes of pebbly mudstone (diamictite) facies,
emplaced by ice rafting of coarse debris into glacially
derived marine muds (“rain-out” diamictite) and re-
deposition as debris flows. These ideas are particularly
appropriate to understanding the infills of late Paleozoic Figure 1—Late Paleozoic sedimentary basins discussed in
glaciated basins in central and southern South America. this paper. Superimposed are dominant detrital sources
and paleocurrents (arrows). Note structural compartmen-
talization of the intracratonic Chaco-Tarija, Paraná, and
Chaco-Paraná basins by continent-crossing late Protero-
LATE PALEOZOIC GLACIAL RECORD IN zoic lineaments, arches, terrane boundaries, and Trans-
SOUTH AMERICA brasiliano fold belt.

Caputo and Crowell (1985) showed that the timing of

late Paleozoic glaciation across Gondwana is diachro-
nous and proposed that this could be explained by the
migration of Gondwana across the south pole. Veevers
and Powell (1987) argued that continental-scale glacia-
tion was initiated by strong Namurian uplift along the
western collisional margin of South America. They
envisaged separate ice centers located on pericratonic
mountain ranges. Recent data suggest, however, that
glaciation in Andean South America started as early as
the latest Devonian (Diaz and Lema, 1991; Grahn and
Caputo, 1992) and that the principal ice centers were
located not along the active plate margin but inboard
along interior basement highs, such as the Sierras
Pampeanas and North Patagonia massif (Figure 1)
(González Bonorino, 1991). A major complication is that
the different ages of glacial strata from basin to basin
may reflect not only possible migration of ice centers and
changing climate across the continent but also the
relative timing of basin subsidence and sediment preser-
vation.
The onset of glaciation in central and southern South
America in general appears to have coincided with conti-
nental uplift along the Pacific margin of Gondwana
during the Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous Chanica
orogeny. In addition, the presence in polar Gondwana of
emergent landmasses presently underlying Patagonia
and the Antarctic Peninsula, either through collisional
accretion (Ramos, 1989) or tectonic uplift during the
Chanica orogeny, may have had the effect of bringing
extensive land areas into high latitudes and thus fostering
regional glaciation. The first definite record of glaciation
in southwestern Gondwana appears about Tournaisian
time in the northern Chaco-Tarija basin of Bolivia and
Peru (Diaz and Lema, 1991; López Paulsen et al., 1992).
Older glacioclastic strata of Late Ordovician–Early
Silurian (early late Llandovery–earliest Wenlockian) time
are present in Bolivia and Brazil and are attributed to the
polar positioning of Gondwana (see Grahn and Caputo,
1992).
Subsequent late Paleozoic glaciation of southern South
America affected foreland basins in western Argentina
(Tepuel and Paganzo-Maliman) and intracratonic basins in
eastern Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay (Paraná and Chaco-
Paraná; Figure 1). Following the Chanica orogeny, subsi-
dence and deposition started earlier (Early Carbonif-
erous) in the western basins than in the eastern basins,
where preservation of a glacial record did not begin until
the Late Carboniferous (Figure 2).
168 Eyles et al.
Tectonic Controls on Glacially Influenced
Sedimentation and Hydrocarbon Potential
All the basins considered here, with the possible
exception of Tepuel, had a protracted early Paleozoic
sedimentation history that was interrupted by Chanica
compression and uplift of the continent, the withdrawal
of epeiric Devonian seas, and widespread subaerial and
shallow marine erosion. Along the paleo-Pacific margin
of Gondwana, early Paleozoic continental margin
deposits were thrust onto the foreland, which subsided,
allowing Early Carboniferous transgression and sedi-
mentation in the Paganzo-Maliman and Tepuel basins.
The hinterland remained largely submerged until the
late Early Permian San Rafael diastrophic phase (Fig-
ure 2). At this time, the major influx of sediment was
derived from crystalline terranes in the Pampeanas and
Patagonia highlands (Figure 2) (González Bonorino,
1991). Subsequent intracratonic subsidence within the
continental interior, possibly in response to the clockwise
rotation of Gondwana against Eurasia (see Figure 3), led
to renewed flooding of the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná
basins. These intracratonic basins were strongly influ-
enced by basement faulting along late Proterozoic linea-
ments (Tankard et al., 1995). They received detritus from
surrounding shield areas, including those of southern
Africa and marginal uplifts underlain by Proterozoic–
lower Paleozoic crystalline and sedimentary rocks
(Figure 1) (Frakes and Crowell, 1972).
Starting possibly in the latest Devonian or earliest
Carboniferous, ice caps grew on the elevated interior of
Gondwana and by the early Late Carboniferous had
Figure 2—Stratigraphic correla-
tion chart for basins discussed
in this paper based on recent
biostratigraphy and the identifi-
cation of major transgressions
(indicated by wedges). Conflict
exists over the age of the
Tupambi Formation, which
some workers consider entirely
Pennsylvanian (Late Carbonif-
erous). On the right, the
approximate time of two major
diastrophic and orogenic
phases are shown, separated
by protracted extensional
phases that favored preserva-
tion of glacial deposits.
developed into a large ice sheet, perhaps similar in extent
to that on modern Antarctica (González Bonorino, 1992).
The sedimentary record of this ice sheet has been
preserved on shallow marine foreland basins such as the
Paganzo-Maliman and Tepuel basins of Argentina.
These areas contain complex and poorly sorted glacial
deposits with limited potential for hydrocarbons.
In contrast, within the interior of southwestern
Gondwana, widespread erosion below a continental-
scale ice cover resulted in the development of a strati-
graphic gap spanning the Late Devonian–Late Carbonif-
erous. These conditions were terminated when
tectonically driven subsidence, reflecting changing
stresses along the compressional and transpressional
Laurussian margin of Gondwana (Figure 3), resulted in
basin subsidence, marine incursion, development of
separate ice centers, and deposition of glacially influ-
enced sediments in the intracratonic Chaco-Tarija,
Paraná, and Chaco-Paraná basins (Figure 2). The record
of direct sedimentation by ice is restricted in these basins
and is preserved in marine strata.
FORELAND BASINS
Paganzo-Maliman Basin of Argentina
The Paganzo-Maliman basin contains up to 3 km of
Lower Carboniferous–middle Permian strata in central
western Argentina, cropping out in the Cuyo pre-
Cordillera foreland thrust belt and in the block-faulted
Sierras Pampeanas (Figures 1, 4a). Strata in the central
Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America 169

Figure 3—Early Mississip-

pian–Pennsylvanian
(Early–Late Carboniferous)
clockwise rotation of
Gondwana against Laurussia
(after Leighton and Kolata,
1990), and subsidence of
intracratonic basins allowing
preservation of a glacially
influenced marine strati-
graphic interval containing
prospective reservoir-quality
sandstones (see Figures 7, 8).
Extent of ice cover is
schematic and approximate.

Figure 4—Stratigraphic
framework for (a) Paganzo-
Maliman and (b) Tepuel basins
in depth-distance plots. For
clarity, Andean deformation
has been removed, but struc-
tural shortening, which could
extend the Paganzo-Maliman
section by 60–90 km, has not
been compensated for. Inset
shows an outcrop map for the
Tepuel basin (basin boundary
is dashed line) and major
roads. Precambrian basement
is exposed in the east and
north. Stratigraphic section
goes from Esquel to Cerro
Catreleo. Abbreviations: C,
Cerro Catreleo; E, Esquel; Tk,
Tecka Range; Tp, Tepuel
Range; NPM, northern
Patagonia massif.
170 Eyles et al.
and eastern parts of the basin constitute the Guandacol,
Tupe, and Patquia formations and those in the west
occur in the Hoyada Verde, Maliman, and other forma-
tions (Figure 2). Stratigraphic details are summarized in
Archangelsky et al. (1987), Azcuy et al. (1987), López
Gamundi et al. (1987), and González Bonorino (1991).
The basin fill essentially comprises one major unconfor-
mity-bounded unit that onlaps a tilted and erosionally
beveled lower Paleozoic substrate and oversteps crys-
talline basement in the Sierrras Pampeanas (Figure 4a).
The unit is divisible into three subunits: lower (Lower
Carboniferous, which includes the El Paso and Maliman
formations), middle (Upper Carboniferous, approximately
Namurian–Westphalian and which includes the Hoyada
Verde, Guandacol, and Tupe formations), and upper
(Upper Carboniferous, approximately Stephanian–Lower
Permian, which includes the Tres Saltos and Patquia
formations). Overall, nonmarine deposits intertongue
westward with shallow marine strata (Figure 4a). Western
sections expose deltaic and offshore strata (El Paso and
Hoyada Verde formations) that are overlain by littoral and
terrestrial rocks (Tres Saltos Formation). Eastern sections
show an upward passage from lacustrine (Guandacol
Formation) to alluvial plain (Tupe Formation) to eolian
(Patquia Formation) strata (Figures 2, 4a). Glacial and
glacially influenced deposits are mostly restricted to the
middle subunit in two major settings: lacustrine in the east
and coastal plain and estuarine to open marine shelf in the
west (these facies are described later). Dropstones occur
locally in the upper subunit, but may reflect seasonal ice
cover in lakes. González (1990) has reported lower
Carboniferous tillites and dropstones in the area, but this
requires confirmation.
Sedimentary Facies
In the Early Carboniferous, a wide coastal plain
connected the Pampeanas highlands with a western shelf
margin. In the early Late Carboniferous, an ice cap
centered on the Pampeanas highlands episodically
expanded onto the coastal plain and shelf. Upper
Carboniferous lacustrine deposits in the eastern Cuyo
pre-Cordillera delineate a foreland lacustrine system that
occupied the Zonda-Villicum trough (Figure 4a). The
trough must have been at least sporadically connected to
the open sea during highstands to account for fossil-
iferous marine intercalations. Overall, the trough fill
constitutes a coarsening-upward deltaic succession
(Guandacol Formation) with thin diamictites containing
striated clasts resting on supposedly glacially striated
pavements (Bossi and Andreis, 1985). Diamictites are
intercalated with mudstone intervals containing drop-
stones and slump structures and may represent the
downslope mass flow of glacioclastic debris in a fan delta
setting. These strata are poorly prospective because sand-
stones are limited to occasional, thin (1 m) storm deposits
reworked from underlying glacial sediment.
In the western part of the basin, sedimentary succes-
sions are also diamictite dominated and poorly prospec-
tive. Diamictites rest on deformed early Paleozoic
substrates and are overlain by thick rain-out diamictites
(González, 1981; López Gamundi, 1983; Milana and
Bercowski, 1987). In the Hoyada Verde Formation, rain-
out diamictites are capped by a boulder pavement that
records winnowing of the diamictites and are blanketed
by basinal mudstones. Shallow marine and terrestrial
beds in the Tres Saltos Formation complete the sequence
(Figures 3, 5a).
Tepuel Basin
The Tepuel basin contains as much as 5 km of Lower
Carboniferous–Lower Permian sedimentary rocks
(Tepuel Group and Jaramillo, Pampa de Tepuel, Rio
Genoa formations) (Figures 2, 4b) that are well exposed
in the sub-Andean foothills. Much of the Carboniferous
dips into the subsurface south of the Tepuel Ranges so
that the southern half of the basin exposes only latest
Carboniferous–Lower Permian sections (Figure 4b,
inset). Cenozoic compression, superimposed on
Mesozoic extension, resulted in block faulting and gentle
folding of the Tepuel Group strata over much of the
basin (Andreis et al., 1987; Archangelsky et al., 1987;
González Bonorino, 1991).
The Tepuel Group was deposited on a westward-
facing shallow marine shelf and is dominated by wave-
worked sandstones interbedded with bioturbated
mudstones (Figure 4b) (Page et al., 1984; González
Bonorino and González Bonorino, 1988). Petrographic
data reveal a persistent source area in the Patagonia
highlands, then underlain by crystalline rocks similar to
those of the North Patagonia massif (Figure 4b, inset)
(Frakes and Crowell, 1969; González Bonorino, 1992).
Higher subsidence rates in the Tepuel compared to the
Paganzo-Miliman basin favored the preservation of a
thicker marine succession. Because of the more open
marine setting, there was greater opportunity for
reworking of glacioclastic sediment into shallow marine
sand bodies across the postglacial shelf.
Sedimentary Facies
The lower part of the Pampa de Tepuel Formation
contains three intervals of glacial and glacially influenced
deposits (G1, G2, and G3) (Figure 5). Chaotically bedded
diamictites are characterized by exotic striated boulders
of granite in an argillaceous sandstone matrix and rest on
severely deformed shelf deposits. These beds are most
easily interpreted as mass flows accompanying the
downslope movement and deformation of underlying
sediment, although a direct glacial origin as tillites cannot
as yet be discounted. Overlying massive diamictites, up to
60 m thick, show clasts dispersed in a mudstone matrix
that is transitional to shelf mudstones and are interpreted
as rain-out deposits. These facies are truncated by well-
sorted wave-worked sandstone bodies up to 10 m thick
and 2 km long, elongated in the direction of dominant
sediment transport (González Bonorino et al., 1988). Slatt
(1984) has described the development of Holocene sand
bodies on the outer Canadian Atlantic shelf as a result of
postglacial reworking of glacial sediments. The same
model can be applied to the sandstone bodies of the
Tepuel basin.
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America
Figure 5—Stratigraphic column for the middle part of the
Tepuel Group in the Tecka Range. G1–G3 are prominent
glacial intervals; see text for details. See Figure 4 for
location.
INTRACRATONIC BASINS
Paraná Basin of Brazil
The Paraná basin of southern Brazil is the largest
(1.6 × 106 km2) late Paleozoic basin in southern South
America (Figure 2). It contains a thick (1400-m) predomi-
nantly marine glacial succession, the Itararé Group (dos
Santos, 1987; França and Potter 1991), which has strong
similarities to strata in the Chaco-Tarija basin of Bolivia
and Argentina. Three depositional successions (Silurian–
Devonian, Upper Carboniferous–Jurassic, and Creta-
ceous) record repeated phases of subsidence and
sediment accommodation in the Paraná basin (Oliveira,
171
1989). Devonian and Permian shales of the Ponta Grossa
and Irati formations, respectively, are source rocks for
hydrocarbons in sandstones of the Itararé Group. Core
and downhole geophysical data are available from about
100 wells, but the collection of high-resolution seismic
studies is prevented by a thick cover of Late Jurassic
flood basalts (França and Potter, 1991). The Itararé Group
spans the latest Westphalian–earliest Stephanian (about
300 Ma) to latest Artinskian–earliest Kungurian (about
260 Ma) and is comparable in age to the glacigenic
Dwyka Formation of the Karoo basin in southern Africa
(Visser, 1990). Marine microflora are present throughout
the Itararé Group, including the genera Baltisphaeridium,
Micrhystridium, Veryhachium, Leiosphaeridia, Navifusa,
Cymatiosphaera, and Tasmanites (Daemon et al., 1992).
Three formations (Lagoe Azul, Campo Mourao, and
Taciba) can be recognized within the Itararé Group
(Figure 6), each overstepping the underlying formation
and recording renewed basin subsidence by faulting
along steeply dipping basement lineaments (see Eyles et
al., 1993). Subsidence and expansion of the basin was
strongly asymmetric to either side of a broad, northwest-
trending structural belt along the trend of the Guapiara
lineament, which is interpreted as a major intraplate
boundary in South America (Eyles and Eyles, 1993;
Tankard et al., 1995).
Sedimentary Facies
Each formation of the Itararé Group is composed of a
lowermost member of thickly bedded, amalgamated
turbidite sandstones (e.g., Cuiaba Paulista Member)
overlain by a fine-grained member dominated by shales,
muddy debris flows, and rain-out diamictites (e.g.,
Chapeu do Sol Member) (Figures 6, 7, 8).
The most striking characteristics of the sandstones in
the Itararé Group are their thickness, massive character,
and textural homogeneity. The sandstones are predomi-
nantly fine to medium in texture and are lithologically
immature, containing large quantities of lithic fragments.
A well-defined secondary porosity can be identified
(Figure 9). The sandstones consist of massive, graded,
and deformed facies emplaced by turbidity currents.
Homogeneous sandstone bodies are as thick as 200 m,
suggesting that they are the product of the repeated
stacking and amalgamation of Bouma A turbidite beds.
These facies (e.g., Cuiaba Paulista Member) have a well-
defined cylindrical gamma ray signature and give rise to
remarkably consistent dipmeter patterns (Figure 8a).
Chaotically deformed facies are locally present and
record postdepositional downslope slumping; liquefac-
tion structures are common. Other thick sandstone
bodies (e.g., Campo Mourao Member) show well-defined
fining-upward sequences 10–30 m thick composed of
graded sandstones facies (Figure 8b). These facies
contain appreciable muddy matrix material that severely
restricts their reservoir potential.
Recent outcrop studies along the margins of the basin
have identified large glaciofluvial feeder channels, the
locations of which are controlled by basement structures
(Figure 10)‚ but a channeled geometry has so far not been
172 Eyles et al.
recognized in the subsurface given the dearth of high-
quality seismic coverage. Initial interpretations of the
thick sandstones of the Itararé Group indicate deposition
within large submarine channels and associated lobe
systems controlled by reactivated basement structures
(see Figure 11).
Diamictite beds consist of scattered clasts in a clayey
silt to muddy sand matrix. Massive facies were
deposited by the rain-out of mud from suspended
sediment plumes together with ice-rafted debris. Strati-
fied and locally laminated facies record postdepositional
downslope redeposition as debris flows. These form
blanket-like deposits in the Itararé Group and consist of
millimeter- to boulder-sized fragments set in an argilla-
ceous matrix. Clast content varies widely; diamictites
pass laterally and vertically into marine shales. In many
cases, discrimination of rain-out and resedimented
components in many diamictite units is not possible and
the term rain-out complex is used. Similar stratigraphic
complexes composed of in situ rain-out and slumped
facies dominate the correlative Dwyka Formation of
southern Africa (Visser, 1989) and are also reported from
many other glaciated basins (e.g., Young and Gostin,
1991; Eyles, 1993). Typical gamma ray, resistivity, and
dipmeter logs of diamictites are shown in Figure 8c.
Dipmeter logs are patternless, probably as a result of
extensive resedimentation, whereas other geophysical
logs show a fairly uniform pattern reflecting a fine-
grained, shale-like matrix.
Shales form massive blanket-like units across the
basin and accumulated by the settling of fines from
Figure 6—Paraná basin of Brazil showing
location of wells used in this study and
representative stratigraphic and resistivity
logs through the Itararé Group in the central
part of the Paraná basin at well 3. Inset
shows the location of Figure 10 in the state
of Mato Grosso.
suspended sediment plumes; laminated facies were
deposited from turbidity currents. Shales in general have
low total organic carbon content, but form excellent seal
rocks.
Depositional Setting
Primary glacial deposits such as tillites, boulder
pavements, and ice proximal conglomerates and sand-
stones, together with erosional bedforms such as
glacially scoured basement highs, are well exposed
around the main outcrop belt of the eastern Paraná basin
between Curitiba and São Paulo (see Rocha-Campos and
dos Santos, 1981; dos Santos, 1987). It is probable that this
zone of ice contact deposits and landforms marks the
westward limit of ice flowing out of southern Africa
during basin filling (Kaokoveld ice lobe of Franca and
Potter, 1991). However, as recognized in southern Africa
by Visser (1989), basin filling may have followed a long
period (20 Ma) of extensive glaciation, uplift, and erosion
across the Paraná and Karoo basins for which no sedi-
mentary record survives.
During filling, the Paraná basin acted as a steep-sided
trap for prolific volumes of glacially produced sediment,
primarily sand and mud, delivered by glacial meltwaters
(Figure 11). The alternation of sandstone and shale
members in each formation most likely records an
overall long-term tectonic control rather than any alter-
nation of climate (glacial–interglacial cycles) or climati-
cally driven glacioeustatic or glacioisostatic changes.
Stratigraphic cross sections show that shales overstep
sandstones (see Eyles et al., 1993), which indicates basin
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America 173

Figure 7—Representative sedi-

mentologic logs of cores
through diamictites (seals) and
turbidite sandstones (reser-
voirs) of the Itararé Group. (a)
Well #2, Cahpeu do Sol
Member. (b) Well #2, Rio
Segredo Member. (c) Well #1,
Cuiba Paulista Member. See
Figure 6 for well locations.
Lithofacies codes are after
Eyles et al. (1983); numbers on
left are depths in meters. Strati-
graphic position of log (c) is
shown on Figure 8a.

subsidence and transgression of the coastline. Short-term Chaco-Paraná Basin of Argentina

climate and sea level changes are beyond the resolving
power of the large-scale basinwide work conducted to
date, but given the relatively steep margins of the Paraná
basin, the sedimentary effects of such sea level changes
are probably slight. This situation can be contrasted with
that obtained in the foreland basins of Argentina, where
a high-resolution sea level and climate record may ulti-
mately be resolvable from shallow water, glacially influ-
enced shelf strata. Drawing on a wide range of data,
Eyles (1993) reviewed the available database and
suggested that the maximum glacioeustatic sea level
drawdown resulting from late Paleozoic glaciation was
unlikely to have been much greater than 70 m.
The Chaco-Paraná basin contains at least a 2.2-km
thickness of Late Carboniferous–Late(?) Permian strata
present in the subsurface of the Chaco-Paraná plains in
central and northern Argentina (Figures 1, 12a). Basin
structure and stratigraphy are poorly known from
wildcat drilling and low-density seismic coverage. Mild
flexural deformation and tilted fault blocks can be seen in
seismic sections (Pezzi and Mozetic, 1989). The thickest
measured section is 2200 m in the Ordoñez stratigraphic
well (Figure 12b).
Late Paleozoic sections in wells in the northern Chaco-
Paraná basin are subdivided into three conformable
174 Eyles et al.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 8—Stratigraphic and geophysical logs. (a) Sand-

stones of the Cuiaba Paulista Member, well #1. Black bar
indicates cored interval shown in detail in Figure 7c. Note
distinct cylindrical gamma ray pattern between shale
intervals and consistent dipmeter values. Sandstones are
fine to medium grained and texturally mature and record
repeated stacking of Bouma A turbidites, which have
excellent reservoir potential. (b) Campo Mourao Member,
well #5. Fining-upward (FU) cycles identify thick, graded
sandstone units; these are less texturally mature than
those in part (a) and are less attractive exploration targets.
Note greater scatter of dipmeter values compared to part
(a). (c) Diamictites of the Chapeu do Sol Member, well #5.
Note wider scatter of dipmeter values reflecting wide-
spread debris flow during deposition of rain-out diamictite
complexes and shale-like gamma ray log pattern reflecting
fine-grained muddy matrix. See Figure 6 for well locations.

formations (from the bottom up): Sachayoj, Charata, and
Chacabuco. In contrast, correlative strata in the south are
grouped into the Ordoñez and the conformably overlying
Victoriano and Rodriguez formations (Mingramm et al.,
1979; Russo et al., 1979) (Figures 2, 12b). Well logs show
alternating packets of mudstone, sandstone, and diamic-
tite containing marine faunas. Stratigraphic, sedimento-
logic, and structural similarities with the Paraná basin fill
suggest that the same depositional systems developed in
both basins. Nevertheless, both basins appear to have
been separated by the Asunción arch and likely reflect
subsidence of independent fault-bounded subbasins
controlled by late Proterozoic lineaments (F. Wiens,
personal communication, 1992).
Chaco-Tarija Basin of Bolivia and
Argentina
The Chaco-Tarija basin is an asymmetric intracratonic
basin that extends more than 1000 km from Peru in the
north to Argentina in the south (Figures 1, 13, 14). Figure
1 shows a much simplified assessment of the structural
setting of the basin emphasizing the first-order control by
late Proterozoic terranes (see Tankard et al., 1995). The
northern boundary of the Chaco is defined by the linear,
lineament-defined margin of the Guapore shield of
Brazil; to the south, the basin is closed by the Puna and
Michicola arches in northwestern Argentina.
In the Chaco-Traija basin, strata deformed during the
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America
Figure 9—Secondary moldic porosity resulting from
dissolution of feldspar grains in reservoir sandstones of
the Rio Segredo Member of the Itararé Group. Molds are
identifiable by remnant rims of feldspar overgrowth which
are more stable than original detrital grains. P, porosity; Q,
quartz; F, feldspar. Scale bar in upper left is 0.1 mm long.
Chanica orogeny are overlain by a thick Carboniferous
sequence, which commenced deposition in the Early
Carboniferous (Salfity et al., 1987; Suarez, 1989) (Figure 2).
Carboniferous strata are well exposed along the sub-
Andean foothills. Outcrops show muddy diamictite
facies and large sandstone-filled channels up to several
tens of kilometers wide and several hundred kilometers
long (Figure 13), commonly showing large-scale defor-
mation structures and chaotic bedding. In the past, these
channels have been interpreted as continental tillites and
subaerial meltwater channels, respectively, deposited by
ice margins advancing and retreating across the Chaco
basin from ice centers to the south and east (Helwig,
1972; Salinas et al., 1978). New work (discussed below)
stresses instead the importance of marine sedimentation
and the paucity of evidence for any direct glacial
influence on sedimentation.
Facies and Depositional Setting
Generalized stratigraphic columns based on outcrops
in the sub-Andean foothills near Santa Cruz, Bolivia
(Figure 15), show thick, channeled sandstones (e.g.,
Itacua and Chorro formations) separated by fine-grained
facies including pebbly mudstones and shales (e.g., Tarija
and Taiguati formations). The Tupambi and Tarija sand-
stones form prominent escarpments along the foothills
belt; shales form recessive units along valley floors.
Sandstones are dominated by thick, amalgamated
sections of turbidite facies commonly deformed by
slumping. Conglomerates are a minor component.
Amalgamated turbidite sandstones fill the large channels
discussed in the previous section (Figures 13, 16). The
regional depositional setting appears to have consisted of
sand-rich deltas around the basin margin in Argentina
funneling large volumes of sediment to a system of
channels along the basin axis (Figure 17a). The great
thickness of individual channel fills suggests repeated
stacking and amalgamation of turbidites and rapid subsi-
175
Figure 10—Generalized outcrop map near Cuiaba, Mato
Grosso, along the northwestern margin of Paraná basin
(see inset in Figure 6 for location) showing basement
structural control on location of sandstone-filled feeder
channels (see Figure 11). (From N. Eyles, unpublished
data, 1991.)
dence. Slope failure along the frontal margins of deltas
may have been the principal mechanism for generating
thick, sandy turbidites. Seismic lines and outcrops show
chaotically deformed masses (olistostromes) resulting
from downslope collapse of channel walls or the upslope
basin margin, most likely in response to large-magnitude
earthquakes.
Fine-grained intervals that separate sandstones (e.g.,
Taiguati Formation) (Figure 15) appear to have been
deposited in interchannel settings. These facies
commonly contain rafts and pillows of displaced
sandstone and muddy diamictite. The latter may record
the “spilling” of coarse-grained turbidites from large
channels which, as a consequence of being rapidly
dumped on a muddy substrate, underwent downslope
mass flow and mixing with mud. The generation of
pebbly muds in this fashion is well known (e.g., Crowell,
1957; Eyles and Eyles, 1989; Eyles, 1990) and has previ-
ously been suggested for the diamictites of the Chaco
basin (Frakes and Crowell, 1969).
The same basic stratigraphy of large feeder channels
separated by muddy mass flow deposits can be recog-
nized in the southern part of the basin in Argentina
176 Eyles et al.

Figure 11—From glacial source to reservoir rock: depositional model for glacially influenced sandstone turbidites of the late
Paleozoic Itararé Group of Brazil. The key to deposition of thick sandstone members (Figures 7, 8) is the occurrence of a
major influx of glaciofluvial sediment and repeated downslope resedimentation by slumps and slump-triggered turbidites.
Position of major feeder channels is controlled by basement faults (Figure 10). Correlative channels are preserved along the
Namibian coastline of southern Africa. Slumps may be generated by earthquakes recording intracratonic faulting during
basin subsidence. Source rocks are Devonian and Permian shales; areally extensive blankets of shales and diamictites (not
shown) form seals. Alternation of sandstone and muddy members in the Itararé Group (Figure 6) may reflect low relative sea
level and progradation of braid deltas, followed by highstands of relative sea level and deposition of transgressive muds.

(Lopez Gamundi, 1986; Starck et al., 1992). There, the
base of the succession (Tupambi Formation) contains
shallow water indicators and striated boulder pavements;
available data suggest a large deltaic system in close
proximity to ice and meltwaters. It is likely that this area
represents the source area for the channeled sandstones
deposited to the north in Bolivia (Figures 13, 17a).
It is not yet possible to reconstruct the larger deposi-
tional system or water depths within the Chaco-Tarija
basin. The orientation and distribution of channels in the
basin (Figure 13) suggests that the term fan is not appro-
priate because the characteristic diverging pattern of
distributary channels and a single source typical of
classic fan bodies cannot be identified. “Classic” fans
develop on simple, unconfined basin floors with a single
feeder channel (e.g., Walker, 1992) in contrast to other
fans that occupy confined basins and do not show a
simple diverging network of channels.
A useful morphologic analog for the channel system of
the Chaco-Tarija basin is provided by the eastern
Canadian continental slope and basin plain, which has
experienced repeated Pleistocene glaciation. Hesse and
Rakofsky (1992) have described a basin-wide network of
converging and subparallel (“Yazoo type”) submarine
channels cut on the floor of the Labrador Sea (Figure
17b). Thick, massive turbidite sands comprise the
dominant in-channel facies and interfinger with chaoti-
cally bedded slump facies resulting from the collapse of
channel walls. Fine-grained, muddy turbidite facies
comprise typical overbank facies. Inactive channels are
buried below thick, mud-rich debris flow deposits origi-
nating from the downslope collapse of glacial sediments
dumped along the upper continental slope. These facies
are comparable to those of the Chaco-Tarija basin.
Rocha-Campos et al. (1977) described marine fossils,
including Levipustula levis Maxwell and Limipecten cf. L.
burnettensis Maxwell, from the Taiguati and San Telmo
formations (Figure 16) (see also Sempere, 1995). These
authors summarize previous work, arguing for a marine
connection to the Chaco-Tarija basin and discuss a range
of paleogeographic settings. The considerable thickness
(hundreds of meters) of sandstone-filled channels in the
Chaco-Traija basin suggests rapid subsidence. Deposi-
tion occurred within an extensional tectonic regime
involving rapid basement subsidence in response to
transpressional movements along the nearby Pacific
plate margin. A marine connection to the northwest to
the paleo-Pacific Ocean appears likely, but the basin
proper may have had a restricted (brackish) circulation
system dominated by freshwater input from terrestrial
ice centers to large deltas (Figure 17a).
HYDROCARBONS AND RESERVOIR
CHARACTERISTICS
Foreland basins
In the foreland basins of Argentina, stratigraphically
complex glacial deposits are poorly prospective because
of a dearth of reservoir quality sandstones and appro-
priate source and seal rocks. In addition, as a conse-
quence of Andean tectonics, most potential reservoirs
have been breached by erosion. Secondary high-risk
targets for exploration probably occur in the Andean
foredeep and in footwall basins where upper Paleozoic
sandstones lie adjacent to Triassic source shales. Only in
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America
Figure 13—Distribution of Carboniferous strata in the
Chaco basin of Bolivia and schematic distribution of large-
scale submarine channels. (After Salinas et al., 1978;
Tankard et al., 1995. See also Eyles, 1993.)
177
Figure 12—(a) Chaco-Paraná
basin of Argentina showing
isopachs for upper Paleozoic
fill and principal structural
elements that controlled sedi-
mentation. Open circles
indicate position of exploration
wells. Solid triangles show
presence of diamictite in
subsurface. (b) Stratigraphy for
southern Chaco-Paraná basin
at a YPFB exploration well.
(After Russo et al., 1980.)
the southern Tepuel basin is there some potential for
exploration in postglacial, shallow marine sandstones
winnowed from underlying glacial strata. Porosity is
low, however, ranging from 3 to 8% due to cementation
by silica and micaceous minerals.
Intracratonic Basins
In the intracratonic basins of Argentina, Brazil, and
Bolivia, the principal role of late Paleozoic glaciers has
been to scour surrounding highlands and cratons and to
furnish large volumes of glaciofluvial sand and mud to
rivers feeding coastal deltas and their channelized
submarine equivalents (Figures 11, 17a). Repeated
sediment instability was caused by faulting (earth-
quakes?) and downslope reworking of glaciofluvial
sediment by sediment gravity flows along steep fault-
controlled basin margins. These processes resulted in the
focusing of sand along structural lineaments and the
formation of thick, prospective sandstone bodies.
Chaco-Tarija Basin
In the Chaco-Tarija basin, the Bolivian National Oil
Company (Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos,
or YPFB) recovers hydrocarbons from glacially influ-
enced submarine channel fills (Figures 13, 16, 17a). These
strata host significant reservoirs in about 30 oil fields
(e.g., McCaslin, 1979; Montes de Oca, 1989) and are
sourced from Devonian shales. Oil fields are located in
thrust sheets with diamictites as seals. Westward tilting
178 Eyles et al.
Figure 14—(a) Chaco-Tarija basin of Argentina and Bolivia
showing isopachs for Carboniferous fill and principal
structural elements that controlled sedimentation. The
basin boundary in the northwest is ill defined. Horizontal
ruling shows distribution of thermally mature Devonian
seals. Black ovals show approximate extent of principal oil
and gas fields in Carboniferous. (b) Thermal gradients in
Chaco-Tarija basin. Present oil window (65–100˚C) includes
shaly Devonian sections. Position of reconstructed Late
Cretaceous 100˚C isotherm suggests maturation
throughout the Cenozoic. (After Salinas et al., 1978.)
of the basin during late Cenozoic Andean deformation
led to migration of hydrocarbons to higher stratigraphic
levels within thrust sheets. Thermal conditions in the
basin throughout the Cenozoic have been favorable for
maturation of Devonian source rocks (Figure 14b).
Because of repeated cutting and filling and the evolution
of multistory channels fills, stratigraphic correlations
from sub-Andean outcrops to seismic sections within the
basin are difficult. Most oil finds were made in the course
of drilling to deeper Devonian targets.
Paraná Basin
In Brazil, more than 110 exploration holes have been
completed to date in the Paraná basin, with the most
important reservoir targets being the thick, amalgamated
Figure 15—Representative stratigraphic columns for the
late Paleozoic in the Argentinian (after Starck et al., 1992)
and Bolivian sectors (Santa Cruz district; after López
Paulsen et al., 1992) of the Chaco-Tarija basin. Note
differing use of formation names in Bolivia and Argentina.
Devonian shales are source rocks (see Figure 14b). The
Tupambi Formation is productive in the Campo Durán-
Madrejones oil field in Argentina. Note coarsening-upward
trend from the Itacua to Escarpment Formation probably
recording progradation of shoreline. Marine fossils are
reported from the Taiguati and San Telmos formations
(Rocha-Campos et al., 1977).
turbidite sandstones within the Cuiaba Paulista, Campo
Mourao, and Rio Segredo members of the Itararé Group.
In general, reservoir quality is fair to poor because of sili-
cification and mechanical compaction. Along the central
parts of the basin, sandstones are present at depths as
great as 4600 m. Thick, texturally mature sandstone
bodies having cylindrical gamma ray logs (Figure 8a) are
the best targets; other sandstones showing well-defined
fining-upward characteristics (Figure 8b) offer less attrac-
tive targets because of their higher matrix content.
The Campo Mourao Formation (Figure 6) contains the
majority of potential reservoirs. This is related to the
development of secondary porosity caused by dissolu-
tion of early calcite and anhydrite cements and, to a
lesser extent, dissolution of feldspars and unstable lithics
during intrusion of Jurassic–Cretaceous dikes and sills
(Figure 9). Large volumes of carboxylic acids and
groundwater rich in carbon dioxide were released from
the intrusives as a result of the maturation of organic
matter (França and Potter, 1991). The best reservoirs of
the Itararé Group occur in the uppermost sandstones of
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 16—(a) Base of turbidite-filled channel cutting
across slumped sandstones and diamictites (Tarija
Formation, near Samaipata, Bolivia). Section is 30 m high.
(b) Olistostromes of turbidite sandstone and diamictite,
Tarija Formation. Section is 15 m high. (c) Pebbly
mudstone debris flow of the Tupambi Formation with bed
base identified by clasts and interbedded graded (turbidite)
sandstones.
the Rio Segredo Member (Figure 6). Because of their
shallow depth, these show the least mechanical
compaction of all the Itararé sandstones and also have
little clay matrix. The cleanliness of the sandstones is the
result of elutriation of fines by repeated downslope
turbidity flow. Rio Segredo sandstones are sealed by
thick (10 m average), extensive (>600 km2) diamictites.
Devonian shales of the Ponta Grossa Formation are
the principal source rocks for gas and condensate shows
in the Itararé Group (Zalán et al., 1990). Local oil finds in
the overlying postglacial Rio Bonito Formation are
sourced from the Upper Permian Irati Shale. Geohistory
179
plots show that the Ponta Grossa Formation entered the
oil window at about 200 Ma and remained there until
about 135 Ma; the Irati Shale entered the oil generation
window at about this time (Oliveira, 1989). Intrusion of
the Serra Geral lavas played a major role in elevating
maturation levels by direct thermal heating and by accel-
erating basin subsidence. The base of the Itararé Group is
beyond the preservation limit for wet gas, but several
holes show dry gas composed largely of methane
(typically about 85%), with less than 5% of ethane,
propane, isobutane, and normal butane. The most
promising test to date shows a gas flow rate of 51,000
m3/day in sandstones of the Campo Mourao Formation,
where a diabase sill forms a seal (Zalán et al., 1990).
Exploration in the Paraná basin is complicated by the
thick cover of Upper Jurassic Serra Geral lavas, but
underlying upper Proterozoic basement structures
appear to have dictated the geometry of successive
phases of late Paleozoic extension and basin expansion
(Eyles and Eyles, 1993). Oliveira (1989) presented the
results of backstripping analyses and showed that the
greatest amount of subsidence between the Silurian and
the Cretaceous occurred during deposition of the
Permian–Carboniferous Itararé Group. Hercynian oroge-
nesis along the paleo-Pacific margin of southern South
America resulted in the “far-field” reactivation of the
Curibita-Guapiara structural zone and associated linea-
ments (Figure 3). The changing state of stress within the
interior of the continent as Gondwana underwent a
clockwise rotation may have controlled renewed
intracratonic subsidence.
In the Paraná basin, thickness isopachs for successive
stratigraphic members show a strong basement control
on both depocenters and sediment sources during depo-
sition of the Itararé Group (see Eyles et al., 1993, for
details). The models of Prior and Bornhold (1986) and
Syvitski and Farrow (1989) describe strongly focused
sedimentation dominated by mass flow within the
confines of steep-sided glaciated fiord basins. These
models may be appropriate for sandstones of the Itararé
Group in the Paraná basin (Figure 11). The same reacti-
vation processes on a different scale have probably
controlled fluid migration along structural lineaments.
Faulting also results in abrupt juxtaposition of sandstone
against fine-grained facies.
A clear relationship among basement lineaments,
paleocurrents, and sandstone body geometry is evident
in outcrops along the northwestern outcrop belt of the
Itararé Group near Rondonopolis (Figure 10). The
positions of large sandstone-filled feeder channels are
controlled by grabens in the underlying basement
(Figure 11). Similar structural relationships between
basement and so-called preglacial valleys crop out along
the southeastern basin margin south of São Paulo (e.g.,
Martin, 1953, 1964; Martin et al., 1958; Mau, 1960). These
preserve coarse-grained, subaqueous mass flow and
subaerial outwash facies and, most significantly, can be
correlated with other paleovalleys exposed in north-
western Damaraland, Namibia (Horsthemke et al., 1990).
Valleys are structurally controlled by northwest-trending
late Proterozoic basement lineaments parallel to the
180 Eyles et al.
(a)
Figure 17—(a) Generalized depositional setting for the
glacially influenced strata of the Chaco-Tarija basin. (b)
Yazoo-type channels on the floor of the Labrador Sea (after
Hesse and Rakofsky, 1992). Compare with channel
systems shown in Figure 13. The tectonic and bathymetric
setting is different from the Chaco-Tarija basin and only the
gross disposition of channels is compared here.
Guapiara lineament in Brazil and the trend of the
Damara belt in southern Africa (see Tankard et al., 1995,
and figure 16.9 in Eyles, 1993). In the Paraná basin, they
contain significant postglacial coal deposits.
With only about 30 wildcat wells, the Chaco-Paraná
basin of Argentina is the least studied of all the glacially
influenced basins in southern South America. As a result
of lithostratigraphic similarities and lack of independent
detailed information, exploration targets and inferred
reservoir charactistics are likely to be similar to those
described for the Paraná basin of Brazil.
DISCUSSION
The tectonostratigraphic model established here for
prospective glacigenic sandstones in intracratonic basins
in central and southern South America may be of wider
application. Broadly similar tectonic controls on the
formation of glaciated intracratonic basins in Australia
can be identified (Eyles, 1993), and a common character-
istic of several of these basins is the presence of thick,
prospective sandstones (e.g., Grant Group of the
Canning basin; O’Brien, 1992). In contrast, other late
Paleozoic glacially influenced basins are dominated by
muddy facies, such as shales and rain-out diamictite
complexes, with an absence of thick sandstones (e.g.,
Karoo basin; Visser, 1989). This contrast can be argued to
be a direct result of regional basement structure and the
presence or absence of major lineament systems that
controlled drainage patterns, sediment sources, and
depocenters. Eyles et al. (1993) showed that basement
lineaments play a fundamental role in basin filling by
capturing meltwater runoff from glacially scoured
(b)
cratons, thereby focusing glacial meltwaters and
sediments into structurally controlled depocenters. Other
basins lacking any basement control on drainage appear
to lack the means of focusing sediment and water,
resulting in dispersal of coarse sediment around the
basin margins. Structurally controlled sources and
depocenters appear to be persistent through time and
may promote basin subsidence as a result of rapid
sediment loading adjacent to faulted basement. In turn,
this may enhance sediment instability and downslope
mass flow by earthquakes, leading to the accumulation
of thick turbidite sandstones. The axiomatic assumption
made by many petroleum geologists that the terms
glaciated basin and poorly prospective are synonomous is
clearly misplaced.
Acknowledgments N. Eyles and C. H. Eyles thank the
Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada
for funding fieldwork in South America and for providing an
International Scientific Exchange award to support G.
González Bonorino’s sabbatical leave at the University of
Toronto. González Bonorino thanks NSERC for making this
collaborative work possible and the Eyles for their hospitality.
França’s stay at Toronto was funded by Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologo, Petrobras, and
NSERC. We thank Tony Tankard, Edison Milani, Paul Potter,
Paulo dos Santos, Tony Rocha-Campos, and Fernando Wiens
for discussions. The ideas presented herein are those of the
authors. The manuscript was reviewed by Johan Visser, Tony
Tankard, and Barend van Hoorn, whom we thank for their
valuable comments.
 Hydrocarbon-Bearing Late Paleozoic Glaciated Basins of Southern and Central South America
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Interior cratonic basins: AAPG Memoir 51, p. 681–708.
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation
in the Chaco Basin of Paraguay,
with Comments on Hydrocarbon Potential

F. Wiens
Geo Consultores
Asunción, Paraguay

Abstract

T his study of the Chaco basin is based on field studies of outcrops and on exploration data. The Chaco
basin covers 246,725 km2 of western Paraguay and consists of several depocenters or subbasins, each
with a unique tectonostratigraphic record. In the northwest, the Curupaity and Carandaity subbasins contain a
well-developed Paleozoic succession. In contrast, Mesozoic subsidence was marked in the southern Pirity and
Pilar subbasins and in the shallow Bahia Negra platform and San Pedro low to the east. These depocenters are
separated by structural highs. Uppermost Proterozoic–Recent sedimentary sequences are present in the Chaco
basin.
The subsidence history of the Chaco basin is recorded in four major unconformity-bounded sequences.
Northwest- and northeast-oriented structural lineaments of Eocambrian Brasiliano origin controlled the
patterns of subsidence. Mesozoic extensional tectonics related to the opening of the South Atlantic reorganized
the structural pattern of the Chaco basin; this episode is expressed in a system of half-grabens. Cenozoic
Andean orogenesis imposed the final structural readjustment and established the Chaco area as a modern
foreland basin.
Upper Devonian marine shales and Upper Cretaceous shales and carbonates are the primary source rocks
for hydrocarbons. The principal reservoir zones are Carboniferous channel sandstones in the Curupaity and
Carandaity subbasins and stratigraphic and structurally controlled sandstone reservoirs of Mesozoic age in the
Pirity subbasin.

Resumen

E ste trabajo se basa en datos de secuencias estratigraficas aflorantes y de actividades exploratorias. La

cuenca del Chaco ocupa con 246,725 km2 la región occidental del Paraguay y consiste de varios
depocentros o subcuencas, cada uno con un registro tectono-estratigráfico único. Al noroeste las subcuencas de
Curupaity y Carandaity representan áreas con secuencias paleozoicas bien desarrolladas. En contraste, subsi-
dencia mesozoica es marcada en las subcuencas de Pirity y Pilar al sur, como también en la plataforma de
Bahía Negra y el bajo de San Pedro al este. Estos depocentros están separados por altos estructurales. Sedi-
mentos desde el Proterozoico superior al reciente estan presentes en la cuenca del Chaco.
La historia de subsidencia de la cuenca del Chaco es registrada en cuatro ciclos secuencionales principales,
limitados por discordancias. Lineamentos estructurales orientados al noroeste y noreste, de origen eocámbrico
del ciclo Brasiliano, controlaron el estilo de la subsidencia. La tectónica distensional mesozoica relacionada a la
apertura del Atlántico Sur reorganiza la disposición estructural de la cuenca del Chaco. Este episodio es mani-
festado en un sistema de subcuencas asimétricas. La orogénesis Andina del Cenozoico impone los últimos
reajustes estructurales y establece el área del Chaco en una planicie promontoria moderna.
Lutitas marinas del Devónico superior y lutitas-carbonatos del Cretácico superior son las principales rocas
generadoras para hidrocarburos. Areas de mayor potencial de reservorio son areniscas de paleocauces
carboníferos en las subcuencas de Curupaity-Carandaity, y trampas estratigráficas-estructurales del Mesozoico
en la subcuenca de Pirity.

Wiens, F., 1995, Phanerozoic tectonics and sedimentation in the Chaco basin of Paraguay, 185
with comments on hydrocarbon potential, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J.
Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 185–205.
186 Wiens

INTRODUCTION

The Chaco basin covers more than 60% of the

Republic of Paraguay, an area of 246,725 km2 (Figure 1).
The Chaco is a broad Quaternary plain with an average
elevation of only 160 m above sea level. Outcrops of
Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata occur in the northern
Chaco and along the Paraguay River (Figure 2). The
Paraguayan Chaco borders Bolivia to the north and west.
To the south and east, the Chaco continues into
Argentina and connects to eastern Paraguay and Brazil.
Hence, it is also known as the Chaco-Paraná basin.
Interpretation of the stratigraphic and tectonic
evolution is based on outcrop as well as subsurface
hydrocarbon and groundwater exploration data (PNUD,
1978; Wiens, 1989). Several hundred water wells have
been drilled throughout the Chaco. Hydrocarbon explo-
ration activities from 1947 to 1993 have contributed a
further 41 exploration wells (see Appendix). These data
are complemented by 11,500 km of seismic lines and a
general coverage by aeromagnetic surveys of the south-
western, western, and northern Chaco.
There are four subbasins in the Paraguayan Chaco
(Figure 3): (1) the Curupaity subbasin in the north,
containing 3 hydrocarbon test wells; (2) the Carandaity
subbasin in the west, with 28 hydrocarbon test wells; (3)
the Pirity subbasin in the southwest, with 8 hydrocarbon
wells; and (4) the Pilar subbasin in the south, which has
no test wells to date. These four subbasins were periodi- Figure 1—Map of South America showing the location of
cally yoked together to form the broader Chaco basin the Paraguayan Chaco basin and its regional geologic
complex. setting.
The Curupaity and Carandaity subbasins are essen-
tially Paleozoic depocenters, while the Pirity and Pilar
subbasins are attributed to Mesozoic extension. The The Phanerozoic Chaco basin is characterized strati-
Paleozoic–Mesozoic San Pedro low to the east is a graphically by three episodes and styles of sedimentation
westward extension of the Paraná basin and has no wells (Figures 4, 5). First, clastic and carbonate sedimentation
on the Chaco side. Finally, the Paleozoic Bahia Negra from the latest Proterozoic to Early Permian occurred in
platform to the northeast, also without wells, is largely marine and continental environments on a platform and
interpretative (Figure 3). These depocenters are sep- locally subsiding basins. Second, terrigenous clastic and
arated by intervening arches. carbonate sedimentation of Late Jurassic–Early Creta-
The Chaco basin (Figure 4) is a modern foreland basin ceous to middle Eocene age formed thick continental fills
between the Andean ranges to the west and the Brazilian in rift basins, with local marine transgression. Third,
shield to the northeast. Toward the east and south, it terrigenous clastic and evaporitic sedimentation with
merges with the Paraná and Pampa basins, respectively. local marine incursions occurred from the middle Eocene
The tectonic style of the Chaco basin is characterized by to Quaternary throughout the Chaco basin in a foreland
northwest- and northeast-oriented structural lineaments basin setting.
of Eocambrian Brasiliano cycle origin. Differential reacti-
vation of these fabrics through Phanerozoic time resulted
in four distinct phases of subsidence: early Paleozoic, late GEOLOGIC SETTING
Paleozoic, late Mesozoic, and Cenozoic (Figure 5). The
phases are separated by erosional unconformities or The tectonic history of the Phanerozoic Chaco basin
marked by nondeposition or low sedimentation rates. started during the intense thermotectonic Brasiliano cycle
While the Paleozoic phases reflect mild subsidence and (680–450 Ma), when carbonate and clastic sequences of
local structural readjustments, the Mesozoic basins were the Eocambrian Itapucumí Group were deposited. The
subjected to a general reorganization of the structural Brasiliano basins evolved through extensional and
styles by extension along predominantly northeast- compressional phases (Zalan, 1987). Thrusting along the
oriented lineaments related to the Atlantic opening. edges of the basins and acid magmatism (680–580 Ma)
Finally, a Cenozoic phase was caused by the Andean affected southeastern and northeastern Paraguay
orogeny and accompanying regional structural adjust- (Cordani, 1984; Wiens, 1986). This Brasiliano event marks
ments. the initiation of the Chaco and Paraná basin subsidence
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential 187

Figure 2—Simplified geology of Paraguay. The study area of the Paraguayan Chaco basin is on the western side of the
Paraguay River.

(Zalán, 1987) and establishment of the northwest- Paleozoic

southeast and northeast-southwest structural framework
(Figure 6).
This complex tectonic fabric is expressed as basement
highs such as the Río Apa and Río Tebicuary subcratonic
blocks, platforms on which the carbonate Itapucumí
Group was deposited, and local areas of subsidence in
the Carandaity and Curupaity regions (Figure 5).
For much of the Paleozoic, the Chaco basin was part
of a relatively stable area of shallow marine and conti-
nental sedimentation south of the Brazilian shield
(Figures 1, 5). The Paleozoic succession is dominated by
terrigenous clastics.
An almost complete Ordovician sequence of the Cerro
188 Wiens

Figure 3—Major Cretaceous tectonic units of Paraguay

showing the distribution of hydrocarbon exploration wells
and the locations of geologic and seismic sections
mentioned in the text. Abbreviations: Fil, Filadelfia; PV,
Puerto la Victoria; AJ, Adrian Jara; FA, Fortin Aroma; PI,
Palmar de las Islas; Me-1, Mendoza-1 well; Me-2, Mendoza-
2 well; To-1, Toro-1 well; Ga-1, Gato-1 well; Kat-1, Katerina-
1 well; Pa-1, Parapití-1 well; Dq-1, Don Quijote-1 well; Lo-1,
Lopez-1 well; Car-1, Carmen-1 well; Pal-1, Palo Santo-1
well; Be-1, Berta-1 well; Ac-1, Tte.Acosta-1 well; Naz-1,
Nazareth-1 well; Ori-1, Orihuela-1 well; Asu-1, Asunción-1
well; Asu-2, Asunción-2 well.

León Group is preserved in the Don Quixote-1 well in

the Carandaity subbasin. The Asunción-1 well in the San
Pedro low contains Middle–Upper Ordovician sedimen-
tary rocks of the Caacupé Group. Elsewhere, the succes-
sion is thin or absent, suggesting differential subsidence
and local erosion.
Outcrop geology in southeastern Paraguay and in the
northern Chaco basin suggests that continuous sedimen-
tation in Ordovician–Devonian time resulted from a
major transgressive-regressive cycle. A regional Lower
Silurian unconformity associated with the Zapla tillites in
the Chaco basin (Russo et al., 1979) has not been recog-
Figure 4—Simplified lithostratigraphic column of the
nized in the Paraguayan Chaco. Local Devonian trans- Paraguayan Chaco basin.
gression deposited the San Alfredo Group in western
and northern Chaco (Harris, 1959).
The broadscale geology suggests that a large sedimen- movement of structural basement blocks and local
tary platform was established in the Ordovician and erosion across uptilted crests where Upper Carbonif-
persisted until the Mesozoic. Only the Curupaity, erous continental glacial sediments and Lower Permian
Carandaity, and San Pedro depocenters experienced shallow marine sequences of the Palmar de las Islas
continuous subsidence, apart from the main Paraná basin. Group have an erosional contact. Locally the Permian
A pronounced angular unconformity separates the rests on Devonian shales (Lobo et al., 1976). Only in the
Devonian and Carboniferous successions in much of the deeper western parts of the Carandaity subbasin is a
northwestern Chaco. Subsequent tectonism resulted in complete section of Devonian–Upper Carboniferous and
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential
Figure 5—West-southeast cross sections showing the
Phanerozoic evolution of the Paraguayan Chaco basin and
the western Paraná basin (Ordovician–Silurian to Recent
surface) (section A–A' on Figure 3). Note the Paleozoic
migration and diversification of depocenters, as well as the
Mesozoic structural reorganization and Cenozoic readjust-
ment and inversion features.
Lower Permian sedimentary rocks preserved. In the
Curupaity subbasin, an erosional unconformity sep-
arates Carboniferous–Permian and Mesozoic sequences.
Paleozoic sedimentation in the Chaco basin was
controlled by northwest and northeast Eocambrian
block-type structural trends. Vertical and horizontal
movements were generally minor, but nevertheless suffi-
cient to form depocenters and intrabasinal highs, as well
as controlling the distribution of sedimentary facies.
Mesozoic
Fluvial and eolian sedimentation during the Triassic
filled depressions (Bianucci et al., 1981). In the northern
Chaco, the environment changed gradually to a desert
landscape, blanketing the remaining topography. These
189
strata are included in the lower Adrian Jara Formation. A
major Mesozoic extensional event corresponding to the
opening of the South Atlantic (230–65 Ma) is recorded for
the main Adrian Jara Formation in the Curupaity
subbasin. Its equivalents in the Pirity subbasin are the
Berta, Palo Santo, and Santa Barbara formations.
The tectonic style reflects pervasive extension from
Early Cretaceous to middle Eocene time (Figure 6).
Figures 7 and 8 show the seismic expression of these
Mesozoic rift basins. The geometry of the former
subbasins and highs was modified substantially. The
Carandaity and Curupaity subbasins became relatively
stable, with only low sedimention rates. Further uplift of
existing highs established new depositional centers.
Three new subbasins subsided along northeast-
southwest axes: the Pirity and Pilar subbasins and the
Bahía Negra platform. Continental sedimentation was
widespread. In the Pirity subbasin, a short marine
incursion of Late Cretaceous age came from the
southwest. Basic to alkaline magmatism (135–108 Ma
and about 70 Ma) is characteristic. Mesozoic rifting is
believed to have established the principal structures and
initiated maturation of potential source rocks for hydro-
carbon generation. The final configuration of the
subbasins, structural highs, and platforms was only
completed toward the end of the Atlantic phase of
extension (Zalán, 1987).
The Pirity subbasin is the best explored of the
subbasins in the Chaco. Intense en echelon faulting in
northeast-southwest and NNE-SSW directions caused
differential vertical and transverse movements, resulting
in an asymmetric half-graben structure. Local basic
magmatic activity accompanied the event.
The sedimentary infill is mostly continental, except for
periodic marine influence from the southwest as far as
the Acosta-1 well, depositing the main section of the Palo
Santo Formation. Sediments were deposited in alluvial
fan, fluvial, and lacustrine settings, with local eolian
tracts. The marine sediments are represented by carbon-
ates, clastics, and evaporites. The thickness of this sedi-
mentary succession varies up to 4000 m.
Toward the northeast in the Filadelfia area, the Pirity
subbasin gradually loses its identity and records minor
sedimentation. The extensional deformation shifts into
the Bahía Negra platform and the initiating Pantanal
subbasin.
Cenozoic
The growth of the Andean ranges to the west of the
Chaco basin (50–35 Ma) created a new source for
sediments and essentially excluded marine influence
from that direction. Tectonic and magmatic responses
are recorded in the Asunción and San Ignacio blocks
along the edge of the basement in eastern Paraguay as
inverted rift basin remnants with local nephelinitic
magmatism (49–40 Ma).
The subbasins and highs of the Chaco basin that were
established during the Mesozoic became covered by the
thick continental cover of the Chaco Formation. Slight
reactivation of structures in the Mesozoic are attributed
190 Wiens
to Tertiary tectonism. That some of these structures are
still active is evidenced by internal drainage patterns in
the Bahía Negra–Pantanal area and weak seismic activity.
PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY
The Phanerozoic succession in the Paraguayan Chaco
ranges from Eocambrian to Recent. This interpretation is
based on outcrops in the northern Chaco basin and on
exploration data and is accompanied by outcrop and
well data from eastern Bolivia (e.g., Tucavaca, Roboré,
and Santiago de Chiquitos), outcrop and well data from
the sub-Andean belt of Bolivia and Argentina, hydro-
carbon exploration data from the Argentinian Chaco,
and geologic data from eastern Paraguay (Figures 2, 9).
The Precambrian basement beneath the Chaco is poorly
understood. Nevertheless, it is believed to resemble the
surrounding Río Apa and Río Tebicuary subcratonic
blocks of eastern Paraguay or the Brazilian shield of
eastern Bolivia.
Paleozoic
The Itapucumí Group is of latest Proterozoic–Cambrian
age. Outcrops occur along the Paraguay River in the area
of Puerto La Victoria. It is correlative to Eocambrian sedi-
mentary rocks of the Corumbá Group in Mato Grosso do
Sul, Brazil, and the Tucavaca Group in eastern Bolivia
(Wiens, 1986) (Figure 10).
Figure 6—Southern Paraguay
showing regional tectonosedi-
mentary framework (thickness
contours in meters). Abbrevia-
tions: NpE, Río Apa subcraton;
SpE, Río Tebicuary subcraton;
Be-1, Berta-1 well; An-1, Anita-1
well; Car-1, Carmen-1 well; Pir-1,
Pirizal-D1 well; Gl-1, Gloria well;
Pal-1, Palo Santo-1 well; Ac-1,
Acosta-1 well; Naz-1, Nazareth-1
well; Asu-1, Asunción-1 well;
Asu-2, Asunción-2 well; FMB-1,
Mariano Boedo-1 well (Argentina);
Pr-1, Pirané-1 well (Argentina);
PL-1, Palmar Largo-1 well
(Argentina).
The Itapucumí Group is subdivided into a basal trans-
gressive unit (shale, arkosic sandstone, and conglomerate
beds up to 25 m thick) and a major calcareous sequence
(Wiens, 1986). The carbonate interval consists of bitumi-
nous and laminated limestones that alternate with
abundant oolitic and conglomeratic beds and
interbedded shales, parts of which show grades of meta-
morphism. The Itapucumí Group is 250–400 m thick.
Biostratigraphic dating is based on algal remains and
Scyphozoae remnants and suggests a latest Proterozoic–
Cambrian age (Beurlen and Sommer, 1957; Correa et al.,
1979; Hahn et al., 1982; Hahn and Pflug, 1985; Aceñolaza
et al., 1989). These deposits were generated by transgres-
sion over a continental platform, resulting in a shallow,
warm marine environment.
The Cerro León Group is of Early Ordovician–Silurian
age (Figures 4, 9). It crops out in the Cerro León massif in
the northern Chaco basin (Wiens, 1991) and in the
Cordillera de los Altos area of eastern Paraguay. Only
one exploration well in the Carandaity subbasin has
reached Lower Ordovician strata (Parapití-1 well)
(Figures 11a, b). This section represents a transgressive-
regressive cycle linked to the geodynamic evolution of
the early Paleozoic Pacific margin.
Although the lowest Ordovician levels reached in the
Chaco basin contains dark marine shales and siltstones
with lingula (Vistalli, 1989), a conglomeratic unit with
skolithos is its equivalent in the Cordillera de los Altos.
The lowest Ordovician is the La Paz Formation (Wiens,
1989), which in the northwestern Chaco is a black, pyritic
Figure 7—Segment of a north-south seismic line showing the northwestern flank of the Pirity subbasin and subsidence along listric
normal faults (southwestern Paraguayan Chaco basin; section D–D' on Figure 3).
Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential

Figure 8—Segment of a north-south seismic line showing the southeastern flank of the Pirity subbasin and disposition along a
normal discordance (southwestern Paraguayan Chaco basin; section E–E’ on Figure 3).
191
192 Wiens

Figure 9—Comparative stratigraphic chart of the Paraguayan Chaco basin, western Paraguay, with adjacent correlative
areas in eastern Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil.

Figure 10—Stratigraphy of the Eocambrian along the Río Apa subcraton and the southern border of the Guaporé shield in
Paraguay, Brazil, and Bolivia.

shale interval with interbedded siltstones and sand-
stones. Don Quixote-1 well penetrated 172 m of this
shaley sequence (Clebsch, 1991). A low-energy lagoon
environment is inferred. The entire sequence is an
upward-coarsening progradational unit deposited in a
restricted environment.
Marine regression persisted throughout the Silurian,
depositing thick sandstones with shaley interbeds. These
gradational deposits are the uppermost La Paz formation
and the Santa Rosa Formation (Wiens, 1989). Measured
thicknesses vary between 135 m (Don Quixote-1 well)
and 335 m (Parapiti-1 well) (Clebsch, 1991). An open-file
Pennzoil–Victory Oil (1972) report records crinoid stems
in the shales. Wolfart (1961) reports arthrophycus,
brachiopods, and gastropods from the coarser intervals
near the top. A Llandoverian age is suggested.
The Ordovician–Silurian Cerro León Group is wide-
spread, blanketing the Paraguayan Chaco eastward
(López-1 and Orihuela-1 wells), across the San Pedro low
(Asunción-1 and Asunción-2 wells), and reaching the
main Paraná basin (Wood and Miller, 1991). Isopach
maps of the lower Paleozoic sequence (Figures 11a, b)
Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential 193

Figure 11—Depth and isopach maps (contours in meters).

(a) Ordovician–Silurian depth contour map of the
Paraguayan Chaco basin. (b) Ordovician–Silurian isopach
map of the Paraná basin. (c) Devonian isopach map of the
Paraguayan Chaco basin and the Paraná basin.
(d) Carboniferous isopach map of the Paraguayan Chaco
and Paraná basins. (e) Mesozoic sediment isopach map of
the Paraguayan Chaco and Paraná basins.
194 Wiens
Figure 12—Simplified stratigraphy of the Carandaity
subbasin, western Paraguayan Chaco basin. (Modified
from Clebsch, 1991.)
and stratigraphic correlations confirm a regional marine
influence throughout the Chaco and Paraná basins. The
various depocenters were yoked together forming a
broad epeiric basin.
The San Alfredo Group is of Early–Late Devonian age
(Figure 9). Extensive Devonian outcrops occur in the
Cordillera de San Alfredo and along the western margin
of the Cerro León massif. Almost all exploration wells in
the western and northern Chaco within the Carandaity
and Curupaity depocenters have encountered Devonian
sections, as have groundwater surveys throughout the
northern Chaco (PNUD, 1991) (Figure 11c).
The thickest Devonian sections occur in the
Carandaity (3500 m) (Figure 12) and Curupaity (2000 m)
(Figure 13) depocenters. They include a lower sandy
interval and a monotonous shaley unit at the top that
grades upward into a more arenaceous interval.
A generally transgressive sea inundated the Chaco-
Paraná basin complex in Devonian time (Lopez Paulsen,
Figure 13—Stratigraphy of the Curupaity subbasin,
northern Paraguayan Chaco basin. (Adapted from Lopez
Paulsen et al., 1982; Wiens, 1989.)
et al., 1982). Continental sedimentation was restricted to
the central Chaco uplift (López-1 and Orihuela-1 wells).
The lower San Alfredo Group reflects shore zone to
shallow marine environments (Fernandez Garrasino and
Cerdan, 1981). White, cross-bedded quartz arenites and
less mature sandstones up to 300 m thick contain interca-
lated siltstones and shales, indicating a variety of sedi-
mentary facies. The presence of leiospheres and chitino-
zoans in the northwestern Chaco exploration wells
(Pennzoil–Victory Oil, 1972) and corals, bryozoans, and
crinoids at the Cerro León massif are indicative of a
marine depositional environment. Wolfart (1961) inter-
preted Favosites sp., Leptocoelia flabellites, Chonetes falk-
landicus, and Tentaculites stubeli at Fortin Aroma and the
Lagerenza high as evidence for an Early Devonian age.
Terrestrial spores at the central Chaco uplift show that
sandy coastal facies rimmed the arched areas; basinward
the facies are deeper marine (Wiens, 1991). Postdeposi-
tional diagenesis, lateral sedimentary variations, and
intraformational unconformities characterize reservoir
intervals.
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential
The upper San Alfredo Group is represented by dark,
thick, fossiliferous, shallow marine shales (Lopez
Pugliessi and Suarez-Soruco, 1982). It grades upward
into a regressive sequence of continental deposits. Late
San Alfredo shale deposition were restricted largely to
the Curupaity and Carandaity depocenters. Tentaculites,
brachiopods, and crinoids indicate shallow marine facies
(Harrington, 1956). Subsequent tectonism and burial
maturation have resulted in Devonian shales that range
from immature (Carandaity and Curupaity subbasins) to
low-grade metamorphic (Lagerenza and Fuerte Olimpo
highs).
The uppermost regressive sedimentary rocks range
in thickness up to 300 m. The paleontology records a
pronounced hiatus between these deposits and the
overlying Carboniferous sequence (Lopez Paulsen et al.,
1982). Depositional environments were similar to those
of the lower San Alfredo Group, although lateral facies
changes show a strong continental influence. The
deposits record the termination of the Devonian trans-
gressive-regressive cycle in the Paraguayan Chaco
basin.
The Palmar de las Islas Group is of Early Carbonif-
erous–Early Permian age. Significant Carboniferous
outcrops occur in the northern Chaco along the
western Lagerenza high and in the area from Palmar
de las Islas to Adrian Jara. Favorable reservoir and
aquifer characteristics have resulted in numerous wells
being drilled throughout the northwestern Chaco
(Carandaity and Curupaity subbasins). The Carbonif-
erous isopach map reconstruction is shown in Figure
11d. The succession is up to 1600 m thick and is
separated from the Devonian San Alfredo Group by a
prominent unconformity (Sanjines, 1982). Depositional
environments included shallow marine, continental,
and glacial conditions.
The Lower Carboniferous unit is the San José
Formation, which is characterized by rapid lateral
changes in sedimentary facies with only local continuity.
Basal sandstones with dark shaley lenses are replaced
upward by varved mudstones and reddish diamictites
(Lopez Paulsen et al., 1982). While coastal marine condi-
tions are interpreted for the basal section, continental
glacial environments dominated the upper levels. Local
discordances and variable thicknesses (up to 800 m in the
Carandaity subbasin) are characteristic.
The Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian Cabrera
Formation has a transitional contact with the underlying
San José Formation and is a sandstone-dominated
sequence with local basal conglomerates. The sandstones
are typically cross-bedded units fining upward into
mudstones with oolitic limestone levels. Shallow marine
to fluvial depositional processes are inferred (Lopez
Paulsen et al., 1982). Reasonable porosity and perme-
ability parameters are laterally variable. The Cabrera
Formation in the Curupaity subbasin ranges in thickness
up to 1300 m.
Biostratigraphic relationships of the Palmar de las
Islas Group are not firmly established because only rare
fossils are reported from lower Upper Carboniferous red
beds (Lobo et al., 1976).
195
Mesozoic–Cenozoic
The Adrian Jara Formation of Late Jurassic–middle
Eocene age (Figures 11e, 14) is a poorly sorted sandstone
with interbedded conglomerates and mudstones. It
occurs principally in the Curupaity subbasin, although
there are broadly contemporaneous deposits in the
northern and northwestern Chaco.
The Adrian Jara is separated from the Carboniferous
Cabrera Formation below and from the Cenozoic Chaco
Formation above by unconformities. Although this
formation is imprecisely dated, there is evidence that
deposition started in the Late Jurassic, or possibly even
earlier (Toro-1 well). The Adrian Jara consists of
medium- to fine-grained sandstones that are moderately
sorted, horizontal, and cross bedded. Heterogeneous
conglomerates overlie local scour surfaces. Each deposi-
tional sequence is interbedded with thin mudstones.
Fluvial and eolian depositional environments are inter-
preted.
The Upper Jurassic–middle Eocene stratigraphy of the
Pirity subbasin comprises three formations: the Berta,
Palo Santo, and Santa Barbara (Figure 14). Mesozoic
extensional tectonism formed the Pirity and Pilar
subbasins and structurally modified the Bahía Negra
platform (Figures 15, 16). The asymmetric half-graben
has pronounced step faults on the northern flank
(Boquerón high) and a structural flexure along the
southern flank (Presidente Hayes uplift). Interpretation is
based on exploration wells. Lithologic correlations, pale-
ontologic data, and radiometric ages from intrusives
suggest local subdivisions (Salfity and Marquillas, 1981)
(Figure 14).
The Upper Jurassic–Upper Cretaceous Berta
Formation in the Pirity subbasin represents the early
stage of rift subsidence (Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales,
1984) (Figure 14). The sediments where deposited in
eolian, alluvial fan, braided river, and lagoonal environ-
ments. Equivalents of the Berta Formation are shown in
Figure 9. The Berta Formation consists of fine-grained
reddish sandstones with interbedded mudstones. Its
thickness varies up to about 3000 m. Correlation with
Argentinian equivalents suggests a Coniacian age (Carle
et al., 1991). Absolute ages from basaltoids indicate an
Early Cretaceous (Valanginian) age for the formation
(128 ± 5 to 126 ± 3.5 Ma) (Galliski and Viramonte, 1985).
The basalts were emplaced along northwest-southeast
and northeast-southwest fault trends.
The overlying Palo Santo Formation is of Late Creta-
ceous–early Paleocene age. It records transgressive
flooding of the Pirity subbasin from the southwest
(Moreno, 1970). The Palo Santo Formation is commonly
subdivided into three units (Figure 14):
1. The transgressive lower Palo Santo Formation
sandstones onlap the margins of the Pirity
subbasin. The sandstones were deposited in
alluvial fan and braided river plain environments
(Turner, 1959). A Campanian–Maastrichtian age
for the transgression is indicated by seismic and
lithostratigraphic correlations with northern
196 Wiens
Formation consists of red mudstones, evaporites, and
local carbonates that are attributed to fluvial and lacus-
trine environments in a desiccated Pirity subbasin. Like
the previous unit, it has a threefold subdivision (Figure
14) (Pascual, 1978):
Figure 14—Lithostratigraphic chart of the
Cretaceous–Tertiary in the Pirity, Carandaity, and
Curupaity subbasins of southwestern, western, and
northern Paraguayan Chaco basin.
Argentinian fossil-dated sequences (Reyes and
Salfity, 1973; Bonaparte et al., 1977) and by absolute
ages from basic extrusives at the base of the lower
Palo Santo Formation (70 ± 5 Ma, K/Ar) (Carle et
al., 1989). Maximum thickness is 200–220 m.
2. The middle Palo Santo Formation has a gradational
base with the lower transgressive interval. It
records maximum flooding of the Late Creta-
ceous–early Paleocene sea from the southwest
(Figure 15). At the base, littoral clastics and carbon-
ates interfinger with fluvial and eolian sandstones.
With progressive flooding, a carbonate-shale
platform with local evaporites developed (Gómez
Omil et al., 1989). Comparison of well sections
across the Pirity subbasin between the Berta-1 and
Palo Santo-1 wells (north-south section), and
between the Carmen-1 and Nazareth-1 wells
(southwest-northeast section), indicates argilla-
ceous calcite-dolomite cemented sequences in the
deeper parts and coarser clastics along the margins
of the subbasin. Sporadic ostracods and paly-
nomorphs in Berta-1 well support an interpretation
of shallow marine and coastal plain environments
in the early Paleocene. Farther away in northern
Argentina, Late Cretaceous foraminifera and
ostracods suggest shallow marine and even fresh-
water environments (Mendez and Viviers, 1973;
Moroni, 1982).
In summary, in middle Palo Santo time, the Pirity
subbasin was a restricted carbonate basin with
fringing brackish lagoonal, fluvial, and eolian envi-
ronments (e.g., Acosta-1 and Nazareth-1 wells). It is
a finely laminated succession indicating overall
low-energy conditions. Thickness varies between
200 and 550 m.
3. The upper Palo Santo Formation is a regressive
unit containing 100–230 m of evaporites,
interbedded mudstones, and marginal sandstones.
Halite, gypsum, and dolomite banks indicate
typical lagoonal environments with fringing sandy
fluvial margins (Gómez Omil et al., 1989).
The lower Paleocene–middle Eocene Santa Barbara
1. The lower Santa Barbara Formation is up to 800 m
thick and consists of reddish mudstones with
subordinate sandstones and evaporites. Paly-
nomorphs in Palo Santo-1 well indicate a Paleocene
age (Gómez Omil et al., 1989).
2. The middle Santa Barbara Formation is up to 190 m
thick and consists of claystones, marls, siltstones,
and sporadic sandstones. Lacustrine environments
are inferred (Millioud, 1975).
3. The upper Santa Barbara Formation is up to 1100 m
thick, representing an early–middle Eocene cover
of the Pirity subbasin (Pascual, 1978; Quattrocchio,
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential 197

Figure 15—Seismic time contour distribution of the Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene Palo Santo Formation in the Pirity
subbasin, southwestern Paraguayan Chaco basin (contours in seconds; l, hydrocarbon exploration wells). (Adapted from
Clebsch, 1991.)

Figure 16—Structural and stratigraphic profile of southwest-southeast Paraguay (section B–B’ on Figure 3).

1980). The succession drapes the structural margins
of the Pirity subbasin. A period of regional or
epeiric basin type of subsidence is indicated. Lacus-
trine and local ephemeral fluvial environments
persisted. These depositional environments have
resulted in a monotonous succession of red clay-
stones with thinly interbedded siltstones and fine-
grained sandstones. A regional “green horizon”
marker bed that originated in a lacustrine setting is
characteristic (Gómez Omil et al., 1989). It is a 2–10-
m-thick calcareous shale and oolitic limestone with
gypsum levels.
198 Wiens
Figure 17—Summary of the Paraguayan stratigraphy and
its hydrocarbon potential. l, source rock; m, reservoir
rock.
The middle Eocene–early Pleistocene Chaco Formation
is a 500–1000-m-thick cover succession demonstrating
that the various depocenters of the Paraguayan Chaco
had lost their individual identities. They were replaced in
the early Tertiary by an overfilled regional downwarp.
The Andean orogen became the major supplier of
sediments.
The lower Chaco Formation of middle Eocene–late
Pliocene age was dominated by continental deposition
(Mingramm et al., 1979), which was interrupted in the
southeastern Chaco by a short interlude of shallow
marine transgression (middle Miocene) (Russo and
Chebli, 1979). This marine incursion from the Atlantic
(Chebli et al., 1989) reached as far as the Boquerón high
and the central Chaco uplift.
The late Pliocene–early Pleistocene upper Chaco
Formation comprises alternating fine-grained sandstone,
siltstone, and claystone. The succession coarsens to the
west, toward the growing Andean orogen. These
sediments represent the most important aquifers in the
Paraguayan Chaco (Tullstrom, 1973; Osterbaan, 1988;
Godoy, 1990). Stratigraphic relationships suggest an
internal drainage basin dominated by ephemeral braided
fluvial systems, alluvial fans, playa lakes, and eolian
dunes. The cross-sectional geometry (thickness of 800 m
in the west, 250 m in the east) is typical of a foreland
basin.
The Quaternary (early Pleistocene–Recent) deposits of
the Chaco basin reflect a continuation of the Chaco
Formation system with heterogeneous depositional para-
meters (Bertoni, 1939; Hoffstetters, 1978; Presser and
Crossa, 1984; Herbst and Santa Cruz, 1985).
HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION
POTENTIAL
Hydrocarbon potential in the Paraguayan Chaco is
related to the Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine shales and
carbonates (Figure 17). Although no commercial hydro-
carbon discoveries have yet been made, the Chaco
remains a relatively unexplored frontier region.
Hydrocarbon seeps occur in the Tucavaca area of
eastern Bolivia in lowermost Phanerozoic Itapucumí
Group limestones and shales. Surface gas indications are
reported from correlative bituminous sedimentary
deposits in northeastern Paraguay and Goias (Brazil).
Paleozoic marine shales and carbonates reach thick-
nesses of 2500 and 3600 m in the Carandaity and
Curupaity subbasins, respectively. Organic material in
the upper parts of the succession in the least deformed
interior parts of the subbasins (e.g., Katarina-1 well)
tends to be immature. In the deeper parts of the section
and along the margins of the subbasins, the level of
organic maturity ranges from mature to overmature
(e.g., Don Quixote-1 well). The increasing geothermal
maturity with depth results in decreasing gas wetness.
Similar conditions occur along structural highs where
increasing geothermal gradients (Figure 18), fracturing,
and contemporaneous magmatism have matured the
sedimentary rocks, even to low-grade metamorphic
conditions (e.g., Toro-1 well).
The part of the sequence with the most hydrocarbon
potential is undoubtedly the Devonian San Alfredo
shales. The Lower Ordovician Cerro León shaley section
also has some potential; in Argentina and Bolivia there
are producing fields in this interval. Dry gas (Mendoza-1
and Mendoza-2 wells) and oil shows (Toro-1 well) are
noted. High-gravity oil most likely occurs in the upper
parts of the sections in the interior of the subbasins, but it
probably changes to wet gas, condensate, and even dry
gas in the lower sections. Structural highs may be gas
prone.
Mesozoic transgressive marine deposits of the Palo
Santo Formation are a local hydrocarbon play in the
Pirity subbasin. Gas and oil indicators in the Berta and
Palo Santo formations suggest potential for smaller oil
concentrations (Schlumberger, 1987; Fernandez Garrasino,
1989). This interval contains producing fields in northern
Argentina. The sedimentary distribution, local
magmatism, and geothermal gradients are restrictive.
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential
Figure 18—Geothermal gradient pattern in the north-
western Paraguayan Chaco basin (contours in ˚C/100 m).
The regional distribution of geothermal gradients in
the Paraguayan Chaco (calculated on surface tempera-
tures of 37.7˚C) traces contours that follow the main
structural units (Figure 19), indicating that sedimentary
maturity was mostly influenced by tectonism. Geo-
thermal gradients over structural highs may be as high
as 0.7–0.9˚C/100 m (Lagerenza and Fuerte Olimpo
highs), possibly reflecting local magmatic activity as
indicated by magnetics and outcrop studies (Cerro León
massif). The Toro-1 well has fractures and volcanics as
compared to the Gato-1 well, which has no volcanics and
lower thermal gradients. High levels of organic maturity
and tight reservoir sandstones characterize the structural
highs.
Overall, the various subbasins have low geothermal
gradients with maturation affecting the lower sedimen-
tary sequences. Basinal structural deformation is not
significant. On the basis of sedimentary and diagenetic
history, tectonism, magmatism, and geothermal
gradients, it is concluded that the Paleozoic section of the
western and northern Chaco has the highest hydro-
carbon potential; Mesozoic plays are concentrated in the
southwestern Chaco.
In the Curupaity subbasin (Figure 3), the 3600-m-thick
upper San Alfredo shales represent an important hydro-
carbon target; an oil show in the Toro-1 well has TOC
values between 0.3 and 2.1 wt. %. Slatey shales in the
Toro-1 well indicate overmature conditions along the
Fuerte Olimpo high, where the rocks are highly
199
fractured, intruded by magmatites, and have geothermal
gradients up to 0.6 C˚/100 m. The most favorable condi-
tions probably exist along the flanks of the highs. The
interior of the Curupaity subbasin is expected to be
largely immature.
The best quality reservoir rocks are the Lower
Carboniferous San José Formation and Upper Carbonif-
erous Cabrera Formation channel sandstones, which
resemble some of the producing reservoirs of the
adjacent Bolivian Chaco basin. Excellent reservoir charac-
teristics also occur in the Upper Jurassic–middle Eocene
Adrian Jara Formation. The Mesozoic sandstones may
have poor seals. Structural traps include Tertiary
inversion of Mesozoic extensional fabrics.
The Devonian upper San Alfredo Group shales in the
Carandaity subbasin (Figure 5) exceed 2500 m in thickness.
They represent excellent hydrocarbon source rocks. Early
Ordovician Cerro León Group shaly units (TOC content
of 0.5 wt. %; Don Quixote-1 well) may represent a
secondary source rock. Exploration targets include inter-
calated uppermost Devonian sandstones and wide-
spread channel sandstones of the Carboniferous Palmar
de las Islas Group.
The flanks of basin margin structural highs have
mature organic facies. Very mature conditions occur on
the crests of the highs (e.g., Mendoza-1 and Mendoza-2
wells) where there are gas shows. The depocenters are
immature (e.g., Katerina-1 well). Eocene shale-draped
unconformities act as seals along the Lagerenza and
Boquerón highs, as well as toward the Central Chaco
uplift.
The principal hydrocarbon potential in the Pirity
subbasin (Figure 14) is the Upper Cretaceous marine
source rock of the Palo Santo Formation. Geochemical
assays indicate oil-generative conditions in the shales
and carbonates of the middle Palo Santo Formation
(Carle et al., 1991). Reservoir intervals include the sand-
stones of the middle Palo Santo or the underlying lower
Palo Santo and Berta formations. Brecciated volcanics
intercalated in the Berta and Palo Santo formations may
offer viable prospects, just as the Palmar Lago field in
northern Argentina does.
The western part of the San Pedro low (Figure 19)
reaches into the Paraguayan Chaco from the Paraná
basin with a continuation of Phanerozoic deposits. It
contains Lower Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and
Permian source rocks.
On the Bahia Negra platform (Figure 5), oil seeps, gas
shows, and high bituminous kerogen content indicate a
hydrocarbon source potential in lower Phanerozoic
Itapucumí Group sedimentary rocks of the northeastern
Chaco. Although there is structural trap potential,
reservoir quality is expected to be poor. Nevertheless,
this remains an unexplored area.
In the northern part of the Pilar subbasin, marine
clastics of Ordovician–Silurian age have built a Paleozoic
terrace wedge along the margin of the Río Tebicuary
subcraton in the southeastern Chaco. These sedimentary
rocks are covered by Cretaceous–Paleocene synrift half-
graben fills of continental origin. Exploration efforts in
Argentina have so far been negative for hydrocarbons.
200 Wiens
Figure 19—North-south structural and stratigraphic profile of eastern Paraguay (section C–C ' on Figure 3).
CONCLUSIONS
The Chaco basin in Paraguay was formed on conti-
nental crust where it reactivated older structural fabrics
of the late Precambrian–Cambrian Brasiliano event
(680–450 Ma). This basement framework resulted in a
complex system of structural blocks with preferential
fault trends oriented northwest-southeast and northeast-
southwest. The tectonostratigraphic evolution of the
Phanerozoic Chaco basin reflects repeated reactivation of
these older structural fabrics. Of paramount importance
was the relative orientation of the older structures to
prevailing stress fields.
There were four distinct subsidence phases during the
Phanerozoic: mild extension and regional epeiric basin
subsidence characterized the (1) Ordovician–Devonian
and (2) Carboniferous–Permian intervals. (3) Vigorous
rifting occurred in the Cretaceous–Eocene. (4) The final
phase from the Eocene onward was characterized by a
return to mild, regionally controlled patterns of subsi-
dence. Each episode preserves a unique record of uncon-
formity-bounded sequences and sedimentation.
The Phanerozoic stratigraphic section in the
Paraguayan Chaco ranges from latest Proterozoic to
Recent in age. Crystalline basement has so far not been
reached by exploration drilling. The chronologic history
of events based on surface and subsurface data is as
follows:
1. Latest Proterozoic–Cambrian marine clastics and
limestones of the Itapucumí Group were deposited.
2. An erosional unconformity separates these rocks
from Early Ordovician–Silurian and Early
Devonian marine shales and sandstones of the
Cerro León and San Alfredo groups.
3. An angular unconformity intervenes between these
and Early Carboniferous–Early Permian shallow
marine and continental clastic deposits, much of
which were glacially influenced (Palmar de las Islas
Group).
4. Late Jurassic–middle Eocene continental clastic
deposits filled the Carandaity and Curupaity
subbasins (Adrian Jara Formation). Mesozoic
extension in the Pirity and Pilar subbasins (Berta
Formation) was accompanied by magmatism.
Angular unconformities separate these Mesozoic
synrift sequences from the Paleozoic succession.
5. A Late Cretaceous–early Paleocene marine trans-
gression and deposition of terrigenous clastic and
carbonate sediments are recorded in the Pirity
subbasin (Palo Santo Formation).
6. An early Paleocene–middle Eocene cover of lacus-
trine and fluvial sediments (Santa Barbara
Formation) reflects a return to regional patterns of
subsidence and burying of the remaining structural
relief.
7. A pronounced hiatus beneath a westward-thick-
ening middle Eocene–early Pleistocene wedge of
continental deposits marks the onset of foreland
basin subsidence in front of the Andean orogenic
belt (Chaco Formtion). Westward-derived sedimen-
tation was interrupted in the southeastern Chaco by
a local marine incursion in the middle Miocene.
8. Early Pleistocene–Recent sediments blanketed the
Chaco basin (Quaternary).
Hydrocarbon potential in the Paraguayan Chaco
basin is related to Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine shales
and carbonates in each of the sedimentary subbasins and
to the way these sedimentary sequences abut the struc-
tural highs. The Lower Ordovician Cerro León Group
and Devonian upper San Alfredo Group shales are
source rocks in the Carandaity and Curupaity subbasins.
Oil generation is inferred for the lower parts of the
 Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential
sequence in the center of each subbasin and along the
flanks of the basin margin highs. Prospective reservoir
intervals include Devonian intraformational sandstones,
Carboniferous channel sandstones, and Mesozoic sand-
stones. Mesozoic extension created a variety of structural
traps.
Upper Cretaceous marine transgressive deposits of
the Palo Santo Formation are the most prospective units
in the Pirity subbasin. Along the southeastern flank of
the Boquerón high, Devonian shales were block faulted
during Mesozoic extension and were unconformably
overlain by Cretaceous and Tertiary clastics and shales,
forming viable hydrocarbon targets.
The Chaco basin of Paraguay remains largely unex-
plored. The geology suggests that it has significant
hydrocarbon potential. Counterparts of the Paraguayan
Chaco basin in Bolivia and northern Argentina are major
producers of oil, gas, and condensate.
Acknowledgments I wish to acknowledge H. J. Welsink and
A. J. Tankard for suggestions to the paper, C. A. Fernandez
Garrasino for detailed discussions, M. P. de Pella and A. J. L.
de Di Sopra for typing, J. R. Britez Urdapilleta for drafting,
and J. D. Ray and R. Diana for technical assistance. I am espe-
cially grateful to George Kronman of Amoco Production
Company for preparing the color display of the geologic map.
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Author’s Mailing Address
Fernando Wiens
Geo Consultores
Casilla Postal 166
Asunción
Paraguay
 Appendix: CHACO BASIN (PARAGUAY): CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION WELLS

Geothermal
No. Operator Well Name and No. Location Year Subbasin or Total Depth TD: Geologic Formation Hydrocarbon BHT (°C) Gradient
Area (m) Indication (°C/100m)
1 Union Oil Co. Santa Rosa - 1 21°45' S 1947 Carandaity 2.310 m Cerro León Lower Oil show — —
61°41' W (south) Gr Ord./Sil.
2 Union Oil Co. La Paz D - 1 21°53' S 1948 Boquerón high 2.210 m Cerro León Silurian — — —
60°58' W Gr
3 Union Oil Co. Pirizal D - 1 23°03' S 1948 Pirity 3.148 m Sta. Barbara Lower Oil show — —
60°38' W Fm Tertiary
4 Union Oil Co. Picuiba B - 1 20°40' S 1949 Carandaity 2.290 m Low. San Devonian Oil show — —
61°56' W (central) Alfredo Gr
5 Union Oil Co. Orihuela B -1 23°24' S 1949 Pte. Hayes 2.046 m Cerro León Lower — — —
58°40' W uplift Gr Ord./Sil.
6 Pure Oil Co. Madrejón - 1 20°25' S 1957 Central Chaco 1.728 m Cerro León Lower Oil show 20.34 0.76
59°29' W uplift Gr Ord./Sil.
7 Pure Oil Co. Lagerenza - 1 20°00' S 1958 Lagerenza high 2.893 m Cerro León Lower Gas show 31.50 0.85
61°00' W Gr Ord./Sil.
8 Pure Oil Co. Lopez - 1 21°46' S 1959 Central Chaco 1.737 m Cerro León Lower — 16.20 0.52
59°58' W uplift Gr Ord./Sil.
9 Pure Oil Co. Mendoza - 1R 20°12' S 1959 Carandaity 3.244 m Cerro León Lower Gas blow 28.35 0.66
61°41' W (north) Gr Ord./Sil.
10 Placid Oil Co. Mendoza - 1 20°07'30" S 1966 Carandaity 794 m Up. San Upper — 12.96 0.73
61°45'20" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
11 Placid Oil Co. Mendoza - 2 20°02'20" S 1967 Carandaity 1.247 m Up. San Upper Gas blow 13.32 0.50
61°52'10" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
12 Placid Oil Co. Mendoza - 3 20°03'10" S 1967 Carandaity 704 m Up. San Upper — 11.79 0.67
61°53'10" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
13 Pennzoil & Vict. Alicia - 1 20°57'02" S 1971 Carandaity 1.306 m Up. San Upper — 11.88 0.36
Holdings 61°48'57" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
14 Pennzoil & Vict. Brigida - 1 21°18'50" S 1971 Carandaity 1.513 m Up. San Upper Oil show 12.42 0.35
Holdings 61°55'22" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
15 Pennzoil & Vict. Cristina - 1 21°26'54" S 1971 Carandaity 643 m Up. San Upper — 9.09 0.30
Holdings 61°53'26" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential

(continues)
203
 204
Wiens

Appendix: CHACO BASIN (PARAGUAY): CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION WELLS (continued)

Geothermal
No. Operator Well Name and No. Location Year Subbasin or Total Depth TD: Geologic Formation Hydrocarbon BHT (°C) Gradient
Area (m) Indication (°C/100m)
16 Pennzoil & Vict. Dorotea - 1 21°17'01" S 1971 Carandaity 854 m up. San Upper — 10.08 0.34
Holdings 62°08'54" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
17 Pennzoil & Vict. Emilia - 1 20°06'34" S 1971 Carandaity 1.222 m up. San Upper — 11.16 0.39
Holdings 62°07'14" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
18 Pennzoil & Vict. Federica - 1 21°35'02" S 1971 Carandaity 800 m up. San Upper — 9.36 0.27
Holdings 62°11'59" W (south) Alfredo Gr Devonian
19 Pennzoil & Vict. Gabriela - 1 21°46'43" S 1971 Carandaity 1.016 m Up. San Upper Oil show — —
Holdings 62°00'02" W (south) Alfredo Gr Devonian
20 Pennzoil & Vict. Hortensia - 1 21°30'29" S 1971 Carandaity 765 m Up. San Upper Oil show 9.54 0.31
Holdings 61°39'27" W (south) Alfredo Gr Devonian
21 Pennzoil & Vict. Isabel - 1 21°01'14" S 1971 Carandaity 946 m Up. San Upper — 10.53 0.35
Holdings 61°27'40" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
22 Pennzoil & Vict. Julia - 1 20°36'05" S 1971 Carandaity 1.281 m Up. San Upper Oil show 11.52 0.34
Holdings 61°37'03" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
23 Pennzoil & Vict. Katerina - 1 20°44'30" S 1971 Carandaity 1.143 m Up. San Upper — 11.07 0.34
Holdings 61°33'50" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
24 Pennzoil & Vict. Luciana - 1 20°10'40" S 1972 Carandaity 819 m Up. San Upper — 10.26 0.37
Holdings 61°43'10" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
25 Pennzoil & Vict. Marta - 1 20°16'31" S 1972 Carandaity 828 m Up. San Upper — 10.08 0.35
Holdings 61°40'27" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
26 Pennzoil & Vict. Nola - 1 20°07'49" S 1972 Carandaity 760 m Up. San Upper — 9.90 0.36
Holdings 61°47'13" W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
27 Pennzoil & Vict. Olga - 1 21°25'13" S 1972 Carandaity 1.172 m Up. San Upper — 11.70 0.39
Holdings 61°52'41" W (central) Alfredo Gr Devonian
28 Pennzoil & Vict. Don Quijote - 1 21°37'47" S 1972 Carandaity 2.895 m Cerro León Lower Oil show 22.68 0.54
Holdings 61°56'43" W (south) Gr Ord./Sil.
29 Repsa & Cía. Palo Santo - 1 23°10'20" S 1974 Pirity 3.763 m Cerro León Silurian — 24.30 0.46
Petrolera del Chaco 60°46'08" W Gr
30 Esso, Aminoil & Berta - 1 22°32'47" S 1976 Pirity 4.789 m Berta Fm Upper — 29.52 0.47
Chaco Expl.Co. 61°00'38" W Jurassic
(continues)
 Appendix: CHACO BASIN (PARAGUAY): CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION WELLS (continued)

Geothermal
No. Operator Well Name and No. Location Year Subbasin or Total Depth TD: Geologic Formation Hydrocarbon BHT (°C) Gradient
Area (m) I ndication (°C/100m)
31 Texaco & Marat. Cerro León - 1 19°49' S 1976 Lagerenza high 1.970 m Cerro León Lower Gas show 18.90 0.60
Co. 60°56' W Gr Ord./Sil.
32 Texaco & Marat. Toro - 1 20°07'58" S 1977 Fte. Olimpo 3.418 m Cerro León Lower Oil show 27.27 0.59
Co. 58°57'04" W high Gr Ord./Sil.
33 Texaco & Marat. Gato - 1 20°03'30" S 1978 Fte. Olimpo 1.646 m Cerro León Lower Oil show 15.30 0.50
Co. 58°52'30" W high Gr Ord./Sil.
34 Chaco Expl.Co. Parapiti - 1 21°00'00" S 1977 Carandaity 3.000 m Cerro León Lower Gas show 21.96 0.52
61°00'00" W (east) Gr Ord./Sil.
35 Chaco Expl.Co. Parapiti - 2 21°34'00" S 1977 Carandaity 2.370 m Cerro León Lower — 19.80 0.54
62°00'00" W (central) Gr Ord./Sil.
36 Cía. Petrolera del Anita - 1 22°53'24" S 1978 Pirity 4.129 m Berta Fm Upper — 27.00 0.48
Chaco 61°30'18" W Jurassic
37 Cía. Petrolera del Gloria - 1 22°56'55" S 1979 Pirity 4.016 m Berta Fm Upper — 25.74 0.46
Chaco 60°38'04" W Jurassic
38 Occidental Carmen - 1 23°15'07" S 1985 Pirity 4.511 m Cerro León Silurian — 31.14 0.54
61°18'14" W Gr
39 Occidental Tte. Acosta - 1 22°44'55" S 1987 Pirity 4.268 m Berta Fm Upper — — —
60°25'15" W Jurassic
40 Occidental Nazareth - 1 22°39'17" S 1987 Pirity 4.025 m Berta Fm Upper — 24.93 0.43
59°51'37" W Jurassic
41 Cano Martinez Independencia -1 20° 09' 45"S 1993 Carandaity 609 m Up. San Upper Gas blow — —
61°46' 24"W (north) Alfredo Gr Devonian
Phanerozoic Tectonics and Sedimentation, Chaco Basin of Paraguay, Hydrocarbon Potential
205
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin
and Significant Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
P. E. Isaacson
E. Díaz Martínez
Department of Geology
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho, U.S.A.

Abstract

D evonian–Permian data of western Bolivia and adjacent regions are used to construct a paleogeography
of the central Andes. Four phases characterize the sedimentation history. (1) Shallow marine clastic
deposition occurred through the Devonian (Lochkovian–Frasnian), with an increase in sedimentation in
Emsian–Eifelian time. Lithofacies distribution and sediment thicknesses indicate primarily a western source.
Endemic, high-latitude (>55˚ S) fauna with several megafaunal originations in Bolivia also contain organisms
characteristic of North Africa and northeastern United States (Middle Devonian megafaunas and Late
Devonian palynomorphs). (2) Latest Devonian–Early Carboniferous (Famennian–Viséan) sedimentation is
characterized by glaciomarine and fan-deltaic sedimentation. Clasts are derived from underlying sedimentary
units and andesitic, granitic, and tuffaceous rocks. (3) A middle Carboniferous (Serpukhovian–Bashkirian)
hiatus in sedimentation occurred, its age and duration varying across the region. (4) Siliciclastic and carbonate
deposition occurred in Late Carboniferous–middle Permian time (Moscovian?–Artinskian). The clastics were
derived from a western source. Carbonate rocks (Copacabana Formation) were deposited in situ, in low
latitudes (≤ 25˚ S lat). Devonian sedimentation is inferred to have occurred on continental crust in a foreland
setting, with a western magmatic arc. Restoration of the San Nicolás batholiths (U-Pb zircon, 425 and 394–388
Ma) relative to the Devonian basins suggests that they may have constituted the magmatic arc. Intra-arc basins
may have existed near present-day coastal Peru. Following the middle Carboniferous hiatus, sedimentation
continued in a back-arc region, although differentiation of distinct Carboniferous and Permian basins, the
intrusion of plutons inboard of and within the basin along strike, and extensional faulting in the Late Permian
indicate major changes in the tectonic setting, possibly including a reorientation of the subducting slab to a low
angle. Uncertainties in the tectonic setting interpretation are introduced by the incomplete stratigraphic record,
which is obscured in the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, and by the undefined history of plate boundary
interactions, such as possible postdepositional strike-slip motion and tectonic erosion along the plate margin.

Resumen

E l estudio de la secuencia del Devónico a Pérmico del oeste de Bolivia y zonas adyacentes permite la
reconstrucción de la paleogeografía de una parte de los Andes Centrales, cuya historia sedimentaria
puede dividirse en cuatro fases. (1) Sedimentación siliciclástica en una cuenca marina somera durante la mayor
parte del Devónico (Lochkoviano a Frasniano), con un aumento de la sedimentación durante el Emsiano y
Eifeliano. La distribución de facies y espesor de sedimentos indican un área fuente situada hacia el oeste. La
fauna endémica de latitudes altas (>55˚ S), con algunos taxones característicos de Bolivia, se mezcla con organ-
ismos característicos del norte de Africa y NE de Estados Unidos (megafaunas en el Devónico medio y pali-
nomorfos en el Dévonico superior). (2) La sedimentación del Devónico tardío y Carbonífero inferior
(Fameniano a Viseano) está caracterizada por depósitos glaciomarinos y de abanicos deltaicos. La composición
de los clastos es de rocas sedimentarias de las unidades subyacentes y de granitoides, andesitas y tobas
volcánicas. (3) Durante el Carbonífero medio (aproximadamente Serpukhoviano y Bashkiriano) tiene lugar
una interrupción en la sedimentación, de edad variable según las zonas, que resulta en la erosión parcial o total
de la secuencia del Carbonífero y Devónico subyacente. (4) Durante el Carbonífero superior y hasta el Pérmico
medio (Moscoviano a Artinskiano) tiene lugar sedimentación mixta siliciclástico-carbonatada. Las areniscas
indican un área fuente al oeste. Las rocas carbonáticas fueron depositadas en latitudes bajas (≤ 25˚ S). La sedi-
mentación del Devónico tuvo lugar en un ambiente tectónico de antepaís situado entre un arco magmático
marginal al oeste y un cratón al este. La posición de los batolitos de San Nicolás en Peru (datado en 425 y
394–388 Ma) en relación a la cuenca sedimentaria sigiere que estes plutónes habrían formado parte del arco
magmático. Los depósitos devónicos del SW de Peru constituirían el relleno de cuencas de intra-arco, mientras
que faltaría el registro sedimentario de la zona proximal de la cuenca de antepaís, probablemente cubierto bajo
el Altiplano y la Cordillera Occidental. La reorganización de la cuenca e intrusión de plutones durante el
Carbonífero y Pérmico, así como la tectónica extensional durante el Pérmico superior, indican reajustes e inter-
relaciones entre los bordes de placas posiblemente relacionados con desplazamientos transcurrentes y dismin-
ución del ángulo de subducción de la placa.

Isaacson, P. E., and E. Díaz Martínez, 1995, Evidence for a middle–late Paleozoic foreland 231
basin and significant paleolatitudinal shift, central Andes, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S.,
and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 231–249.
232 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
Figure 1—Geography of central Andes mountains and
adjacent regions discussed in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
Several recent syntheses of Devonian stratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, tectonics, and igneous events in Bolivia,
Peru, and northern Chile (Figure 1) permit a tentative
reconstruction of middle Paleozoic events in that region.
Earlier workers (e.g., Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960) had
suggested that the thick Devonian clastic rocks in the
region were deposited in a “geosynclinal” setting. Other
work has supported a passive margin during Devonian
time (Zeil, 1979), with Late Ordovician and Late
Carboniferous–Permian orogeny bracketing the other-
wise quiescent sequence.
The Bolivian Central Andes comprises a series of fault-
bounded tectonostratigraphic domains (Sempere et al.,
1988) (see Figure 2), which are substantially different from
previous physiographic divisions used in Bolivian
geologic literature (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960; Russo,
1966; Rodrigo and Castaños, 1978). These domains
display a distinct tectonic shortening and relative
displacement as a result of Cenozoic Andean orogeny
(Sheffels, 1990; Roeder and Chamberlain, 1995). However,
they are not to be confused with allochthonous terranes
because they have all been linked at least since the early
Paleozoic and are not exotic to South America. With
respect to these domains, the middle and late Paleozoic of
the northern Altiplano is exposed in the northern third of
the Charasani-Ayoma-Atocha unit, also called the
Figure 2—Simplified tectonic map of Bolivia, with tectonos-
tratigraphic domains. 1, Altiplano; 2, Huarina fold and
thrust belt; 3, Cordillera Real; 4, Tarija-Teoponte; 5,
northern sub-Andean fold and thrust belt; 6, central and
southern sub-Andean fold and thrust belts; 7, Brazilian
shield. Thrusts (from Spanish): CANP, main Andean thrust;
CCR, Cordillera Real thrust; FCC, Coniri thrust. (After
Sempere, 1987, 1990.)
Huarina fold and thrust belt (Figure 2). The main tectonic
structure of this belt is the stacking of Upper Ordovi-
cian–Lower Triassic sedimentary rocks in a series of
tightly imbricated folds and thrusts verging to the
southwest. The Huarina belt is separated from the
Cordillera Real domain to the northeast by the Cordillera
Real thrust and from the Altiplano domain to the
southwest by the Coniri thrust. Although the sedimen-
tary sequence was partially eroded and deformed during
the Hercynian orogeny of Dalmayrac et al. (1980) and
Martínez (1980), most of the tectonism took place during
the several Andean (i.e., much younger) phases of defor-
mation.
It has been suggested that the Paleozoic sedimentary
rocks in the Altiplano of Bolivia are the result of complex
filling of a northwest-trending back-arc basin encom-
passing most of the present-day central Andes (Sempere,
1989). Closure of the basin, together with uplift and
thrust faulting during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Andean orogenic cycle, resulted in the construction of
the present Andes Cordillera. The overprint of this defor-
mation complicates the study of the pre-Andean history
of the western margin of Gondwana.
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes 233

Figure 3—Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian lithostratigraphy, central Andes and adjacent regions. (From Newell et al.,
1953; Díaz, 1959; Eckel, 1959; Dalmayrac, 1977; Isaacson, 1977; Marocco, 1977; Isaacson et al., 1985; Oller and Sempere, in
Duarte, 1989; Bahlburg and Breitkreuz, 1991; Starck et al., 1993.)

STRATIGRAPHY In northern Chile (Atacama Desert region), Middle

Devonian Siliciclastic Sequence
Basic Bolivian Devonian stratigraphic data essential
for paleogeographic reconstructions are well established
(Isaacson, 1975, 1977; Oller and Sempere, in Duarte, 1989;
Starck et al., 1993) and are shown in Figure 3. The bulk of
the thick clastic sequence is primarily late Early (Emsian)
and early Middle Devonian (Eifelian) in age, although
newer information from ammonites (Babin et al., 1991)
and palynomorphs ( Le Hérissé et al., 1992; Racheboeuf
et al., 1992) suggests that Givetian, Frasnian(?), and
Famennian rocks are also present. Since there are few
megafossils, palynomorphs in the upper part of the
sequence suggest presence of the Famennian–Tour-
naisian boundary (Lobo-Boneta, 1987; Vavrdová et al.,
1991). Frasnian units are present in the sub-Andean and
subsurface regions of eastern Bolivia and Peru (Barrett
and Isaacson, 1988; Isaacson and Sablock, 1990). Primary
lithologies in the western and central Bolivian sequence
are (in decreasing abundance) siltstone, quartz arenite,
mudstone, and shale (Isaacson and Sablock, 1988). Felds-
pathic sandstones are found in southern Bolivia. Lithofa-
cies and isopach modeling of the Devonian indicates
coarser and much thicker lithologies in northwestern
Bolivia than those in eastern and southern Bolivia
(Isaacson, 1975).
Devonian–Lower Carboniferous shallow water conglom-
erates and litharenites contain andesite and diorite clasts
(Davidson et al., 1981; Isaacson et al., 1985; Isaacson and
Sablock, 1988). Also, Upper(?) Devonian turbidites in
northern Chile show a source (Arequipa massif) to the
north-northwest (Bahlburg, 1985; Breitkreuz and
Bahlburg, 1985; Bahlburg et al., 1986).
Source areas (Figures 4, 5) for the Bolivian sequence
are the ancestral Arequipa massif (Isaacson, 1975; Boucot
et al., 1980; Laubacher et al., 1982), the Puna highland of
northwestern Argentina, and probably the Brazilian
shield (Isaacson and Sablock, 1988, 1990). These areas
supplied sediments to northwestern-central, southern,
and eastern Bolivia, respectively. Principal constituents
of the strata appear to reflect compositional differences in
these source terranes. In the Altiplano of Bolivia, mature,
fine-grained Upper Devonian sandstones suggest mixed
sources from both the craton and a magmatic arc, with
little reworking.
The Arequipa massif was largely sialic (Bellido and
Guevara, 1963; Cobbing et al., 1977; Dalmayrac et al.,
1980) and may have been part of Miller’s (1970) “Pacific
continent.” The Puna highland is composed of Upper
Ordovician magmatic igneous rocks (Davidson et al.,
1981; Coira et al., 1982; Palma et al., 1987). (These terranes
are discussed further later.) The Puna also influenced
Atacama (Chilean) depositional events, including
234 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
Figure 4—Paleogeographic map of the central Andes for
late Early Devonian (Emsian) time. Major structural
elements responsible for the Bolivian-Peruvian basins
include the Late Ordovician accretionary volcanic-
magmatic Puna terrane, sialic Arequipa massif (with its
Early Devonian San Nicolás batholiths), and Brazilian
shield. (Latitudes from Isaacson and Sablock, 1990.) The
“Bolivia basin” (Frutos and Tobar, 1975; Suárez-Soruco
and Lobo-Boneta, 1983) includes the Beni basin (Díaz,
1959), whose margins have yet to be defined. The “Peru
basin” (Mosmann et al., 1986, his figure 11) includes the
Ucayali and Madre de Dios basins, the latter possibly
having limited stratigraphic development in the Early
Devonian (Isaacson et al., 1995). The northwest Peru
orogeny, proposed by Isaacson (1989), appears as a
highland in the reconstruction of deMelo (1988).
westward-propagating, shallow water clastic deposits
with a nearby magmatic terrane source (Davidson et al.,
1981; Isaacson et al., 1985). The Brazilian shield is compo-
sitionally similar to the Arequipa massif (Dalmayrac et
al., 1980). Orogeny folded and metamorphosed
Devonian and lower Paleozoic flysch in central Peru,
although these effects are not evident in the Bolivian and
northern Chilean Devonian sequences. Also, part of the
Devonian sequence may have been eroded in central
Peru, and Lower Carboniferous (Tournaisian) clastic
rocks unconformably overlie it (Mégard, 1973). Evidence
of orogeny decreases away (east-southeastward) from
central Peru, such that only a slight angularity exists
between Devonian and Carboniferous rocks in Bolivia
(Laubacher, 1974, 1977; Isaacson, 1975).
Figure 5—Paleogeographic map of the central Andes for
Middle Devonian time (Eifelian–Givetian). Maximum trans-
gression, subsidence, and deposition is within the basins
at this time, as shown by sedimentation within the
Solimoes and Arce basins (da Silva, 1988). The Madre de
Dios basin also received significant sedimentation at this
time (Isaacson et al., 1995).
Late Devonian–Lower Carboniferous
Diamictites and Related Rocks
Located above shallow marine shales (Colpacucho
Formation) and at the base of the Cumaná Formation in
the northern Altiplano of Bolivia is a diamictite unit
(Figure 6), which can be traced for more than 30 km
along strike from Isla del Sol to Cumaná (Lake Titicaca
area), with a variable thickness of 60–70 m (Díaz and
Lema, 1991a). It is dated as Famennian (pusillites–lepido-
phyta palynozone) by Vavrdová et al. (1991, 1993), and it
may continue into the Tournaisian. Clasts within the
diamictite are subangular to well rounded and range
from coarse sand to boulder size. Clasts are composed of
quartz arenite, granitoid, quartzite, conglomerate, and
intermediate volcanic rock (Díaz et al., 1993). Their
variable composition, together with some striated and
faceted clasts, suggests a glaciated heterogeneous source
terrane.
There are two major lithofacies associations. The
lower is dominated by laminated mudstone with drop-
stones, interpreted as ice-rafted and suspended sediment
deposits. Deposited next on an erosional base is a
massive, matrix-supported diamictite with deformed
sandstone lenses and boulders up to 2 m long. This is
Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes 235

interpreted as the result of subglacial deposition at the

margin of a partially floating ice mass, with resedimenta-
tion by postdepositional mass movement processes
(subaqueous slumping), along with partial reworking by
currents. This diamictite may be the earliest sign of late
Paleozoic glaciation in South America. Paleogeographic
reconstruction of the region during the Early Carbonif-
erous suggests that the Eohercynian orogen in the
Cordillera Real is a possible source terrane (Dalmayrac et
al., 1980). Lower–middle Carboniferous clastic units of
this area (Cumaná and Kasa formations) (Figure 7) show
continued glaciation of the source terrane through much
of this sequence.
The principal glacial episode affecting Gondwana
during the late Paleozoic took place from Serpukhovian
(Namurian A) to Sakmarian, with two minor episodes in
the Famennian and Viséan (Veevers and Powell, 1987).
Evidence for the two short episodes comes from marine
and nonmarine deposits in Brazil and northwestern
Africa, as well as recent work in Bolivia (Vavrdová et al.,
1991, 1993).
The base of the Cumaná Formation at Isla del Sol has
yielded abundant specimens of organic microfossils,
including Retispora lepidophyta and Umbellasphaeridium
saharicum (Vavrdová et al. 1991, 1993). These occurrences,
along with Hymenozonotriletes explanatus (and the absence
of Verrucosisporites nitidus) gives a late Famennian (Fa 2c-d),
palynozone PL (pusillites-lepidophyta) age for the diamictite.
Because original samples were taken on a reconnaissance
basis, incomplete sampling at this locality has not
permitted an upper age bracket for the diamictite. Dating
of equivalent strata at Mina Matilde (about 40 km north
of Isla del Sol on the east shore of Lake Titicaca), where
the diamictite does not exist, suggests that the Famen-
nian and Tournaisian transition is present.

Carboniferous Siliciclastic Units

Carboniferous deposits in the Altiplano accumulated
in a northwest-southeast trending basin. Mountain ranges
east and west of the basin supplied sediment during part
of the Carboniferous. The Carboniferous includes
deposits from the Ambo and Titikaka groups. The
Cumaná, Kasa, and Siripaca formations (Figures 3, 7)
record accumulation in the late Famennian–late Viséan
(Rösler et al., 1989), and the Yaurichambi and Copaca-
bana formations record accumulation in theKasimovian–
Artinskian (Sakagami et al., 1986; Sempere, 1987, 1990).
The Ambo Group of Peru is associated with regional
climatic change and tectonic instability in the areas
providing sediment to the Carboniferous basin. These
deposits, together with glacial deposits in the Solimöes,
Amazonas, and Parnaiba basins of Brazil, represent a
major period of glaciation over much of Gondwana
(Veevers and Powell, 1987). In the Altiplano area,

Figure 6—Detailed lithologies of the Cumaná Formation at

Isla del Sol. Famennian deposition represents a restricted
shelf with increasing ice-rafted lithoclasts. Thickness in
meters; black areas represent mudstone.
236 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez

Figure 7—Vertical profiles typical of Carboniferous deposits in the northern Altiplano of Bolivia. Sections: 1, Copacabana
area (Hinchaka, Santa Ana, Siripaca, Belén); 2, Cumaná; 3, Calamarca; 4, Carabuco; 5, Ancoraimes; 6, Yaurichambi; 7,
Colquencha. Dual numbers indicate formations: 1.2, Copacabana Formation (also Permian in part; see Figure 11); 2.1,
Yaurichambi Formation; 1.3, Siripaca Formation; 1.2, Kasa Formation; 1.1, Cumaná Formation (see Figure 10). D, Devonian.
Lithologic symbols: a, limestone (with dolomite and sandstone); b, mudstone, including coal (Siripaca Formation); c,
sandstone, including conglomerate; d, diamictite, conglomerate, and sandstone.

adjacent ranges developed an ice cover that existed
during the late Famennian, Tournaisian, and part of the
Viséan. The scattered diamictites that accumulated in a
fan delta setting (Kasa Formation) record the gradual
retreat of the glaciers to the ranges. Increase of sediment
input and subsidence rates possibly related to activity in
the magmatic arc also influenced accumulation patterns
in the Kasa Formation. The locally unconformable
character of the base of this cycle is thus most likely
related to the erosional and depositional processes
typical of a glaciomarine environment, instead of
emersion and subaerial erosion. Apart from the erosive
character of the gravity flows and mass transports
common in a glaciomarine environment, it is possible to
develop erosional discontinuities in deep marine envi-
ronments during glacial periods as a result of bottom
density currents from adjoining glaciated areas (Johnson,
1974).
It is not necessary to propose changes in climate,
tectonics, or source area to explain the differences in
modal composition and textural characteristics between
the fine-grained, quartz-rich sandstones of the lower
member of Kasa Formation and the feldspathic sand-
stones of its upper member. It has been shown that
hydraulic sorting, current reworking, and differential
weathering processes present in coastal areas and
shallow clastic shelves can result in such differences
(Mack, 1984; Dickinson, 1988). These processes are
enhanced by storm and wave reworking. Suttner et al.
(1981) presented some interesting examples of modifica-
tion of petrofacies due to different sedimentary environ-
ments, comparing alluvial fan and clastic shelf deposits.
They concluded that the same provenance area but a
different transport distance and depositional environ-
ment can result in different petrofacies. This case study is
similar to what is found in the Kasa Formation.
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
The depositional setting and modal composition of
the coarse feldspathic sandstones in the Kasa Formation
were greatly affected by the cold climate and sparse
vegetation during their deposition as evidenced by the
few plant fossils found in it. Azcuy and Suárez-Soruco
(1984) mention equisetae, lycopsidae, and monopinnate
plant fronds from the Kasa Formation, which they
assigned to Nothorhacopteris. This genus has been found
in the Kaka Formation (Figure 3), which has an Early
Carboniferous palynologic assemblage, a recycled Late
Devonian assemblage, and a total absence of gymno-
sperm pollen.
The transition of the Kasa to the Siripaca Formation,
however, marks an important change in the paleogeo-
graphy and paleoclimate of the basin, including the
disappearance of glaciers as temperatures rose, an
increase in vegetation cover, and a reduction of relief in
the source areas. Climatic change resulted from
movement of this part of Gondwana to lower latitudes
(Caputo and Crowell, 1985; Veevers and Powell, 1987;
Díaz et al., 1993). During this same period, however, the
global paleoclimate picture changed to one of general
cooling (Veevers and Powell, 1987; Sablock, 1993).
Middle Carboniferous Hiatus
The Siripaca Formation represents the filling of the
Bolivia basin and the final Paleozoic regression to the
north or northwest. At the Copcabana Peninsula, this
formation has a small (1.5-m-thick) coal bed. Its age and
rank are not known, although it has been excavated for
local use. During the Serpukhovian and Bashkirian, a
period of intense subaerial erosion and nondeposition
followed in the Altiplano, while deposition continued in
adjacent basins of the central and southern sub-Andean
(Macharetí Group) and northern sub-Andean regions
(Kaka Formation (Sempere, 1990). As a result of the
northward retreat, the stratigraphic gap recorded by the
middle Carboniferous unconformity is quite variable.
This final regression is probably related to two global
events that took place during the Namurian A or late
Viséan to Serpukhovian (Saunders and Ramsbottom,
1986), which were produced by the onset of the main
glacial episode in Gondwana (Veevers and Powell, 1987).
Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian
Carbonates and Siliciclastics
Marine deposition resumed in the Kasimovian (or
even earlier in the Bashkirian; Isaacson et al., 1995) when
transgression represented by the Yaurichambi and
Copacabana formations occurred. Transgression
proceeded slowly, as seas advanced from the north.
Progressive changes in local base level produced a
blanket of fluvial, deltaic, and coastal deposits
(Yaurichambi Formation) at the base of the transgressive
sequence. Paleocurrent orientations are from several
directions in this sequence, recording a major reorganiza-
tion of basin drainage system (Sempere et al., 1986;
Marocco et al., 1987; Barrios and Beccar, 1988). The trans-
gressive deposits filled the newly created paleotopo-
237
graphy, producing deposits with variable thicknesses on
the east shore of Lake Titicaca to the north and in the
Colquencha zone, 60 km south of La Paz, in the Altiplano.
Paleosols in the Yaurichambi Formation indicate a warm
climate during this part of basin evolution, continuing
with accumulation of the carbonate deposits in the
Copacabana Formation.
As shown in Figure 8, the Copacabana Formation in
northwestern Bolivia shows a complex interplay of sand-
stones, terrigenous mudstones, various limestones,
dolomites, caliches, and other lithologies (Isaacson et al.,
1993). Lithofacies change significantly over short
distances, both up-section and in a west-east direction.
For simplicity, we have divided the formation into two
principal units: the lower unit, comprising cycles 1 and 2,
and the upper unit, comprising cycles 3 and 4 (Figure 8).
The lower unit tends to be dominated by siliciclastic
rocks, whereas the upper unit is mainly carbonates.
Beginning at a moderate-relief (30–40 cm) caliche
surface (at Yampupata and Yaurichambi), fine-grained
sandstone was deposited, followed by greenish gray
(tuffaceous) siltstone with thin (2–3 m) beds of extensively
bioturbated carbonate mudstone. Next are sandstone
channels, with more persistent bioturbated mudstones
(containing large productoid brachiopods) and green silt-
stones following them. Another caliche occurs in
siltstone–sandstone, followed by lime mudstone–wacke-
stone with fenestral fabric and tepee structures. An exten-
sively cross-bedded, coarse-grained sandstone (shoal?)
occurring above another caliche terminates the lower
lithofacies. At Ancoraimes (northeast of the Peninsula de
Copacabana sections), initial results suggest less obvious
caliches, as well as alternating thinner sandstone and
wackestone–packstone carbonates. Separating the two
basic lithofacies is another caliche, which is followed by
lenticular medium-grained sandstone, mudstone, and
shell-rich laminated sandy dolomite, suggestive of
tempestites. Green, laminated, volcanogenic (Isaacson et
al., 1995) mudstone follows, punctuated by well-biotur-
bated and fossiliferous mudstone–wackestone. Green,
cross-bedded, coarse-grained sandstone (including some
litharenite) interbedded with claystone and minor
mudstone (with current-stable brachiopod shells)
comprise the uppermost beds of this unit. Several caliches
also occur. A significant bioturbated and fossiliferous
packstone–grainstone caps the sequence at Yampupata,
where the uppermost beds may be missing.
Units overlying the Copacabana Formation are
variable. Where significant erosion is not apparent,
presumably by fluvial systems depositing sandstones,
there is a gradual changeover to siliciclastic-dominated
and minor carbonate lithologies (such as at Cumaná). A
complex suite of lithologies terminates the Copacabana
Formation.
Using several features that indicate subaerial exposure
as defined by Flügel (1982) and Esteban and Klappa
(1983), eustatic cycles within the Copacabana Formation
are apparent. The features include fenestral fabric, tepee
structures, and caliches. Complicating the cycles,
however, are apparent tectonic adjustments of the basin.
For example, cycles 1, 2, and 4 (Figure 8) have terrige-
238 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez

Figure 8—Lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and previous stratigraphic nomenclature of the Copacabana Formation (Late
Carboniferous–Early Permian), western Bolivia. Cycles, hiatuses, caliches (triangles), and sedimentary petrology are as
discussed in this paper and in Isaacson et al. (1993).

nous influxes from the west that may have abruptly
infilled the basin, such that they substituted shallower
depositional systems for slightly deeper ones. Cycle 3
contains lagoonal claystone, which indicates temporary
quiescence in the western source area(s). We suggest that
even with Early Permian marine onlap (Vail et al., 1977),
the northwestern Bolivian depositional basin maintained
a position close to sea level.
PALEOBIOGEOGRAPHY
Work on the paleobiogeographic significance of the
central Andean Devonian–Permian faunas has depended
on the abundance and components of recovered faunas.
The Devonian, long considered to be “classic” (e.g.,
d’Orbigny, 1842), as well as unusual in abundance and
diversity, has also been thought to be part of a cold-
water “austral” province (Clarke, 1913). Late Carbonif-
erous–Permian faunas have also been described
(Dunbar and Newell, 1946; Newell et al., 1953) and have
been biogeographically linked to West Texas in the
United States.
Devonian Paleobiogeography
Devonian paleobiogeography of the central Andes
was influenced by three major factors: the paleogeo-
graphic setting, the high latitudinal position (and cold
temperatures) of the region during Early Devonian time
(Figure 4), and the apparent influx of slightly warmer
water during Middle Devonian time (Figure 5). The
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
Figure 9—Paleobiogeographic map of the central Andes
for Emsian time. High-latitude cold water currents main-
tained the low-diversity Malvinokaffric faunas. Vestigial
warm water currents from Colombia and possibly interior
North America are responsible for the Eastern Americas
Realm faunas of the possible intra-arc basins of southern
Peru. Connections to the Amazonas basins are ephemeral.
(From Isaacson and Sablock, 1990.)
highly endemic Malvinokaffric faunas (Richter and
Richter, 1942) of southern South America, Antarctica,
and South Africa have long been assumed to have lived
in cold water (Figure 9), with evolutionary ties to Eastern
Americas Realm organisms of the northern Appalachian
basin in the United States (Boucot, 1971; Isaacson, 1977).
It has been suggested that Early Devonian Eastern
Americas Realm brachiopods in interior southern Peru
(Boucot et al., 1980) entered the region by means of an
influx of warmer water and that the migration routes
may have been restricted by intra-arc basins (see Figure
14). Higher in the Andean sequence, however, the much
lower diversity post-Malvinokaffric fauna (Figure 10) has
been tentatively identified Isaacson and Sablock, 1990). It
consists of the circum-Atlantic brachiopod genus Tropi-
doleptus (Isaacson and Perry, 1977) and other taxa. It
appears that Globithyris (or Rhipidothyris), which is above
Tropidoleptus in the Devonian sequence (Isaacson, 1974),
may have moved from Libya, where both taxa are
present in the Idrí Formation of Givetian age (Havlicek
and Röhlich, 1987). This Middle Devonian fauna,
however, does not achieve the diversity of Hamilton and
other Givetian fauna in New York and North Africa.
Distinct faunal provinciality exhibited during
239
Figure 10—Paleobiogeographic map of the central Andes
for Middle Devonian time. Lower latitudes (see Figure 15)
and transgression permitted entry of Tropidoleptus and
other taxa from North Africa. The residual Malvinokaffric
stock supported a limited diversity in Bolivia and adjacent
regions. (From Isaacson and Sablock, 1990.)
Early–Middle Devonian time was probably influenced
by extensive basin development within Peru, Chile, and
Bolivia. The high latitudinal position of this region
allowed colder water Malvinokaffric fauna to colonize
much of South America. The lowest latitudinal penetra-
tion of Malvinokaffric faunas (e.g., Australocoelia, as
reported by Mégard, 1973) roughly corresponds to a
postulated cold water subpolar gyre that paralleled the
western margin of South America up to about 40˚ S lat
(Figure 9). During Middle Devonian time, subsequent
northward movement of western Gondwana coupled
with marine transgression introduced the warmer water
Eastern Americas Realm fauna farther south into Bolivia.
Also, selected brachiopod taxa arrived from North
Africa. Isaacson and Perry (1977) suggest that Tropi-
doleptus arrived in Bolivia via the Amazonas basin. Other
taxa (e.g., Globithyris or Rhipidothyris) may also have
taken advantage of this seaway, although the full
complement of North African taxa is not found in
Bolivia.
Carboniferous Paleobiogeography
While there are few Bolivian Carboniferous marine
megafaunas, Isaacson et al. (1985) reported on Early
Carboniferous (Tournaisian) brachiopods from northern
240 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
Chile (see Figure 14). Dutro and Isaacson (1991) have
shown that this assemblage is characterized by relatively
large, stout shells in several brachiopod families,
although it is generally of low diversity. These “big
shells” also occur in central Peru, northwestern Argen-
tina, eastern México (Oaxaca and Tamaulipas), eastern
Appalachians (eastern West Virginia), Libya, Iran, and
southeastern Australia, suggesting that the Chilean
occurrence represents a relatively cosmopolitan (albeit
facies-controlled) fauna.
Rösler et al. (1989) have described a “pre-Glossopteris
flora” of Early Carboniferous age from the Siripaca
Formation. They suggest, furthermore, that the plant
fossils, including Nothorhacopteris, Paracalamites, and lyco-
phytes, show little transport and were deposited in
nearshore sediments of the Siripaca Formation. Erwin et
al. (1992) have identified a warm, temperate Carbonif-
erous flora from coastal Peru, which was part of a
climatic belt between the tropical Euramerican Realm
and the cool Gondwana Realm in Bolivia.
Newell et al. (1953) have discussed the significance of
Pennsylvanian marine faunas from Peru. They are
cosmopolitan, although they have a slightly reduced
diversity (compared to coeval North American faunas).
Until more palynomorph and paleobotanical informa-
tion is forthcoming from Bolivia, however, little can be
concluded about its biogeographic placements.
Permian Paleobiogeography
Following the work of Dunbar and Newell (1946) on
fusulinids, the Copacabana Formation carbonate rocks
are considered to be primarily Wolfcampian. Detailed
fusulinid and conodont biostratigraphic work by
Sakagami et al. (1986) and Suárez-Riglos et al. (1987)
have confirmed that the carbonate rocks of northwestern
Bolivia are Virgilian (Late Carboniferous) to early
Leonardian (Permian) in age. Newer work (Isaacson et
al., 1995) suggests that much of the carbonate sequence in
the northern Bolivian subsurface is even older
(Morrowan). Major unconformities, while relatively
minor in the Lake Titicaca region, exist between the
Virgilian and older strata, as well as within the Leonar-
dian and Guadalupian parts of the section (Collasuyo
Member; Figure 3). (The significance of smaller discon-
formities and paraconformities within the Wolfcampian
strata at Lake Titicaca was described earlier.) The Late
Carboniferous unconformity becomes more pronounced
(and visible) to the south and east (Barth, 1972; Azcuy et
al., 1982).
Micro- and megafaunas of the Permian System in
Bolivia have long been considered as “West Texas” in
affinity (Dunbar and Newell, 1946). Based on fusulinid
occurrences, Newell et al. (1953) defined a Peruvian
fauna of limited distribution, although most taxa
occurred simultaneously in North America (and other
cosmopolitan localities) and Andean South America.
Wilson (1990) offered a well-documented correlation of
similar rugose coral taxa among Bolivia, Peru,
Guatemala, and the southwestern United States. This has
been identified as the Cyathaxonid Province by Hill
(1981), and it is quite distinct from the nearby
Durhaminid Province in the western and northwestern
United States. Considering the biogeographic separa-
tions within North America, it is remarkable that a single
South American–North American province existed,
thereby demonstrating a close paleogeographic link
between the two regions.
Ross (1973) defined a mid-Andean and mid-continent
(southern United States) biogeographic unit that extends
through Mexico and Morocco to south of Santiago, Chile.
Ross further stated that the Mid-Continent (U.S.)
Fusulinid Province of the Late Carboniferous–Early
Permian was paralleled by rugose corals and ammonoid
cephalopods. Gobbett (1973) identified distinct links with
Tethyan forms, as well as widespread cosmopolitan taxa.
Boucot and Gray (1979) described a southern (warm)
marine surface circulation gyre, which equally affected
coastal Gondwana (South America) and the southern
United States, while a northern gyre affecting western
North America allowed contrasting faunas to exist over a
short paleogeographic distance.
PALEOGEOGRAPHY
Early–Middle Devonian Paleogeography
Current Devonian paleogeographic reconstructions of
the western continental margin of Gondwana in Peru
and Chile (Figures 4, 5) demonstrate that sedimentation
on this margin was influenced by at least two different
tectonic sources. The first, the Arequipa massif, with a
superimposed Early Devonian arc (Mukasa and Henry,
1990), supplied a large volume of clastic sediment to the
Peruvian and Bolivian basins (Isaacson, 1975; Zeil, 1979;
Dalmayrac et al., 1980). The second, which is a western
Argentine magmatic arc terrane of Late Ordovician age
(Coira et al., 1982; Mpodozis and Forsythe, 1983; Palma
et al., 1987), influenced northern Chilean and Bolivian
depositional events. Preliminary assessment of the
Devonian–Early Carboniferous paleogeography of this
complex region suggests that the Arequipa massif
extended beyond the present west coast of South
America and had a southern boundary in northern Chile
(Isaacson, 1975; Isaacson and Sablock, 1988, 1990).
Between northern Chile and central Peru is the
Bolivia basin, in which epeirogeny or magmatic-related
tectonics may have influenced regional sea level fluctua-
tions and unconformities (sometimes angular) between
Devonian and Carboniferous strata. There also is a
suggestion that fold axes in Peru and Bolivia indicate
that the compressional forces during Late(?) Devonian
time were acting in a southwest-northeast direction
(Mégard, 1973; Dalmayrac et al., 1980). The coastal
Chañaral melange of northern Chile indicates compres-
sion (Bell, 1987). Some evidence indicates that subduc-
tion began in the north (Peru) and propagated south
(Bahlburg et al., 1986). In central Chile, this new conver-
gence emplaced various island arcs and microcontinents
(Ramos et al., 1986; Bell, 1987).
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
Paleogeographically, these events would have
restricted formerly “open” seaways along eastern Peru,
western Bolivia, and northern Argentina and Chile
sometime during the Devonian. Therefore, Late
Devonian glaciation in Bolivia (Vavrdová et al., 1991;
Díaz et al., 1992) and along the upper Amazon basin
(Rocha Campos, 1983; deMelo, 1988) may have occurred
on substantially uplifted “orogenic” terranes in central
and western Peru. However, there were marine seaways
adjacent to these features and black shale deposition in
the upper Amazon region (Hünicken et al., 1988).
Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous
Paleogeography
Recognition of a probable source for the clasts in the
diamictite (Cumaná Formation) is of major significance
for the paleogeographic reconstruction of the Carbonif-
erous basin. The Paleozoic northwest-southeast trending
back-arc basin of the central Andes (Sempere, 1989),
which was limited on the west by the Precambrian
Arequipa massif and on the east by the Brazilian shield,
was partially disrupted by the Eohercynian belt in
Famennian–Viséan time (Dalmayrac et al., 1980;
Sempere, 1989, 1990). Provenance studies of the granitoid
clasts in the diamictite provide a candidate for the
glaciated highlands. Large clast size (up to 2 m in
diameter in the Quebrada de Chamacani) and geologic
setting could have preserved the original geochemical
and isotopic composition in the cores of the boulders.
However, there are no known studies dealing with this
problem, thus leaving three potential source areas: (1) the
Eohercynian belt, limiting the basin at the time to the east
(Sempere, 1987); (2) the early Paleozoic Puna magmatic
arc (“Faja eruptiva de la Puna”) to the south (Coira et al.,
1982; Allmendinger et al., 1983); or (3) the Arequipa
massif to the west. We suggest that the extensive
transport of debris from the Puna would not have
permitted occurrence of the large clasts.
Famennian glaciomarine units in northwestern
Bolivia support the concept of a Late Devonian glacial
episode in South America, described by Caputo (1985),
Caputo and Crowell (1985), and Veevers and Powell
(1987). A single alpine glacial advance and retreat may be
inferred from the overall sequence and relatively small
thickness of the unit. Recent studies of both modern and
ancient glaciomarine settings allow for the differentiation
of polar, subpolar, and temperate styles of deposition
(Crowell, 1988; Matsch and Ojakangas, 1988; Brod-
zikowsky and Van Loon, 1991). Rounded clasts,
suspended sediment plumes and debris flows (indi-
cating episodic sediment influx), abundant dropstones
and striated clasts, and subglacial meltwater outflow
deposits overlying the diamictite all imply a warm-based
(wet) ice body and a probable temperate glacial setting.
Despite the scarcity of ice-rafted sediment in the modern
model of temperate glacial deposition from the Gulf of
Alaska (Molnia, 1983, 1988), a high iceberg sedimentation
rate is inferred from iceberg sedimentation theoretical
models for temperate glacial environments (Dowdes-
well, 1988). This temperate setting is in agreement with
241
paleogeographic reconstructions of Gondwana for the
Late Devonian, with the northern Altiplano placed at
55˚–65˚ S lat (Isaacson and Sablock, 1988, 1990).
The offshore marine shelf setting of the units under-
lying and overlying the upper Colpacucho Formation
implies a much higher accumulation rate taking place at
the same time in proximal areas of the basin, closer to the
shore (Powell, 1988). Absence of corresponding facies
and thicknesses at the Carboniferous sections to the east
favor a western or, less likely, southern source for the
diamictites. The isotopic dating and geochemistry of
these granitoid boulders should give some insight into
their provenance and the paleogeography of the basin.
Based on a recently revised lithostratigraphic subdivi-
sion of the Carboniferous system in the Altiplano basin
of Bolivia (Díaz, 1991; Díaz and Lema, 1991b), a general
outline of its paleogeographic and paleoclimatic
evolution is proposed. Deposition began with glacioma-
rine deposits (Cumaná Formation) during late
Famennian time, marking the base of a complex thick-
ening and coarsening sequence resulting from coastal
progradation (Ambo Group). This sequence includes
wave- and storm-dominated shallow clastic shelf
deposits (lower member of Kasa Formation). Interbed-
ding of these marine units with braided alluvial plain
deposits records the progradation of a fluvial- and wave-
dominated fan delta complex (upper member of Kasa
Formation), probably as a result of tectonic and glacial
activity in local uplifts. The overlying sequence marks an
important change in fluvial style, from braided streams
in the Kasa Formation to meandering streams in the
Siripaca Formation. This latter unit accumulated in a
fluvially dominated deltaic plain that records the filling
of the basin under conditions of less sediment influx and
lower depositional slope. The Siripaca Formation marks
the end of the Ambo Group, followed by an erosional
period that removed Lower Carboniferous and Upper
Devonian deposits in some areas.
Late Carboniferous–Early Permian
Paleogeography
During the Late Carboniferous, a transgression from
the north began, accompanied by migration of alluvial
and coastal deposits into the Altiplano (Yaurichambi
Formation). Development of a shallow carbonate ramp
followed, which persisted into the Permian (Copacabana
Formation).
The evolution of the Bolivia basin records important
climatic changes related to the shifting of this part of
Gondwana toward lower latitudes. Contemporaneous
events included global climatic and eustatic changes
(onset of the main Gondwana glaciation) and regional
tectonism (Eohercynian deformation). Interaction of
these factors influenced Carboniferous sedimentation in
the Altiplano.
A warm climate apparently occurred in northern and
western Bolivia (Yaurichambi and Copacabana forma-
tions) at the same time that sedimentation in Argentine
and southern Bolivian basins was under glacial influence
(Hambrey and Harland, 1981). This can be explained by
242 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
Figure 11—Suggested paleogeography of Permian basins
of Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile (Marocco, 1977;
Rodrigo and Castaños, 1978; Rivano and Sepúlveda, 1983).
Isopachs in meters. Northern Bolivian (subsurface) infor-
mation is incomplete. Paleolatitudinal position from
Veevers (1984) and Rapalini and Vilas (1991). Arequipa
massif (Isaacson and Sablock, 1990) reactivated during
Permian time (Newell et al., 1953) to provide source for sili-
ciclastics (Isaacson et al., 1993).
the high-latitudinal gradient of temperatures taking
place during the glaciation episodes, creating a warming
and narrowing of the equatorial zones (Raymond et al.,
1989; Raymond, 1990; Sablock, 1993).
Figure 11 presents a suggested basin configuration for
Bolivia and northern Chile during Early Permian time.
Isopach information comes from the present study and
from Rodrigo and Castaños (1978). More recent Bolivian
information (Isaacson et al., 1995), however, suggests that
the Upper Carboniferous–Permian extends into the
northern sub-Andean subsurface, with a possible
highland separating the Lake Titicaca (exposed) units
from areas to the north and northeast. Also, B. Mamet
(personal communication, 1993) has identified
“Morrowan” formaminifera from the Pando X-1 and
Manuripi X-1 wells, thereby documenting that carbon-
Figure 12—Summary of Precambrian and Paleozoic
igneous and metamorphic events that may affect paleo-
geographic development of central Andean Paleozoic
basins. Legend: A, margin of Paleozoic basin; B, Brazilian
shield (>1400 Ma); C, plutons (Ordovician, Devonian, and
late Paleozoic). Brazilian shield, San Ignacio belt, and
Rondonia-Sunsas rocks are described in Litherland et al.
(1985). 1, San Ignacio schist and pluton belt (about 1300
Ma); 2, Rondonia-Sunsas granites (1000 Ma); 3, San
Nicolás batholiths (425, 394, and 388 Ma) (Mukasa and
Henry, 1990); 4, Arequipa massif (>1400 Ma) (Shackleton et
al., 1979); 5, Pampean Ranges, plutons and metamorphic
rocks (475, 440, and 340 Ma) (Rapela et al., 1982); northern
Chilean information is from Boric et al. (1990); 6, Lila
plutons (450 Ma); 7, pre-Devonian metamorphic rocks; 8,
late Paleozoic plutons (318 and 225 Ma); 9, Vilcabamba
(330? Ma) and Late Permian intrusions (Carlier et al., 1982);
10, Ampares massif (330 Ma) (Carlier et al., 1982).
ates and evaporites appeared in Pennsylvanian time.
Given the recent work in northern Chile (e.g., Hervé et
al., 1981; Rivano and Sepúlveda, 1983), however, it
appears that marine connections existed between that
region and northern Bolivia, at least ephemerally. From
the distribution of Permian rocks, it also appears that the
Potosi salient (Figure 11) separated the main Bolivian
basins from a marine connection to northern Chile.
Newell et al. (1953) described a Permian orogeny in the
region and suggested that it caused uplift in the
Cordillera Occidental. The admixture of volcanogenic
detritus with carbonates in northern Chile (Niemeyer et
al., 1985) may confirm this suggestion. Newell et al.
(1953) suggested, furthermore, that the orogeny formed a
“borderland” along the western coast of South America
(Newell et al., 1953). We ascribe this event to the wide-
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
spread Gondwanan events of Dalmayrac et al. (1980),
although sedimentation related to it (Collasuyo
Formation and equivalents) is beyond the scope of this
study.
The Early Permian was a time of relatively reduced
tectonic activity, as the northern margin of Gondwana (at
about 0˚–5˚ S lat at this time) (Rapalini and Vilas, 1991)
had completed coupling with Laurussia (Ziegler, 1989).
Assuming that little north-south austral shortening has
taken place in the latitudes between northern Gondwana
and Bolivia–northern Chile (at about 20˚–25˚ S lat;
Veevers, 1984), we propose that central Chile (Santiago
region) would have been at about 40˚–45˚ S lat. The
glacial episode in northern Bolivia indicates that the
glacial advances took place before Late Carboniferous
time. Crowell (1978) suggested that the glacial activity
across Gondwana (Paraná basin and Malvinas Islands)
ended during the latest Carboniferous. It appears that the
continuing northward drift of Gondwana into lower
latitudes (Rapalini and Vilas, 1991), occurring with the
initial assembly of Pangea, contributed to the demise of
glaciation. Onshore prevailing winds at low southern
latitudes transported across nearly 8000 km of land
(eastern and central Gondwana) would have been mois-
ture deficient, producing an arid zone across western
Gondwana. The extremely long fetch (180˚–200˚ of long-
itude) available to circum-equatorial currents may have
contributed to higher latitude warming trends along the
Gondwana margin.
The global transgression, peaking during the Early
Permian, was probably not a relatively significant event
(Vail et al., 1977). The transgressive highstand was the
lowest of the Paleozoic and indeed one of the lowest
during the Phanerozoic. (For a discussion of exposed
continental land area during the Phanerozoic, see Tardy
et al., 1989.) The Early Permian can thus be considered as
the beginning of a long-term global warming trend in
Bolivia, which apparently persisted through the Eocene.
IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC
BASIN-BOUNDING FEATURES
Figure 12 summarizes Precambrian, Ordovician,
Carboniferous, and Lower Permian igneous and meta-
morphic rocks that occur in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and
Chile. Diverse lithologies and events form the Precam-
brian complexes that were apparently uplifted from time
to time, thereby supplying sediment to the Bolivian and
Peruvian basins. Brief descriptions of igneous and meta-
morphic rocks bounding the depositional settings are
described here.
Arequipa Massif
According to Shackleton et al. (1979), there are discrete
igneous and depositional episodes within the Arequipa
massif, as follows. Precambrian Mollendo metamor-
phism includes metasedimentary rocks, sillimanite-
bearing gneiss, and staurolite-andalusite schists. The
243
Ocona phyllonite zone is a major thrust zone repre-
senting the northeastern margin of an orogenic belt.
There was a separation of staurolite-andalusite schists
(Ocono) from Mollendo granulites; evidence suggests a
contact between them. The age of the Mollendo gran-
ulites is from Rb-Sr whole-rock work by Cobbing et al.
(1977) and from U-Pb concordia plots. Gneisses (Rb-Sr)
near Arequipa give an age of 991 ± 52 Ma. Zircons give a
U-Pb age 1100 ± 50 Ma from granulites (Dalmayrac,
1977). Late Precambrian–early Paleozoic Atico plutonism
includes granulite facies metamorphic rocks, as well as
pink granites, pegmatites, aplites, dolerites, gabbros, and
diorites. Deformation occurred about 450 Ma, and a lead
loss occurred during late Precambrian orogenesis, meta-
morphism, and uplift (600 Ma). There is an early
Paleozoic Marcona sequence of low grade metasedimen-
tary rocks (greenschist facies). Deposition of these rocks
occurred between 440 and 390 Ma. The San Nicolás
batholith occurred about 390 Ma (Mukasa and Henry,
1990).
Oriente of Peru and Brazilian Shield (Bolivia)
In Peru, there were three major orogenic cycles
(Carlier et al., 1982): Precambrian, Hercynian, and
Andean. Precambrian magmatism in the Huanuco
region consists of metaigneous ultramafic to mafic
serpentinites, metagabbros, and metadiorites; syntectonic
metatonalites; and posttectonic dioritic and granitic
intrusive bodies. Precambrian formations in the eastern
Cordillera include two large outcrops in central Peru
(6˚–13˚ S lat). The Huanuco region consists of granulites
dated at about 600 Ma using U-Pb from zircons.
Magmatism within the Precambrian belt includes acid
and basic synsedimentary rocks, ultrabasic and basic
complexes, orthogneiss, and posttectonic intrusions.
There is a lack of chemical analysis for the orthogneiss
bodies, but they are thought to be Precambrian–
Cambrian in age. The relationship between the post-
tectonic intrusions and the lower Paleozoic sequence is
unclear. Some plutons appear to be pre-Carboniferous,
as they are nonconformably overlain by the Ambo
Group south of Chullay.
Precambrian events comprising the Brazilian shield of
eastern Bolivia (Figure 12) have been summarized by
Litherland et al. (1985) and include gneisses, granulites
and other protoliths (>1400 Ma), the San Ignacio Schist
and plutons (about 1300 Ma), and the Rodonia–Sunsas
granites (1000 Ma). The most significant aspect of the
shield elements in Bolivia, however, is that they parallel
the outboard Andean belts (Litherland et al., 1985). More
recent work by Salinas (1992) has shown evidence for
some late Precambrian and Cambrian plutons and
Ordovician dikes and sills in Bolivia.
Pampean Ranges of Argentina
The Pampean cycle is described as being equivalent to
the Brasiliano cycle farther east (Rapela et al., 1982). It
took place before 570 Ma, as evidenced by the age of
postkinematic plutons. The granitoids in the northern
244 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
Figure 13—Cross-sectional model of the western Gondwana margin during the Early Devonian, including the San Nicolás
batholiths (Mukasa and Henry, 1990). It is suggested that crustal loading by the Arequipa (sialic) massif provided subsidence
for thick, clastic-dominated Devonian sedimentation, which further loaded the crust and continued subsidence.
part of the Pampean Ranges can be separated into three
main types: pre- and synkinematic granitoids, late
kinematic granitoids, and postkinematic granitoids. The
Cafayate Granite (tonalite to granite) is the largest
granitoid unit in the Sierra de Quilmes and is interpreted
to have a 475-Ma emplacement age. The Cuchiyaco
Granodiorite is a smaller pluton in the eastern part of the
Sierra de Quilmes. The Cerro Amarillo Granite is a post-
tectonic granitoid. K-Ar mineral ages indicate that most
of the units were intruded during the Paleozoic,
spanning 300 Ma. Low Sr ratios in various granitoid
groups means that parental magma was derived from
the upper mantle, accompanied by melting of local
basement rocks. The main characteristic of the basement
in the Pampean Ranges is that no east-west control of
granitoid emplacement is indicated (from Rb-Sr data).
There are four peaks of igneous activity detected: pre-
and synkinematic bodies older than 500 Ma, late
kinematic bodies (475 Ma), and two postkinematic units
(440 and 340 Ma).
Northern Chile
The presence of Precambrian rocks is not well docu-
mented in northern Chile. There are quartz-mica schists
that are intruded by Ordovician (“Lila”) granites (450
Ma), thereby dating the protoliths as pre-Ordovician. The
Ordovician sedimentation and attendant volcanism
ended with the Ocloyic deformation phase and its syn-
kinematic granitic plutonism (Boric et al., 1990). There is
significant plutonism in northern Chile (318–225 Ma),
marking Hercynian events there (Boric et al., 1990).
GEODYNAMIC MODEL
Figure 13 presents a preliminary southwest-northeast
cross-sectional model of the central Andes during Early
Devonian time. Many aspects of the model require more
detailed information, including detailed biostratigraphy,
modeling of facies architecture, and consequent basin
analysis. The San Nicolás batholiths (Mukasa and Henry,
1990) are a response to subduction and creation of a
magmatic arc, which comprised the Arequipa massif and
possibly other magmatic arcs to the south into Chile.
Attendant uplift of the Arequipa massif produced a
western land source that contributed much of the coarser
lithofacies in the adjacent foreland basin (central Andes).
The Paleozoic arc-trench gap is now missing, and its
disposition has been debated extensively. It could have
been attritionally subducted during more active
Mesozoic and Cenozoic subduction, or it could be part of
a rifted allochthonous terrane now comprising another
region. Insufficient data are available to resolve this
problem.
Fragmentary evidence supporting the existence of a
foreland basin includes very thick, rapid siliciclastic sedi-
mentation along a La Paz “depocenter” (foredeep?)
through late Paleozoic time, as well as periodic silling of
subbasins (e.g., between the Belén and Ayo Ayo sections
of Isaacson, 1977) by syndepositional basement block
faulting(?). Considering that Devonian siliciclastics were
mostly deposited in shallow water, the foreland may
have been a response to thrust fault loading on relatively
thick crust. This would produce a large, shallow-water
foreland basin (Tankard, 1986).
 Evidence for a Middle–Late Paleozoic Foreland Basin, Paleolatitudinal Shift, Central Andes
Figure 14—Summary of stratigraphy, plutonism, biogeography, suggested relative sea levels, paleolatitude, and basin
dynamics for Bolivia basin during the Devonian–Early Permian.
An Early Devonian ephemeral intraarc basin with
volcanogenic sediments and nonendemic faunas (Boucot
et al., 1980) appeared within the magmatic arc. Isolation
from the foreland basin with its Malvinokaffric fauna
was a result of the limits of the intraarc setting. Although
little basin analysis has been done on the Devonian of the
foreland basin, the following evidence supports its
existence. The deepening nature of the basin in Middle
Devonian time is suggested by rapid subsidence that
initially was tectonically induced. Possible crustal
loading and attendant transgression permitted accom-
modation of additional siliciclastic sedimentation, some
of it sourced from the west.
Basin activity during Late Devonian–middle Carbon-
iferous time is difficult to trace, although during Late
Carboniferous–Permian time, it appears that foreland
subsidence continued. The Arequipa massif resumed its
role as a source for coarse lithofacies in the Lake Titicaca
area (Figure 8). A newer period of magmatic activity,
which eventually culminated in Late Permian plutonism
and volcaniclastic deposition in much of the region,
indicated resumption of subduction. This apparently
accelerated in the Mesozoic (James, 1971; Pitcher, 1984).
245
CONCLUSIONS
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian stratigraphy,
lithofacies, and paleogeography are summarized in
Figure 14. The Devonian was influenced by a western
land mass and significant subsidence of the Bolivia basin,
although details of facies architecture and sequence
stratigraphy for the Devonian have yet to be developed.
The Devonian is dominated by siliciclastic units that
contain highly endemic Malvinokaffric fossils in its lower
part and a mixed fauna in its middle part. Late Devonian
palynomorphs have been identified from the sequence,
although how much of the Devonian is represented in
the stratigraphy has yet to be determined. Very few
megafossils of biostratigraphic utility occur in this part of
the sequence. It appears evident, however, that faunas
from North Africa and North America entered Bolivia
from transgressions as the region progressively passed
through lower latitudes (Figure 14).
Preliminary work has demonstrated the presence of a
Late Devonian (Famennian) glaciomarine unit (diamic-
tite) that indicates a proximal, locally glaciated (alpine?)
region. Provenance analysis of clasts in the diamictite
246 Isaacson and Díaz Martínez
should identify source areas in the Cordillera Real
and/or Arequipa massif. Early Carboniferous units
reflect additional periglacial influences, along with
fluvial and nearshore siliciclastics. An undated coal-
bearing unit caps the Lower Carboniferous sequence,
indicating a lower latitude for the region.
After a middle Carboniferous hiatus, during which
erosion removed a varying amount of Paleozoic units,
carbonates of the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian
indicate cyclic marine development, with subaerial
features and western-sourced siliciclastics interrupting
the shallow marine deposition. The faunas, as well as
several primary features, demonstrate a low latitudinal
setting at about 20˚–25˚ S lat (Figure 14).
Considerable emphasis has been placed on the
Arequipa massif as a source area for much of the
Devonian System in Bolivia (especially western Bolivia),
and new evidence suggests that it was uplifted during at
least two times during the Paleozoic. It is also apparent
that two other times of significant orogenic activity
occurred during the Paleozoic. Mechanisms for uplift
appear to have been the development of a magmatic arc
during the Early Devonian, with possible crustal loading
through compression at this time.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge the donors of the
Petroleum Research Fund (American Chemical Society), who
provided support for fieldwork resulting in this paper. The
National Geographic Society provided partial support for field
data presented here. Through assistance from the Servicio
Geológico de Bolivia (GEOBOL) and Yacimientos Petrolíferos
Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB), including extensive discussions
with J. C. Lema, R. Suárez S., A. Dalenz, and others, we have
been able to continue fieldwork in Bolivia. J. Fay assisted with
the compilations of igneous rock information in the region.
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Authors’ Mailing Address
P. E. Isaacson
E. Díaz Martínez
Department of Geology
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho 83843
U.S.A.
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina
R. Mon J. A. Salfity
Universidad Nacional de Tucumán–CONICET Universidad Nacional de Salta–CONICET,
Tucumán, Argentina Salta, Argentina

Abstract

S everal superimposed tectonic stages distinguished by varying structural styles are recognized in the
Andes of northern Argentina (22˚–28˚ S lat). The oldest structures occur in the Precambrian crystalline
basement. This basement forms the central core of the region and is made up of several multiply deformed
belts. These belts were intruded by several generations of granitoids and were amalgamated during the
Panamerican orogeny (Late Brazilian orogeny, 700–600 Ma). A westward-vergent foldbelt containing Ordovi-
cian marine sediments shows eastward-dipping axial plane cleavage. It lies along the western border of the
crystalline core and acts as host rock to pretectonic intrusives. Development of the folding is assigned to the
Late Ordovician Ocloyic orogeny. The sub-Andean ranges and Puna Silurian–Devonian successions were
folded during the Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous at the beginning of the Gondwanan cycle (Chañic
orogeny). This tectonic cycle is represented in several late Paleozoic basins that surround the study area. The
inversion of those basins probably took place during the middle Permian San Rafael orogeny.
The Andean cycle commenced with the opening of rift troughs filled with thick continental deposits during
Early Cretaceous–Eocene time. The inversion of these troughs began with the late Eocene Inca movements, but
was completed during the Miocene Quechua and Pliocene–Pleistocene Diaguita orogenies. From late
Oligocene time onward, continental basins developed, and an extensive Miocene–Pleistocene volcanic arc orig-
inated on the western flank of the study area. These Cretaceous–Cenozoic basins were inverted by the Diaguita
orogeny. Andean tectonics caused clearly differentiated morphostructural units. The most westerly of these is
the Puna Plateau, characterized by Precambrian basement and Paleozoic rocks sheets that were thrust over
Tertiary continental successions. East of the Puna, the Eastern Cordillera represents a tectonic stack of Precam-
brian basement and Paleozoic rock sheets thrust eastward over the sub-Andean ranges. This latter belt forms
the outermost unit, made up of large faulted anticlines. South of 27˚ S lat, a change occurs in the architecture of
the Andean foreland. The sub-Andean ranges and the Eastern Cordillera are replaced by faulted blocks of
Precambrian crystalline basement and Paleozoic granitic intrusions, which form the Pampean ranges. This
paper summarizes the evolution of the oil-bearing basins of northern Argentina.

Resumen

E n los Andes del noroeste argentino (22˚–28˚ S) se distinguen varios pisos superpuestos con distintos
estilos estructurales. Las estructuras más antiguas se advierten en el basamento cristalino precámbrico,
núcleo central de la región, constituido por varios cinturones polideformados. Estos fueron intruidos por varias
generaciones de granitoides y amalgamados durante la orogenia Panamericana (700–600 Ma) (Brasiliano
superior). Un cinturón plegado constituido por sedimentos ordovícicos marinos, y por intrusivos pretec-
tónicos, que muestra clivaje inclinado hacia el este, se encuentra a lo largo del borde occidental del núcleo
cristalino. El desarrollo de este plegamiento se atribuye a la orogenia Oclóyica del Ordovícico superior. Los
depósitos del Silúrico-Devónico de la Puna y de las Sierras Subandinas fueron plegados durante el Devónico
superior-Carbonífero inferior al principio del ciclo Gondwánico (orogenia Cháñica). Este ciclo tectónico está
representado en varias cuencas del Paleozoico superior que rodean el área estudiada. La inversión de estas
cuencas se produjo por efecto de la orogenia San Rafael durante el Pérmico medio.
El ciclo Andino comenzó con la apertura de cuencas elongadas rellenadas con depósitos continentales del
Cretácico-Eoceno inferior. La inversión de estas cuencas comenzó con la orogenia Incaica en el Eoceno tardío,
pero se completó con las orogenias Quechua del Mioceno y Diaguita del Plioceno-Pleistoceno. A partir del
Oligoceno tardío se desarrollaron las cuencas neógenas y desde el Mioceno al Pleistoceno evolucionó un arco
volcánico en el flanco occidental del área estudiada. Estas cuencas cenozoicas fueron invertidas por la orogenia
Diaguita. La tectónica Andina originó unidades morfoestructurales claramente diferenciadas. La más occi-
dental es la Puna, caracterizada por láminas de basamento precámbrico y de Paleozoico corridas sobre las
rocas continentales terciarias. Hacia el este de la Puna la Cordillera Oriental representa un apilamiento
tectónico de escamas de basamento precámbrico y de rocas paleozoicas corridas sobre el cinturón de las Sierras
Subandinas. Este último forma la unidad más externa, constituida por grandes anticlinales fallados. Al sur de
27˚ S ocurre un cambio en la arquitectura del antepaís andino. Las Sierras Subandinas y la Cordillera Oriental
son reemplazadas por bloques fallados de basamento cristalino y de plutones graníticos, que constituyen las
Sierras Pampeanas. Este artículo incluye una reseña de la evolución de las cuencas productoras de hidrocar-
buros del norte argentino.

Mon, R., and J. A. Salfity, 1995, Tectonic evolution of the Andes of northern Argentina, in 269
A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America:
AAPG Memoir 62, p. 269–283.
270 Mon and Salfity
Figure 1—Location map of the study area showing the
geologic provinces. The numbers indicate the location of
columns shown in Figure 2. Key: a, Precambrian; b,
Neogene volcanic arc. Heavy line shows the location of
Figure 3.
INTRODUCTION
Northwestern Argentina straddles the eastern
Andean slope (Figure 1). It has been under intense
tectonic activity from Precambrian time until the present
day. This complex tectonism generated sedimentary
basins of different ages, both in the foreland and in the
interior of the Andean chain. The respective sedimentary
successions are more than 15 km thick. The superposi-
tion of diastrophism occurred at different crustal levels in
Figure 2—Summary chart of Phanerozoic geologic history
of northern Argentina. Column locations are shown in
Figure 1. Key: 1, continental facies; 2, deep marine facies;
3, marine shelf facies; 4, stable shelf facies; 5, diamictite
facies; 6, volcanics; 7, stratovolcano; 8, granitoid; 9, meta-
morphics; 10a, source rock interval; 10b, potential source
rock interval; 11, hydrocarbon reservoir; 12, coarsening-
upward sequence; 13, fining-upward sequence; 14, base or
top not seen; 15, start of sedimentary cycle; 16, unconfor-
mities (a > b > c); 17, diastrophic events.
a highly complex basement that forms the roots of the
present-day Andes. From Cambrian to Tertiary time, the
Phanerozoic basins underwent varying degrees of defor-
mation and shortening.
The aim of this study is to describe the evolution of
the Phanerozoic basins and the tectonic styles produced
by the orogenies affecting this region (Figure 2). This
study emphasizes the importance of the late Precam-
brian–early Paleozoic structural framework in guiding
the subsequent development of basins throughout the
Phanerozoic. Tankard et al. (1995) have expanded on this
theme on a regional scale. However, the manner in
which these older fabrics were reactivated depended on
their orientation relative to successive stress fields.
The evolution of the basins of northern Argentina is
intracratonic, and the Precambrian crystalline basement
was intensely involved in the Andean structures. The
Mesozoic and Cenozoic magmatic activity was not as
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina
intense as along the western slope of the Andes in
northern Chile. Only the western border of the region
has been affected by a Neogene volcanic arc.
The basins in northern Argentina that are most
prospective for oil exploration are situated north of 26˚ S
lat. This area was studied in most detail, although the
maps and regional considerations were extended to 28˚ S
lat (Figures 1, 3) to give a broader overview. Hydro-
carbon exploration is taking place in the productive
Tarija, Olmedo, and Metán basins. Thus far, exploration
in the Tres Cruces, Alhuampa, and Paganzo basins has
not been successful.
PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT
The Precambrian basement lies between 23˚ and 34˚ S
lat (Figures 1, 3, 4) and separates the Andean chain from
the Chaco plain and the Chaco-Paraná basin. They crop
out at the edge of the eastern Andes between 22˚ and 27˚
S lat. This belt of outcrops widens southward in the
Pampean ranges, forming a broad block-faulted
foreland. The Pampean ranges are structurally separated
from the Andean chain. From 22˚ to 26˚ S lat, the Precam-
brian crystalline basement is covered by Cambrian and
Ordovician marine successions. To the east, it plunges
below the early Paleozoic succession. These deposits
partially fill the Chaco plain and the Chaco-Paraná basin
(Fernández Garrasino, 1989). South of 24˚ S lat, the
western edge of the Precambrian basement is tectonically
related to the Cambrian and Ordovician units. Neverthe-
less, it is also unconformably overlain by these deposits
south of 27˚ S lat (Turner, 1967).
The relationships among the northern Argentina crys-
talline basement, the Brazilian shield, the Precambrian
basement in northern Chile, and the Arequipa craton are
not known (Figure 5). The most westward outcrops of
the Puna, separate from the crystalline core, seem to be
continuous with the northern Chilean outcrops.
Polydeformation is the main structural characteristic
of the northern Argentine basement where multiple
episodes of folding and metamorphism have succes-
sively overprinted one another. The folds show a
predominant eastward vergence. Considering the entire
crystalline basement, the degree of metamorphism and
deformation increases to the west. The metamorphic
belts have been intruded by several generations of
granitic rocks. Although the age of the crystalline
basement is constrained by the Cambrian and Ordovi-
cian deposits that cover its flanks and its northern
margin, radiometric dating shows considerable scatter.
Ages range from 1500 Ma to late Paleozoic (Cingolani
and Varela, 1975; Bahlburg and Breitkreuz, 1991; Rapela
et al., 1992; Toselli et al., 1992). The significance of the
isotopic data younger than 600 Ma is uncertain, and
these dates probably reflect isotopic rejuvenation
(Bachmann and Grauert, 1987; Mon and Hongn, 1991).
The most recent radiometric data seems to confirm ages
older than 1000 Ma (Varela and Dalla Salda, 1992; Dalla
Salda et al., 1993; Demange et al., 1993; Mc Donough et
al., 1993).
271
The Precambrian crystalline basement consists of
several belts having different lithologic and structural
characteristics (Figure 4). Low-grade schists predominate
along its eastern border where three belts of mutually
discordant structural styles are observed. All of them are
covered unconformably by Cambrian and Ordovician
beds. The Puncoviscana-Lules belt is a narrow external
strip, in places only slightly deformed, and with a
predominantly westward vergence. The Choromoro belt
is located farther west and shows a greater degree of
deformation, eastward vergence, and kink folds with
partially boudinated limbs. Its deformation is older than
600 Ma, and it is intruded by postkinematic granitoids
with isotopic ages near 600 Ma (Halpern and Latorre,
1973; Omarini et al., 1985). Between 26˚ and 27˚ S lat, the
Aguas Blancas belt appears as a stretch of westward
vergent and intensely microfolded schists.
The central part of the crystalline basement core
contains more highly deformed units than the regions
along the eastern border. The layered Schists belt, charac-
terized by intense tectonic layering that was later folded
on a microscale, grades westward into the Gneiss belt
(Figure 4). Postkinematic garnets in the layered Schists
belt give 580–540 Ma ages (Bachmann and Grauert,
1987). The western margin of the crystalline core is made
up of intensely deformed rocks. Mylonite belts along the
eastern edge of the Puna and at El Peñón can be corre-
lated with the Fiambalá complex (1200 Ma) (Villar and
Coleman, 1986). Between these two mylonite belts, a
low-grade schist belt crops out (the Laguna Blanca belt).
These rocks show a completely different structure to
those of the neighboring units (Figure 6).
Some isolated polydeformed schists crop out away
from the crystalline core (Arequipa-Antofalla belt) and
are separated from it by the lower Paleozoic Ocloyic belt
(Figures 4, 5). They can also be assigned to the Precam-
brian basement (Segerstrom and Turner, 1972). These
schists are intruded by basic dikes (Allmendinger et al.,
1982).
The numerous granitic plutons intruded in the central
crystalline basement record a wide range of origins and
ages (Mon and Hongn, 1991). The structural relation-
ships among the distinct Precambrian belts and the
granitoid intrusives are schematically shown in the inter-
pretative cross section of Figure 6, which corresponds to
Precambrian time.
SEDIMENTARY AND TECTONIC
EVOLUTION OF PALEOZOIC BASINS
Cambrian and Ordovician
The lower Paleozoic sedimentary evolution of the
region began with the deposition of a 2000-m-thick
Cambrian quartzite (Mesón Group) (Turner, 1960). This
crops out as a narrow belt in the present-day Eastern
Cordillera (Figures 3, 6). Deposition is believed to have
taken place in an elongate north-south striking rift
(Salfity et al., 1975). The Mesón Group covers the low-
Figure 3—Geologic map of northwestern Argentina. Key: 1, Precambrian; 2, Precambrian and Phanerozoic granitoids;
3, Cambrian; 4, Ordovician; 5, Silurian–Devonian; 6, upper Paleozoic; 7, Cretaceous; 8, Tertiary sediments; 9,
Tertiary–Quaternary volcanics; 10, Quaternary sediments; 11, salar; 12, thrusts.
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina 273

Figure 4—Regional distribution of the Precambrian belts in

the northern Argentine Andes. Key: a, Precambrian–lower
Paleozoic metamorphics and granitoids; b, thrusts;
c, salar.

grade metamorphic units and its intrusive rocks with a

marked angular unconformity in the eastern border of
the Precambrian core. The rift marks the beginning of a
lengthy stage of extensional tectonism, lasting from the
Late Cambrian to the Late Ordovician (Ocloyic orogeny).
The original shape of the Cambrian rift is not well
known. Despite this, a clastic source in the southeast has
been deduced (Kumpa and Sánchez, 1988). The Precam-
brian crystalline basement was starting to emerge at the
time (Central craton) (Bracaccini, 1960). The present-day
Puna, forming the western flank of the rift, probably Figure 5—Regional framework of the Ocloyic belt in the
provided some of the sediments from a rift flank uplift. Central Andes of Argentina and neighboring regions. Key:
The southern end of the Cambrian rift coincides with the 1, covered Arequipa craton; 2, areas with penetrative Pan-
American deformation; 3, areas with Ocloyic deformation;
present northwest-striking El Toro lineament that 4, covered Ocloyic foldbelt; 5, lower Paleozoic areas with
records a protracted structural history of strike-slip no Ocloyic deformation; 6, Brazilian shield.
movements (Salfity, 1985).
After a period of denudation and tilting related to the
Iruyic movements (Figures 2, 6), the ancient Cambrian turbidites (Turner and Méndez, 1975; Moya, 1988;
rift widened and deepened. Between latest Cambrian Bahlburg, 1990). Ordovician sedimentation occurred in a
and early Llanvirn time, it developed an extensional complex setting that has resulted in a variety of interpre-
basin and a thick succession of platform sediments and tations and regional geodynamic models (e.g., see
Figure 6—Diagram of Precambrian belts, Phanerozoic sedimentary cycles, and tectonic events in northwestern Argentina.
Not to scale. The sections were drawn along 23˚ and 24˚ S lat. Palinspastic restoration not given. Dotted pattern, sedimentary
fill; crosses, granitoids; V, volcanics.
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina 275

Bahlburg, 1990). However, Ordovician sedimentation

occurred in two different basins separated by a topo-
graphic high called the Cobres high (Moya, 1988) (Figure
6). The Cobres high became active after the Iruyic
movements. From latest Cambrian to Tremadoc, Arenig,
and early Llanvirn time, more than 4000 m of platform
sediments were deposited in the eastern basin. This basin
coincides with the present-day Eastern Cordillera and
shows no record of synsedimentary magmatic activity.
In the present-day Puna, the western basin was
deeper and more active. A middle Arenig–early Caradoc
succession of turbidites is more than 7000 m thick
(Bahlburg, 1990). In the western Puna, the lower part of
this sequence contains abundant volcaniclastics. These
volcanics suggest intense magmatic activity during the
middle–late Arenig (Coira, 1973; Bahlburg, 1990; Coira
and Koukharsky, 1991). Sedimentation is attributed to an
extensional basin between a volcanic arc forming its
western margin and the Cobres high (Figure 6). High
subsidence rates are compatible with a back-arc basin
setting (Bahlburg, 1990). The base of this rift succession is
not observed on the Puna. Only fossiliferous Tremadoc
beds have recently been reported in the western Puna
(Moya et al., 1993). The locus of sedimentation would
have migrated from east to west. Subsidence is also more
pronounced in that direction, as shown by the thick
turbidite sequences that crop out in the Puna basin.

Ocloyic Foldbelt
The Ocloyic foldbelt of the central Andes in northern
Argentina (Mon and Hongn, 1991) abuts the western
flank of the crystalline core (Figures 3, 4, 6). This foldbelt
consists of Ordovician deposits covered by a discordant
Silurian–Devonian succession. Its structure and strati-
graphy clearly distinguish it from the Precambrian crys-
talline basement. The Ocloyic foldbelt contains pre-
tectonic granites, assigned a Late Ordovician age. The
Ocloyic deformation is especially visible in the Ordovi-
cian marine sequence of the western Puna basin.
North of 24˚ S lat, in the Eastern Cordillera, unde-
formed Cambrian–Ordovician deposits lie with angular
unconformity on the Precambrian crystalline basement
(South American para-autochthonous). In the Ordovi-
cian beds, deformation increases gradually to the west
toward the Puna. The deformation ranges from less
deformed sequences to beds affected by intense west-
verging folding with east-dipping axial plane cleavage.
Folding did not affect the Precambrian crystalline
basement where the Ocloyic foldbelt is replaced by a
west-verging fault belt. The Ocloyic foldbelt shows a
simple folding style, with folds having a single axial
plane cleavage surface.
South of 24˚ S lat, the contact between the Ocloyic
foldbelt and the Precambrian crystalline basement is
tectonic. The Precambrian crystalline basement and its
intruding granitoids clearly ride over the Ocloyic foldbelt
(Mon and Hongn, 1988, 1991) (Figure 4). The Ocloyic
orogeny produced the uplift of the Precambrian crys-
talline basement between 22˚ and 34˚ S lat. This elevation
generated a high (Central craton) (Bracaccini, 1960) that
Figure 7—Present-day location of the main post-Ocloyic
depocenters. Isopach lines are in kilometers. Key: 1,
Silurian–Devonian; 2, late Paleozoic; 3, Triassic; 4, Creta-
ceous and Tertiary; 5, Tertiary; 6, northern edge of the
Chaco-Paraná basin; 7, wedgeout of the Serra Geral lava
flows; 8, faults and lineaments; 9, depocenter; 10, hydro-
carbon field.
separated the Chaco-Paraná basin from the Andean
region from at least Early Silurian time onward. North of
22˚ S lat, where the Ocloyic orogeny was less intense, this
positive element does not reach the surface.
Silurian–Devonian Basin
The intracontinental Silurian–Devonian basin of the
Peruvian and Bolivian Andes extended into northern
Argentina. The Argentine part of the basin consists of
two depocenters separated by the Puna arch (present-
day Eastern Cordillera) and the Central craton (Figure 6).
The eastern basin coincides with the present-day sub-
Andean ranges and the Chaco plain (Figure 7), while the
western basin coincides with the Puna. These were intra-
continental basins, the eastern one containing thick
platform deposits. This foreland basin corresponds to an
extensive half-graben fill that thins toward the east. To
the west, these deposits are bounded by thrusts that have
marked the eastern edge of the Central craton and
Eastern Cordillera probably since Ordovician time
(Baldis et al., 1976). Over the western side of the basin,
276 Mon and Salfity
deposition was more than 3000 m thick at the northern
end. The deposits gradually thin toward the east and
south (Figure 7). The southern end of the present basin
coincides with the northeast-southwest striking Charata
arch (Padula et al., 1967). Other structural highs associ-
ated with similar striking faults, such as the Michicola
and Quirquincho arches, bound more modern depocen-
ters (Figure 7).
The Silurian–Devonian deposits of the western Puna
basin (Aceñolaza et al., 1972) are represented by isolated
outcrops beneath upper Paleozoic rocks. These beds are
up to 120 m thick and were deposited in a shallow
marine environment (Donato and Vergani, 1985). They
discordantly overlie folded Ordovician beds of the
Ocloyic foldbelt. These deposits correspond to the
eastern border of the platform basin that extended into
northern Chile, where thicknesses of more than 2500 m
are recorded (Bahlburg et al., 1987) (Figure 6). Farther
west, in the Coastal Cordillera, they consist of a thick
Upper Devonian–Carboniferous turbidite succession
deposited in a narrow intracontinental trough (Bahlburg
et al., 1987; Niemayer, 1989). Sedimentation appears to
have migrated from east to west, following increasingly
intense subsidence in that direction.
Chañic Belt
The Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous Chañic
orogeny is represented by a regional-scale unconformity
(Figures 2, 6). This orogeny caused the reversal of the
Silurian–Devonian foreland basin. Chañic deformation
was also associated with tilting in the Chaco-Paraná
basin, where the Carboniferous lies unconformably on
the Devonian and Precambrian. In the Argentine Puna,
the Carboniferous also lies discordantly on the
Silurian–Devonian succession.
In the Chilean coastal Cordillera belt, Upper
Devonian–Carboniferous turbidites were intensely
folded during the Toco orogeny (Bahlburg et al., 1987).
This orogeny is considered to be coeval to or slightly
younger than the movements of the Chañic orogeny. The
Toco orogeny produced south- and southwest-vergent
folding, with east- and northeast-dipping axial plane
cleavage (Bell, 1987; Bahlburg et al., 1987).
Tectonic Framework of Upper Paleozoic
Deposits
The Carboniferous (continental) and Permian
(marine) deposits are distributed on either side of the
Puna arch (Figures 6, 7). In the Tarija and Chaco-Paraná
basins, the Carboniferous is represented by diamictite,
shale, and sandstone sequences more than 1000 m thick
(Mingramm et al., 1979). In the western Puna basin, the
continental Carboniferous succession is about 200 m
thick, and farther south in the Paganzo basin it is more
than 2000 m thick (Figure 7). In the Tarija and Puna
basins, the Carboniferous lies on Silurian–Devonian
deposits. In the Chaco-Paraná and Paganzo basins, it lies
on Precambrian, Ordovician, and Devonian deposits.
Inversion tectonics of the late Paleozoic basins
probably coincide with the inter-Permian movements
(San Rafael orogeny) (Figure 2). The inversion is only
recorded in the western Pampean ranges within the
Paganzo basin realm (Salfity and Gorustovich, 1983)
(Figure 7).
CRETACEOUS–EOCENE AND NEOGENE
SUBSIDENCE
The tectonic and sedimentary evolution of the Creta-
ceous continental basins of northern Argentina are
reflected in the Salta Group rift. The pre-Cretaceous
basement is heterogeneous and consists of Precambrian,
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous units. This basement underwent strong
subsidence during the first stage of synrift sedimentation
when the former Ocloyic and Chañic structures were
reactivated (Salfity, 1979).
At the beginning of the Cretaceous, a series of grabens
opened in northern Argentina, at first as isolated
depocenters that were later connected. The most
prominent of these depocenters are the Lomas de
Olmedo, Tres Cruces, Sey, Alemanía, and Metán troughs
(Reyes, 1972; Salfity, 1980; Schwab, 1984) (Figure 7).
The southern limits of this tract of basins were the
Traspampean and Pampean arches (Padula and
Mingramm, 1963). The Lomas de Olmedo trough
developed between the Michicola and Quirquincho
arches (Vilela, 1965; Salfity, 1982). The basin also
contained internal structural highs such as San Pablo and
Salta-Jujuy (Reyes, 1972) (Figures 6, 7).
The rift depocenters follow three main structural
trends: north-south, northwest-southeast, and northeast-
southwest. The latter is the most important and is the
result of reactivation of the Chañic structures (Bianucci et
al., 1984; Salfity, 1985). The Kimmeridgian(?)–Campanian
synrift red beds of the Pirgua Subgroup filled the basins.
Cretaceous extension is believed to have started at the
time of the Araucan movements and was accompanied
by alkaline volcanism and plutonism (Figures 2, 6). The
postrift sediments were characterized by sandstones and
limestones (Yacoraite Formation) in a restricted
carbonate basin (Marquillas, 1985). The final filling of the
basin occurred during the Eocene, when lacustrine and
fluvial deposits accumulated.
Internally, the Salta Group basins record no regional
angular unconformities. The sedimentary fill was punc-
tuated only by local or regional discontinuities reflecting
sedimentary or volcanic processes.
Tectonics
The Salta Group basins underwent uplift and erosion
on at least three occasions after it was completely filled
(Salfity and Marquillas, 1994) as a result of the following
events: (1) Inca movements during the late Eocene–early
Oligocene, (2) the second pulse of the Quechua orogeny
in the late Miocene, and (3) the Diaguita orogeny in the
Pleistocene (Figures 2, 6).
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina
During the Inca movements, the Salta Group basins
started to emerge, interrupting sedimentation and
resulting in erosion and stripping of several different
formations of the postrift stage. These movements were
generally basinwide, although structurally they were not
intense. The erosion was recorded along the western
flank of the Pampean arch (Salfity et al., 1993). After the
Incaic event, many of the Salta Group basins remained
buried under Paleogene and Neogene deposits. Sedimen-
tation occurred from late Oligocene (Pehuenche
movements) time onward. The deposition took place
within a foreland basin in the sub-Andean ranges and
within intermontane basins in the Puna region (Figure 6).
The Neogene continental sequences of northern
Argentina contain no contemporaneous volcanic units in
their basal sections. This reflects a period of magmatic
calm between the Eocene and the middle Miocene that is
characteristic of northern Argentina (Moya and Salfity,
1982).
The second episode of the late Miocene Quechua
orogeny produced folding and erosion of the Salta
Group formations in several parts of the basin. The
upper part of the Tertiary conglomeratic interval
contains boulders from the Yacoraite limestone and other
Salta Group units (Russo and Serraioto, 1979). They
consist of thick psephitic successions deposited in
taphrogenic basins.
The profuse volcanic activity is attributed to the
Miocene–Pleistocene ensialic magmatic arc that started to
develop on the western flank of the Puna (Figures 1, 3, 6).
The host rocks of this volcanic arc are believed to be
Paleozoic or Precambrian rocks that make up the
Andean arch (Salfity and Marquillas, in press) (Figure 6).
The Andean arch approximately coincides with the
Huaytiquina high and developed along the western
flanks of the San Pablo and Traspampean arches (Figures
6, 7). All the highs are composed of Precambrian or
Paleozoic rocks. Neither the Cretaceous rocks nor the
basal part of the Tertiary sequence of the Uyuni, Puri-
lactis, Arizaro, and Antofalla basins (Figures 6, 7) hosted
the volcanic arc.
The conspicuous reversal of the Salta Group basins
occurred during the compressive Diaguita orogeny. This
orogeny was the most important of the Andean
movements (Figure 2), which folded and faulted the
Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary columns and
commonly reactivated the pre-Cretaceous basement.
Their effects reached eastward as far as 64˚ W long
(Figure 3), eastward of which the Salta Group basins
remain covered by the Orán Group deposits which are
about 3000 m thick (Figure 6). These movements did not
attain the north Puna.
The effects of the Diaguita orogeny were particularly
pronounced. At present, lacustrine deposits of the
Yacoraite Formation are found 4500 m above sea level,
100 km to the west-northwest of Salta. Furthermore, the
oil wells, drilled 160 km to the northeast of Salta in the
southern Lomas de Olmedo depocenter, have penetrated
the top of the Yacoraite Formation at 6100 m below the
surface. The Diaguita orogeny, which involved pre-
Cretaceous basement, Salta Group deposits, and
277
Neogene basins, reactivated the ancient faults bounding
the Salta Group basins. These faults began the reverse slip
during the Quechua orogeny. Some normal faults that
bounded the Cretaceous Pirgua Subgroup graben became
west-vergent thrusts in the central sub-Andean ranges,
between 24˚ and 25˚ S lat (Figure 3). Similarly, Cretaceous
east-west striking south-vergent normal faults reactivated
by the Diaguita orogeny are known in the Calchaquí
Valley at 26˚ S lat (Grier et al., 1991) (Figure 3).
CENOZOIC STRUCTURES
The Cenozoic Andean chain was formed through
interaction of the Nazca plate with the South American
plate. This occurred from Miocene time onward (Dewey
and Bird, 1970; Jordan et al., 1983). Within this sector of
the eastern Andean slope there are belts of varying struc-
tural style. The most westerly of these corresponds to the
Altiplano or Puna. This plateau has an average elevation
of 4000 m above sea level with internal drainage feeding
enclosed depressions and salt flats. It is formed by
Cenozoic volcanic arc and plates of Paleozoic rocks
thrust eastward. Among them, remnants of the Creta-
ceous and Tertiary continental cover are found. South of
24˚ S lat, the eastern edge of the Puna is made up of
Precambrian basement sheets thrust eastward over the
Cretaceous and Tertiary continental successions. These
deposits fill the Calchaquí Valley depression. North of
24˚ S, the Puna is not clearly separated from the Eastern
Cordillera. The structure of the Puna at depth is shown
schematically in Figure 8e.
The Calchaquí Valley forms an elongate north-south
depression. From 24˚ to 26˚ S lat, it extends between the
Puna and the Eastern Cordillera and farther south into
the Pampean ranges. The valley is bounded by reverse
faults that display definite horizontal components,
commonly set en echelon, indicating a transpressive
setting associated with sinistral rotation. The vergence of
the faults along each border is toward the axis of the
depression. The edges of the Calchaquí Valley are largely
made up of Precambrian basement rocks. Folded Creta-
ceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks crop out in the
depression.
The Eastern Cordillera is a fold and thrust belt
following the eastern side of the Puna. South of 24˚ S lat,
the Calchaquí Valley separates these two geologic
provinces. The highest ranges in the Eastern Cordillera
reach altitudes above 5000 m. The Eastern Cordillera
consists mainly of sheets of faulted Precambrian
basement, but it shows marked along-strike differences
in its stratigraphy. North of 25˚ S lat, it contains thick
Cambrian and Ordovician strata. Between 25˚ and 26˚ S
lat, the Paleozoic successions are replaced by Creta-
ceous–Tertiary continental rocks that have a combined
thickness greater than 4000 m. The Tertiary deposits lie
on Precambrian basement south of 26˚ S lat due to the
absence of Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks (Figure 7).
North of 24˚ S lat, the Eastern Cordillera is a thrust belt
with eastward vergence and a typical piggy-back struc-
tural style. The thrust displacements of Precambrian
 278
Mon and Salfity

Figure 8—Regional cross sections of northwestern Argentina. See locations in Figure 3. Key: (A) Transitional contact between the Puna and Eastern Cordillera
and the deformed Cambrian graben. (B) Thin-skinned northern sub-Andean ranges (after Aramayo Flores, 1989). (C) Eastern Cordillera thrust over thick-skinned
sub-Andean ranges and the west-verging Santa Bárbara System. (D) Thick-skinned west-verging Santa Bárbara System. (E) Southern Puna, Precambrian
basement thrust over Ordovician deposits, eastern edge of the Puna and Calchaquí Valley. Key: 1, Precambrian; 2, Precambrian and Phanerozoic granitoids;
3, Cambrian; 4, Ordovician; 5, Silurian–Devonian; 6, late Paleozoic; 7, Cretaceous; 8, Tertiary sediments; 9, Tertiary–Quaternary volcanics; 10, Quaternary
sediments.
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina
basement sheets over younger deposits are more than 10
km (Figure 8a). Southward, the basement blocks on the
western edge of the Eastern Cordillera are thrust
westward (3–4 km displacement) over the Cretaceous–
Tertiary successions of the Calchaquí Valley (Figures 3,
8e). In this sector, the Eastern Cordillera displays
eastward and westward vergence. The back-thrusting is
probably related to deep-seated blind thrusts, as is
observed in other mountain chains where the subsurface
is better known (e.g., the Variscan belt of Europe, G.
Drozdzewski, 1992, personal communication).
The eastern edge of the Eastern Cordillera is marked
by a large regional thrust separating it from the sub-
Andean ranges (Mon, 1991). The displacement on this
thrust is as much as 15 km (Figures 3, 8c).
The sub-Andean ranges form part of the outermost
belt of the Andean foreland, as far south as 27˚ S lat. The
region consists of a foldbelt made up of three large anti-
clinoria that are separated by axial depressions. Between
24˚ and 25˚ S lat, the central anticlinorium shows a
westward vergence with back-thrusts on the western
flank of the folds (Figure 8c). As on the western edge of
the Eastern Cordillera, these structures are probably
related to subsurface blind thrusts. The structure of the
northern segment of the sub-Andean ranges is related to
basal décollement linked to thin-skinned thrusts
(Mingramm et al., 1979; Aramayo Flores, 1989) (Figure
8b). The remainder of the belt is influenced by substantial
basement involvement in sub-Andean folding (Figures
8c, 8d).
South of 24˚ S lat, the San Francisco and Juramento
rivers occupy a depression between the thrusts which
marks the eastern border of the Eastern Cordillera and
the western heights of the sub-Andean ranges (Figure 3).
This depression contains almost 10-km-thick Cretaceous
and Tertiary deposits. The deep structure of this depres-
sion is not known in detail. However, reconstructions
based on surface data suggest a complex structure
(Figures 8c, 8d).
At 27˚ S lat, the Andean foreland undergoes a pro-
nounced change in structural style (Mon, 1976; Jordan et
al., 1983). The sub-Andean ranges are replaced south-
ward by the suite of Precambrian basement blocks of the
Pampean ranges, with dominantly west-vergent
thrusting. These probably developed as back-thrusts due
to the action of blind thrusts at depth. The most westerly
blocks are eastward vergent and define an axis of
tectonic convergence that is the southern continuity of
those observed in the Calchaquí Valley.
HYDROCARBON HABITAT
The Silurian–Devonian and Cretaceous basins
produce oil and gas in the sub-Andean ranges and in the
Chaco plain (Figure 7). Hydrocarbons in Carboniferous
and Tertiary reservoirs were derived from Devonian
source rocks. Other basins such as the Alhuampa
(Chaco-Paraná) and Paganzo (Bolsones) basins are still
being explored.
The clastic fill of the post-Ocloyic Silurian–Devonian
279
foreland basin (Figures 6, 7) consists of three transgres-
sive–regressive cycles (Aramayo Flores, 1989; Vistali,
1989). The Devonian Los Monos Formation is the source
rock and the Santa Rosa Formation is the reservoir
formed by secondary fracturing (Figure 2). The Devonian
reservoirs occur at a depth of 4000 m.
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Tertiary sedimentary
successions are superimposed in the area of the present-
day fold and thrust belt. Gas has been found in Devonian
reservoirs of the San Antonio and Aguaragüe ranges
(Figure 8b) (Aramayo Flores, 1989). Hydrocarbon reser-
voirs also occur in the intracratonic Carboniferous Tarija
basin, as well as in the superimposed Tertiary foreland
basin (Figures 2, 6). Devonian oil from the Los Monos
Formation migrated into the Carboniferous Tupambi
and Tarija formations and Tertiary lower Orán Group
reservoirs (Aramayo Flores, 1989).
South of the sub-Andean ranges, the Carboniferous
successions overlie Devonian strata in the Alhuampa
basin (Figure 7). No hydrocarbon discoveries have yet
been made in this basin. The Michicola, Quirquincho,
and Pampean arches separate the present Tarija and
Alhuampa basins. Commercial hydrocarbons have also
not been found in the continental Carboniferous–
Permian and Triassic successions of the Paganzo basin
(Figure 7).
The intracontinental Cretaceous basins of the region
are productive mostly from the Lomas de Olmedo
depocenter; there is only one field in the Metán
depocenter (Figure 7). The sedimentary fill of the Lomas
de Olmedo depocenter, as well as the other Salta Group
basins, consists of prerift and synrift continental red beds
and volcanics of the Pirgua Subgroup (Figure 2) (Salfity
and Marquillas, 1994). Postrift deposition took place
during the latest Cretaceous–Paleogene. The Yacoraite
limestone is the most conspicuous stratigraphic unit
among the postrift formations (Figure 2). This formation
forms source rock, reservoir, and seal.
The tectonic origin of the Lomas de Olmedo
depocenter is related to the extensive Araucan exten-
sional movements along the Central Andes during Late
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous time (Figure 2). The area
occupied by the large Cretaceous–Tertiary Lomas de
Olmedo depocenter was originally a structural high,
bounded by northeast-southwest lineaments, probably
from Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous time onward
(Figure 7). This high was part of the Michicola arch
during the time of filling of the Carboniferous Tarija
basin (Salfity et al., 1987).
Erosion occurred in the Lomas de Olmedo area,
affecting the pre-Cretaceous basement from the Late
Devonian–Early Carboniferous onward. The erosion was
most intense along the northeast-southwest axis of the
Lomas de Olmedo depocenter (Figure 7). The Silurian–
Devonian succession was partially or totally eroded, so
that the pre-Cretaceous basement consists of Ordovician,
Silurian, and Devonian strata. Erosion is believed to have
stripped much of the Silurian–Devonian succession as a
consequence of which Ordovician rocks directly underlie
the Salta Group (Padula et al., 1967; Mingramm and
Russo, 1972; Salfity, 1979; Carlé et al., 1989).
280 Mon and Salfity
The strip along which the greatest amount of erosion
occurred coincides with the Late Jurassic–Early Creta-
ceous (Araucan extensional event) to late Tertiary
depoaxis. The greatest thickness of Cretaceous (Salta
Group) and Tertiary (Orán Group) successions in the
Lomas de Olmedo depocenter is at least 6 km. This
depocenter thus reflects tectonic behavior and erosion
from late Paleozoic time onward.
The time of oil generation in the Devonian and Creta-
ceous basins is believed to have been related to Neogene
burial history. The time of oil migration in the Tarija
basin took place in the late Neogene (Jordan and Alonso,
1987). It is interesting that, almost 50 years ago, Reed
(1946) observed the great difference in age between
Devonian source rock deposition and late Tertiary trap
formation in the Tarija basin. He concluded that hydro-
carbon generation and migration was driven by Tertiary
deformation.
The oil in the Cretaceous basin is also believed to have
been recently generated. Generation probably began at
the end of Orán Group deposition (late? Oligocene to
later Pliocene–early Pleistocene). These sediments cover
the Lomas de Olmedo and Metán depocenters (Figure 7).
The optimum overburden thickness for oil genesis was
4000–5000 m in the Lomas de Olmedo basin. Migration
filled the sandstone reservoirs with primary porosity in
the Yacoraite Formation in the Chaco basin and with
secondary fracture porosity in the Yacoraite limestone in
the sub-Andean ranges.
DISCUSSION
The Precambrian crystalline basement consists of
polydeformed metamorphic rocks that were invaded by
various generations of granitoids. It is a complex
structure constructed by a variety of units, some of
which are probably allochthonous. This complex was
amalgamated by the Pan-American orogeny at the
Precambrian–Cambrian boundary. Since then, the
basement has suffered little remobilization capable of
changing its internal structure (Mon and Hongn, 1991;
Demange et al., 1993). Paleozoic folding and penetrative
deformation were restricted to the Late Ordovician–
Early Silurian Ocloyic belt and to the Pacific coast Late
Carboniferous–Permian Chañic belt. During the greater
part of Phanerozoic time, the crystalline core remained as
a positive or nearly positive element. Paleozoic
movements resulted in faulting and ductile shear zones
along the west edge (H. D. Hongn, 1993, personal
communication).
The Ocloyic foldbelt evolved between the Precam-
brian crystalline basement core and a para-autochtho-
nous terrane situated farther west represented by the
Arequipa-Antofalla belt and the crystalline basement
outcrops of northern Chile (Figures 4, 5). Both terranes
collided along an eastward-dipping continental suture.
The folding of the Ocloyic belt may be related to a basal
décollement, which does not attain the surface, allowing
the sliding of the Ordovician succession over the crys-
talline basement (Figure 6). This model was proposed by
Matte and Xu Zhi (1988) for the Variscan belts of central
Europe and Asia. The terrane situated west of the
Ocloyic belt may represent the southern continuation of
the Arequipa craton, which has remained close to South
America since 850 Ma (Shackleton et al., 1979; Baeza and
Pichowiak, 1988) (Figure 5).
The synsedimentary volcanic rocks, the plutons
intruded in the Ordovician beds, and the plutons
intruded along the western border of the Precambrian
crystalline basement core had originally been assigned to
the eastern Puna eruptive belt (Méndez et al., 1973). Later
studies (Coira et al., 1982) ascribed them to the roots of
an Ordovician magmatic arc associated with the
evolution of the Ocloyic belt. This hypothesis has been
incorporated in most of the geotectonic models of the
region (e.g., Bahlburg, 1990; Dalla Salda et al., 1992a,
1992b). According to Mon and Hongn (1991), the
granites of the western border of the Precambrian crys-
talline basement are separated from the Ocloyic foldbelt
and its magmatic components by a large Ocloyic thrust.
Moreover, along the western border of the Precambrian
basement, there are three generations of granitoids. The
older plutons are affected by ductile shear belts probably
of Precambrian age. Therefore, it is difficult to reconcile
these characteristics with a single Ordovician magmatic
arc related to the Ocloyic belt evolution, as has been
suggested.
The genesis of the Silurian–Devonian foreland and the
Carboniferous intracratonic basins took place after the
Ocloyic orogeny. These basins were affected by vertical
and flexural movements. The Chañic orogeny, approxi-
mately equivalent to the Toco orogeny of northern Chile,
is represented in northern Argentina by a low-angle
unconformity separating the Carboniferous–Permian
beds from the Silurian–Devonian succession. The Toco
orogeny in the Chilean coastal Cordillera generated a
foldbelt with penetrative deformation (Bahlburg et al.,
1987; Bell, 1987). The folding associated with the San
Rafael orogeny in the western border of the Pampean
ranges, south of 28˚ S lat, is also represented in the study
area by a low-angle unconformity.
Paleozoic tectonic evolution shows a definite
westward trend with deformation belts becoming
progressively younger in that direction. This behavior
was suddenly reversed in the latest Paleozoic. From
Jurassic time onward, younger magmatic arcs progres-
sively developed to the east along the western slope of the
Andes in northern Chile. This intense Mesozoic magmatic
activity did not reach northern Argentina. Extensional
subsidence responsible for the Salta basins and associated
magmatism started during the Late Jurassic or Early
Cretaceous (the Araucan event). Extension continued
during Late Cretaceous and Paleogene postrift times.
Early Oligocene Inca compression inverted the basin and
interrupted sedimentation. During the Neogene, conti-
nental sedimentation took place in the sub-Andean
foreland basin and in extensional intermontane basins of
the Puna.
The Neogene tectonic evolution of this part of the
Andes took place over a segment of the subducting
oceanic Nazca plate that dipped eastward at 30˚ beneath
 Tectonic Evolution of the Andes of Northern Argentina
the continental margin of South America (Jordan et al.,
1983). The first important Neogene deformation was the
Quechua orogeny, which occurred at about 10 Ma (Jordan
and Alonso, 1987). This orogeny affected the Puna and
uplifted the Eastern Cordillera, deforming the western
flank of the Salta Group basins. The Diaguita orogeny,
younger than 3–4 Ma, was according to Jordan and
Alonso (1987) the most important tectonic episode of
Neogene Andean evolution. It generated most of the
eastward-verging thrusts, inverted the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic basins, and reactivated the west-verging Ocloyic
thrusts in the Eastern Cordillera and Pampean ranges. It
was responsible for the thrusting of the Puna over the
Pliocene–Pleistocene conglomerates, which were pro-
duced by erosion of its eastern flanks. The effects of the
Diaguita orogeny extended farther east to the sub-Andean
and Pampean ranges. According to Jordan and Alonso
(1987) and Allmendinger et al. (1993), the Diaguita
orogeny did not affect the Puna north of 23˚ S lat.
CONCLUSIONS
Northern Argentina is an ideal place to study the rela-
tionships between a young orogenic belt, such as the
Andes, and the Precambrian crystalline basement. Wide
outcrops of the roots of the Andean fold and thrust belt
show that the basement is deeply involved in the young
structures and that Andean folding is not related to a
regional basal décollement. The folding of other
segments of the Andean chain, such as the Precordillera,
are possibly related to a basal décollement.
The post-Ocloyic evolution of this region involved
continental crust at shallow depth, with no development
of penetrative structures. Extrusive magmatism predom-
inated with minor hypabyssal emplacement. There was a
close relationship among structural architecture, subsi-
dence history, structural inversion, and the timing of oil
generation and migration in Devonian and Cretaceous
producing basins.
Acknowledgments This paper was greatly improved as a
result of the valuable critical review of A. J. Tankard, H. J.
Welsink, M. A. Uliana, V. A. Ramos, and an anonymous
reviewer. Our studies were made possible by grants from
CONICET of Argentina, Salta National University, and
Tucumán National University.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
R. Mon
Casilla de Correo 36, Sucursal 2
4000 Tucumán
Argentina
J. A. Salfity
Pje. N. Roldan 57
4400 Salta
Argentina
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy of the Late Paleozoic
Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina and its
Regional Implications

Fernando Fernandez-Seveso Anthony J. Tankard

YPF SA Tankard Enterprises
Buenos Aires, Argentina Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Abstract

T he Carboniferous–Permian Paganzo succession straddles the Pampeanas, Precordillera, and Chilenia

terranes. Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous diastrophism of the Chañic event separated very different
early and late Paleozoic histories of basin formation. The Paganzo basin was initiated in the Visean by reactiva-
tion of old terrane boundaries. The early Paganzo consisted of a suite of discrete fault-controlled depocenters
interpreted as transtensional pull-apart basins linked to right-lateral displacement along major crustal faults.
Younger phases of basin formation were characterized by amalgamation of these various depocenters into a
single broad basin.
The Paganzo succession is divided into four supersequences by major hiatuses. These are the Guandacol,
Tupe, and lower and upper Patquía–De la Cuesta supersequences. Each is constructed by stacked unconfor-
mity-bounded depositional sequences. These four supersequences record the various stages of basin evolution.
The Guandacol sediments were deposited in isolated basins. Fieldwork shows a pattern of rapid subsidence
and stacking of coarse alluvial facies along basin-bounding faults. The characteristics of the finer grained strata
indicate a periglacial influence. The overlying Tupe supersequence suggests a gradual cessation of fault
activity as the various depocenters were yoked together. Tupe stratigraphy onlaps the Guandacol–Tupe
unconformity and buries some of the previous interbasin highs. In Patquía–De la Cuesta time, the Paganzo
basin had widened to its maximum extent. Significant transgressions are recorded in Tupe (Westphalian–
Stephanian) and Patquía–De la Cuesta (Artinskian and Kazanian) stratigraphy. Extensive geochemical studies
show that Patquía source rocks are oil prone. Although indications are that the Paganzo basin is prospective, it
remains largely untested.
Regional studies show that the strike-slip faults that controlled Carboniferous basin development in north-
western Argentina diverge northward where they become involved in the Chaco salient of the Bolivian Andes.
The Tupambi-Tarija and Escarpment sequences of Bolivia are broadly contemporaneous with the Guandacol
and Tupe stratigraphy of the Paganzo basin. They share similar depositional characteristics typical of rapidly
subsiding transtensional basins, including stacked alluvial facies, thick debris flow diamictites, massive soft
sediment deformation, and dewatering structures. The Escarpment Formation represents an expansion of the
earlier Tupambi-Tarija depocenters and contains an anastomosing drainage system.

Resumen

L a sucesión carbonífera-permica de Paganzo se dispone sobre los terrenos de Pampeanas, Precordillera y

Chilenia. La fase Chañica del diastrofismo Devónico tardío-Carbonífero temprano separó las singulares
y diferentes historias de formación de las cuencas del Paleozoico inferior y superior. La cuenca de Paganzo se
inició en el Viseano por reactivación de suturas de antiguos terrenos. El Paganzo temprano consistió de un
conjunto de discretos depocentros controlados por falla, los que se interpretan como cuencas “pull-apart” rela-
cionadas a desplazamientos laterales dextrógiros a lo largo de importantes fallas corticales. Las fases mas
jóvenes de la formación de la cuenca se caracterizaron por la amalgamación de varios depocentros en una sola
cuenca amplificada.
La sucesión estratigráfica de Paganzo es dividida en cuatro supersecuencias segun las principales discor-
dancias reconocidas. Estas fueron denominadas Guandocol, Tupe, y Patquia-De la Cuesta inferior y superior, y
caracterizan dose por el apilamiento estratigráfico de secuencias depositacionales acotadas por discordancias.
Estas cuatro supersecuencias reflejan los varios estadíos de evolución involucrados. Los sedimentos de la
supersecuencia Guandacol fueron depositados en cuencas aisladas, con tasa de subsidencia elevada y acumu-

Fernandez-Seveso, F., and A. J. Tankard, 1995, Tectonics and stratigraphy of the late 285
Paleozoic Paganzo basin of western Argentina and its regional implications, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 285–301.
286 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard

lación de facies aluviales gravitacionales gruesas, a lo largo de márgenes controlados por falla. Los atributos
presentes en los estratos de granulometrías finas indican influencia periglacial. La suprayacente supersecuencia
Tupe sugiere un gradual cese de actividad en las fallas, a partir de que varios depocentros comenzaron a
unirse. Los estratos del Tupe traslapan sobre la discordancia que los separa de la supersecuencia Guandacol y
cubren algunos de los preexistentes altos intracuencales. Para el tiempo Patquía-De la Cuesta, la cuenca de
Paganzo ya había alcanzado su máxima extensión areal. Se registraron significativas transgresiones en los
estratos del Tupe (Westfaliano-Stefaniano) y Patquía-De la Cuesta (Artinskiano, Kazaniano). Numerosos
estudios geoquímicos señalan que la roca madre de Patquía es generadora de petróleo. Aunque la cuenca de
Paganzo presenta evidencias de ser prospectiva, la misma aun se encuentra poco investigada.
Estudios regionales muestran que las fallas de desplazamiento lateral que controlaron las cuencas del
Carbonífero en el noroeste Argentino, divergen hacia el norte donde se involucran en la saliente del Chaco de
los Andes bolivianos. Las secuencias de Tupambi-Tarija y Escarpment son, en sentido amplio, contemporáneas
con la estratigrafía de Guandacol y Tupe de la cuenca de Paganzo. Estas comparten similares características
depositacionales, típicas de cuencas transtensionales de rápida subsidencia, incluyendo acumulación de facies
aluviales, espesas diamictitas de flujos de detritos, deformación en masa de sedimentos, y estructuras de licue-
facción. La Formación Escarpment con un sistema de drenaje anastomosado, representa una expansión de los
preexistentes depocentros del conjunto Tupambi-Tarija.

INTRODUCTION
The Paganzo basin originated in Early Carboniferous
time as a result of intense tectonism that disrupted the
Precambrian granitic and metamorphic basement and its
lower Paleozoic cover (Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979;
Baldis et al., 1982; Caminos, 1985). The basement already
had a marked anisotropy attributed to terrane accretion
and Neoproterozoic–Cambrian diastrophism of the
Brasiliano event (Figure 1) (Ramos et al., 1986; Tankard et
al., 1995). The Paganzo basin of west-central Argentina
covered 145,000 km2 and spanned about 100 m.y. of the
stratigraphic record. About 4500 m of sediments accu-
mulated.
Ramos (1988a) has interpreted the basement of
southern South America as a complex mosaic of cratonic
blocks. The Paganzo basin straddles a large part of the
Pampean terrane in the east and the Precordillera and
Chilenia terranes in the west (Figures 1, 2). Predictably,
this basement framework resulted in a highly segmented
depositional landscape. The western depocenters,
consisting of the Calingasta-Uspallata and Río Blanco
basins (Amos, 1972), are separated from eastern
depocenters by the discontinuous proto-Precordillera
ridge (Amos and Rolleri, 1965; Baldis and Chebli, 1969).
The various depocenters were intermittently connected
across this ridge (Lopez-Gamundi et al., 1989; Milana et
al., 1987). This tectonic setting was linked to subduction
in the Carboniferous (Ramos et al., 1986; Mpodozis and
Ramos, 1989).
The predominantly terrigenous clastic fill of this basin
complex reflects successive episodes of deposition in a
variety of marine and continental environments. The
repeated stacking of these depositional sequences,
intraformational deformation, and the numerous uncon- Figure 1—Relationship between Precambrian–early
Paleozoic terranes (modified after Ramos, 1988a) and
formities of various scales suggest a stratigraphic Phanerozoic basin development. The Paganzo basin spans
response to the basin-forming tectonic processes and to three terranes where their boundaries converge. AA,
sea level fluctuations. Although there may be a structural Arequipa–Antofalla terrane; CH, Chilenia terrane; P,
justification for these depocenters or subbasins, the Pampean terrane; PC, Precordillera terrane; PA, Patagonia
overall continuity of the stratigraphic cover suggests that terrane; RP, Rio de la Plata terrane. White rectangle marks
these depocenters were yoked together for much of their study area.
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina
Figure 2—Present structural framework of Precordillera
fold and thrust belt and Pampean basement, a tilt-block
basin province that has inverted the Carboniferous–
Permian Paganzo basin. Stippled areas are modern
depressions or valleys (bolsones); the curved lines trace
topographic relief and the principal inversion faults. The
broken line shows the extent of amalgamated Paganzo
basin complex. A–B shows regional cross section of
Figure 15. B, Bola Hill; BE, Bermejo lineament; HU, Huaco;
ISCH, Ischigualasto basin; LS, Las Salinas; MA, Malimán;
MAS, Salinas de Mascasin; ML, Mogna–Las Salinas ridge;
MZ, Malanzán; P, Puerta de las Angosturas; PAS, Pasleam
syncline; PP, Protoprecordillera ridge; SA, Sañogasta; SE,
Santiago del Estero; VB, Veladero–Bola hills; VF, Sierra de
Valle Fértil.
history. The easternmost Pampean terrane formed an
area of high relief between the Paganzo and Chaco-
Paraná basins, shedding sediments into both (Alvarez et
al., 1990).
The Paganzo succession consists of large-scale uncon-
formity-bounded supersequences that express the broad-
scale tectonic evolution of the basin and a stacked suite of
smaller scale depositional systems or sequences
(Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1990, 1993). The unconformity-
bounded supersequences form the Guandacol, Tupe,
Patquía, and De la Cuesta formations (Figure 3).
Mapping of these supersequences is based on surface
stratigraphic correlation and seismic interpretation.
287
Figure 3—Stratigraphic column and sequence framework
for the Paganzo succession. Apices of triangles point in
direction of overall sequence fining. Other symbols
indicate the presence of marine fossils or plants.
This paper addresses the stratigraphic history of the
Paganzo basin during the Carboniferous–Permian, a
time when Gondwana was subjected to one of the
world’s great ice ages. The approach involves a detailed
sequence stratigraphic analysis as a guide to the tectonic
evolution of the basin. The intention is to expand on
earlier studies (e.g., Scalabrini-Ortiz, 1973; Vásquez et al.,
1981; Salfity and Gorustovich, 1983; Archangelsky, 1986;
Lopez-Gamundi et al., 1989; Fernandez-Seveso et al.,
1988, 1990, 1993; Perez et al., 1993). Fernandez-Seveso et
al. (1993) provide a more detailed account of the
sequence classification and their correlation. The
Carboniferous Paganzo stratigraphy is compared to its
counterparts in the Eastern Cordillera and sub-Andean
foothills of southern Bolivia.
288 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard
Figure 4—Reconstruction of Paganzo basin evolution. (A)
Stratigraphic relationships based on stratigraphic sections,
field mapping, and seismic interpretation (Figures 5, 6). (1)
The Visean–Namurian Paganzo basin consisted of discrete
fault-controlled depocenters. Coarse facies of the
Guandacol supersequence are stacked vertically adjacent
to basement-involved faults. (2) The Westphalian–Asselian
Tupe supersequence records progressive amalgamation of
these isolated basins to form a single basin complex with
an irregular floor. (3) The late Asselian–Tatarian
Patquía–De la Cuesta supersequences were deposited in a
uniformly subsiding intracontinental sag when the basin
was widest. (B) Detail of idealized Guandacol sequence
deposited in a pull-apart basin. Each sequence is charac-
terized by stacking of coarse facies against an active
basin-bounding fault. Distal facies include varved lacus-
trine shales with evidence of turbiditic underflows and
turbidites. (Modified after Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1993.)
METHODOLOGY
The study area includes the greater part of the basin
outlined by Salfity and Gorustovich (1983) between
about 27° and 31° S lat (Figure 2), augmented by a few
control points in the Rio Blanco and Calingasta-Uspallata
basins. The data base includes 44 detailed stratigraphic
sections measured in outcrop, which were subsequently
integrated with interpreted reflection seismic profiles. A
conventional sequence stratigraphic analysis was
applied. The aim was to establish the pattern of basin
subsidence on the basis of variations in the nature and
distribution of depositional systems and sedimentary
facies. The ages of the sequences and their bounding
surfaces are based on flora, palynomorphs, microfossils,
and larger marine invertebrates.
Our interpretation of the marine and terrestrial stratig-
raphy of the Paganzo basin emphasizes relative changes
of base level that are believed to encompass the effects
both of relative sea level and basin subsidence. On this
basis, the Carboniferous–Permian stratigraphy in the
Paganzo basin consists of 15 depositional sequences
grouped into four supersequences by regional unconfor-
mities (Figure 3). Because of the nature of tectonism and
basin subsidence, these sequences and supersequences
are not uniform. The supersequences have a 12–34 m.y.
periodicity and thicknesses that range from 600 to
2000 m. In contrast, the depositional sequences have a
periodicity of 3–10 m.y. and a 100–600 m thickness range.
At the smallest scale of investigation, the basic genetic
units (lesser order sequences and parasequences) vary
up to 3 m.y. in duration and 250 m in thickness (Fer-
nandez-Seveso et al., 1993). This Paganzo stratigraphy is
reflected in subsidence curves.
STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
The overall tectonostratigraphic reconstruction of the
Paganzo basin (Figure 4A) is derived from stratigraphic
relationships, facies characteristics, and seismic interpre-
tation (Figures 5, 6). The Visean-Namurian Guandacol
supersequence (G1–G4 of Figure 4A) is characterized by
an asymmetric basin fill in which coarse facies are
stacked along the margins of the basins. Subsidence was
initially rapid enough to allow stacking of coarse clastics
along the principal basin-forming faults of an extensional
or transtensional system (subsidence rate greater than
sedimentation rate). In contrast, the overlying West-
phalian-Asselian Tupe supersequence (T1–T4 of Figure
4A) had an onlapping relationship that was more wide-
spread, locally blanketing the interbasin highs for the
first time.
Each sequence is characteristically upward fining
from gravel-rich and conglomeratic facies to thinly
laminated shales, indicating a repetition of similar depo-
sitional processes (Figure 4B). Each has a fault-controlled
stratigraphy.
Guandacol Supersequence
The Guandacol supersequence contains an Early
Carboniferous flora (Andreis and Arrondo, 1974). It is up
to 1825 m thick in outcrop. The Guandacol superse-
quence was deposited beginning in the late Visean as a
suite of rapidly subsiding depocenters in which sedi-
mentation was fault controlled. Subsidence was intermit-
tent and at times rapid. This is reflected in vertical
stacking of coarse facies adjacent to a basin-bounding
fault, debris flows, and massive synsedimentary defor-
mation structures. The rate of subsidence exceeded the
rate of sediment supply. At other times, the basin was
largely starved of coarser detritus, and more argillaceous
lacustrine material draped the entire floor of the basin.
Rhythmic lacustrine deposits, faceted clasts, and giant
dropstones suggest a periglacial environment during the
late Visean and Namurian.
The Guandacol supersequence is divided into four
depositional sequences by bounding erosional unconfor-
mities (Figures 3, 4A, 7). Each sequence fines upward
from gravel-rich and conglomeratic facies to thinly
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina 289

Figure 5—Unmigrated seismic line 9052 from Bermejo valley showing erosional truncation of pre-Carboniferous basement
(reflector 1), the Paganzo–Ischigualasto basin complex (between reflectors 1 and 2), and a zone of high-amplitude contin-
uous reflectors attributed to the Cretaceous–Paleogene section (above 2). Reflector 3 separates the Triassic Ischigualasto
basin from the Paganzo basin. The thick section above 4.5 sec on the eastern side is Neogene fill in a tilt-block foreland
basin. See Figure 2 for location.

Figure 6—North-south oriented line 9053 crossing previous line 9052 in Figure 5. Note scale change. See Figure 2 for location.

laminated shales, indicating a repetition of similar depo-
sitional processes (Figure 4B). Each has a fault-controlled
stratigraphy. The depositional facies (Figures 4B, 7)
include the following:
• Gravel-rich, conglomeratic sandstones with
multiple channel scours proximally. These have
been interpreted as fan deltas with associated
debris flows and mudflows.
• Laterally continuous sandstones with sharp bases
separated by thinly interbedded mudstones and
sandstones (Figure 8), locally with massive
slumping. Fernandez-Seveso et al. (1993) have
attributed these sediments to turbiditic underflow
processes.
• Laminated shales and siltstones with sandstone
290 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard

Figure 7—Guandacol supersequence consisting of four

stacked sequences. Symbols along stratigraphic column
indicate glaciogenic intervals (dropstones and varvelike
rhythmites). Also shown are TOC and C15+ extractable
bitumen suggesting low to moderate potential gas-prone
sediments.

interbeds and slump structures. The finer grained

lithologies are markedly varved and contain drop-
stones, some of them very large (Figure 8). Plant Figure 8—Lacustrine mudstones and siltstones deposited
remains, palynomorphs, and Lioestherias occur; as varved couplets with thicker turbidite interbeds and
there is no evidence of marine paleoenvironments large granitic dropstone. Dropstone is about 1 m in
in the Bermejo and Pasleam depocenters (Figure 2). diameter. Guandacol supersequence.
These rocks are believed to have been deposited in
lacustrine environments that were locally influ-
enced by turbiditic flows.

These stacked fining-upward Guandacol sequences

have a lateral continuity on outcrop scale (Figure 9), but
regionally they have a limited distribution. The most
widespread unit is the lacustrine shale–siltstone facies
tract that draped and interfingered with the slumped
mudflows and turbiditic sandstones (Figure 4B).
Renewed sediment influx was distributed by sub-
aqueous gravity flows that formed channelized and
nonchannelized depositional lobes typical of classic
turbidite systems (see Mutti, 1985).

Tupe Supersequence
The Tupe supersequence is an Upper Carboniferous
(Westphalian) to Lower Permian (Asselian) succession
separated from the Guandacol by a major unconformity
(Figure 3). Like the Guandacol, the Tupe succession
consists of four sequences separated by unconformities.
Each sequence is a progradational complex that reflects,
to varying degrees, deposition in fluvial, lacustrine, and
marginal marine environments (Figure 10). The Tupe
succession is as thick as 1285 m.
The age of the Tupe succession is believed to be
predominantly Late Carboniferous (Westphalian–
Stephanian) on the basis of palynomorphs and fossil
plants (O. Arrondo, D. Ganuza, G. Leunda, and E. Morel,
1993, personal communications). The ostracod genus
Bairdiacypris indicates a Late Carboniferous–Early
Figure 9—Guandacol–Tupe succession at Bola Hill. Lower
part is fining-upward Guandacol sequences. Lower
Patquía–De la Cuesta supersequence at crest is overlain
by Triassic basalts. See Figure 2 for location.
Permian age (A. Chaia, 1993, personal communication),
whereas the invertebrates in Tupe sequence 3 have
Stephanian affinities (N. Sabattini, 1993, personal
communication).
Tupe sedimentation initially reoccupied old depocen-
ters established in Guandacol time. However, the Tupe
stage of basin subsidence differed from the earlier
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina
Figure 10—Tupe supersequence consisting of four stacked
sequences. Also shown are TOC and C15+ extractable
bitumen indicating lean gas-prone sediments, not prospec-
tive source rocks. Symbols along stratigraphic column
indicate glacigenic intervals (dropstones and varvelike
rhythmites) and limestones.
Guandacol stage in two important ways. First, sedimen-
tation overlapped the margins of the old depocenters, as
well as the interbasin highs (Figures 4A, 11), suggesting
that by Westphalian time those depocenters were
gradually yoked together in a regionally subsiding basin
(Figures 4A, 6). Second, the basin was subjected to
periodic inundation by the sea, as reflected in the trans-
gressive-regressive stratigraphy and the marine biota.
The constituent depositional sequences were irregu-
larly distributed over ridges and interbasin highs. The
proto-Precordillera, the Mogna–Las Salinas ridge (Perez
et al., 1993), and the Valle Fertil and Sañogasta margins
(Figure 2) remained active. In the northeast and east,
overlapping relationships suggest that new, albeit
shallow, depositories had formed (Figure 4A). The basin
expanded its margins farthest during middle Tupe time
(sequences T2 and T3). Fluvial and lacustrine deposi-
tional systems dominated the eastern part of the basin
over Pampean basement. The succession thickened
westward where fluvial and sandy deltaic systems
interfingered with marginal marine deposits.
Sequence 1 reoccupied previous Guandacol depocen-
ters. Sediments were distributed by subaqueous channel
and turbidite processes in front of sandy fan delta
systems and were locally subjected to contemporaneous
slumping on a massive scale (Figure 12).
Sequence 2 overlies the Precordillera terrane (Figure
11) (Perez et al., 1993) and the western margin of the
Pampean terrane. It consists of three overlapping
packages that were built basinward by braided fluvial
and Gilbert-type fan delta systems. Basinal and interdis-
tributary bay mudstones are varved and contain drop-
stones and faceted clasts.
Sequence 3 records the maximum expansion of the
Tupe paleogeography (Figure 4A). This sequence onlaps
and oversteps interbasin highs. A depositional history
similar to the previous sequence prevailed, including
overlapping depositional lobes and local intraforma-
tional disconformities. There are also terrigenous and
291
carbonate shorezone deposits with diverse marine inver-
tebrate assemblages. A variety of bioclastic and
biohermal facies of low energy littoral origin overlie
sequence 2 and Precordillera basement. Ash tuffs occur
locally.
Sequence 4 reflects progradation of the shoreline as
the basin filled with braidplain deposits. Rare dropstones
and rhythmites occur in some lacustrine deposits
(Rodriguez and Fernandez-Seveso, 1988). Marginal
deltaic deposits locally form laterally continuous
sandstone sheets and channel fills. Fossils include
ostracods and casts of invertebrates. The upper part of
the sequence is characterized by subtle truncations and
toplap relationships.
Lower Patquía–De la Cuesta
Supersequence
The lower Patquía–De la Cuesta (LPD) is a classic
Lower Permian red bed succession characterized by
alluvial fan, fluvial, and playa lake lithofacies that
encroached on a shallow marine basin (Figures 3, 16)
(Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1993). These sediments are
contained within three stacked sequences that reflect an
overall transgressive-regressive history. The upper part
of the LPD consists of thick eolianite sandstones
(Limarino and Spalletti, 1986). The lower Patquía–De la
Cuesta succession is up to 620 m thick.
A late Asselian–Kungurian age is inferred from the
magmatic flows and pyroclastics, which are attributed to
the Choiyoi magmatic episode (Caballé, 1990). The
volcanism occurred mainly toward the west on the
Chilenia terrane. Early volcanism was mainly andesitic,
but changed upward to rhyolitic composition. Palyno-
logic assemblages (LPD2) (Figure 13) suggest a broad
Late Carboniferous–Early Permian age range (G.
Leunda, 1993, personal communication).
Sequence 1 onlaps a low relief regional unconformity
above the previous Tupe succession (Figure 4A). Conti-
nental sedimentation was widespread and displaced the
Tupe sea, even as far as the western edge of the Pre-
cordillera terrane. This sequence is dominated by chan-
nelized conglomerates and sheet sandstones interpreted
as distal alluvial fan and braided fluvial deposits.
Whereas the eastern parts of the basin contain stacked,
coarse, braided fluvial deposits, the northern area is char-
acterized by widespread mudstone and interbedded
sandstone deposits cut by lenticular channel sandstones.
We infer a low relief landscape of playa lakes and
ephemeral streams. Volcaniclastic material and basalt
flows are observed locally (Azcuy and Morelli, 1970).
Sequence 2 reflects the paleogeography of a marine
transgression. Over a large part of the Precordillera
platform in the north, shore zone wave and tidal influ-
ences were important, depositing relatively mature
reworked sandstones. This highstand systems tract
contains Tasmanaceas and Acritarcos microplankton (e.g.,
Leiosphaeridium sp.) and algae, indicating restricted
brackish environments. In contrast, the eastern edge of
the basin above the Pampean basement was buried by
braided fluvial and argillaceous floodplain deposits.
292 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard
Figure 11—Tupe succession (sequence 2) onlapping interbasin high of Precordillera basement, Veladero Hill. White sand-
stones are fluvial. See Figure 2 for location.
Sequence 3 varies up to 230 m thick and consists of
well-sorted eolian sandstones with intraformational
shale facies of possible interdune origin (Figure 13).
Upper Patquía–De la Cuesta
Supersequence
The upper Patquía-De la Cuesta (UPD) is a succession
of terrigenous clastic deposits that formed in ephemeral
river, playa lake, perennial lake, and marginal marine
settings (Figure 13) (Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1993). This
is an Upper Permian succession consisting of four
stacked depositional sequences. The stratigraphy is most
complete in the northern part of the basin. The UPD
terminates with a major unconformity that truncated as
deeply as the Tupe supersequence in the central part of
the basin where the Triassic Ischigualasto basin subse-
quently developed (Figures 5, 9), suggesting that a
period of structural inversion separated the Permian and
Triassic basins (Perez et al., 1993). The upper Patquía is
up to 730 m thick.
The age of the upper Patquía is believed to be early
Late Permian on the basis of palynomorphs in the lower
two sequences (Aceñolaza and Vergel, 1987; G. Leunda,
1993, personal communication).
The lowest depositional sequence was deposited
unconformably on a lower Patquía eolianite by distal
alluvial fan, debris flow, and braided sheetflood processes
that suggest a period of slightly higher rates of subsi-
dence. In the inner part of the basin, these alluvial facies
are associated with the argillaceous deposits of playa and
perennial lakes. These lakes were probably the result of
impounding by alluvial systems or erosional deflation
over the axis of the basin. Restricted marine incursions are
also inferred from microfossils (e.g., acritarchs and
ostracods) and limestone interbeds. The lacustrine to
restricted marine deposits contain oil-prone bituminous
shales (Figures 13, 14). We infer a restricted marine and
fringing coastal plain paleogeography with a warm,
humid climate. This lower sequence is equivalent to the
Vitiacua Formation of southern Bolivia (Sempere, 1995).
The margins of the second depositional sequence
were characterized by small fluvial channels that fed
shoalwater mouth bars. Finer grained interdistributary
bay and marsh deposits were widespread and contain
plant remains, palynomorphs, and terrestrial inverte-
brate fossils such as Anthracosiasea sp. (G. Leunda, 1993,
personal communication).
A regional unconformity forms the base of the third
depositional sequence. It contains eolianites, fluvial
deposits, and shallow lacustrine deposits with
interbedded sheetflood sandstones (Figure 13). Sequence
4 at the top of the Paganzo succession is dominated by
sandstones attributed to ephemeral river deposition.
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina 293

Figure 13—Lower and upper Patquía–De la Cuesta super-

sequences comprising a total of seven sequences. VV,
Figure 12—Turbiditic sandstones with a massive slump Basalt flows. Also shown are TOC and C15+ extractable
structure, Tupe sequence 1, Bola Hill. Slump is about 5 m bitumen suggesting oil-prone source rocks with high
thick; see person at right for scale. hydrogen index.

INTERPRETATION
The Paganzo basin fill reflects a complex tectonic and
paleogeographic setting involving intermittent fault-
controlled reactivation of old basement terranes and
extrabasinal sea level and climatic influences (Tankard et
al., 1995).
Much of the Carboniferous Guandacol and Tupe
deposition occurred in periglacial settings as evidenced
by the varved lacustrine shales with dropstones, faceted
clasts, diamictites interpreted as muddy debris flows, the
predominance of humid braided fluvial deposits, and the
plant ecology (O. Arrondo, E. Morel and E. Ganuza,
1993, personal communication). There is little direct
evidence for glaciation in the Paganzo basin. However,
glacial pavements and tillites have been recorded in the Figure 14—Potential oil-prone source rocks (two dark
proto-Precordillera and Mogna–Las Salinas ridges (Figure bands) in upper Patquía (sequence 1). Sierra de Narvaez
2) (Lopez-Gamundi et al., 1989; Milana and Bercowski, ridge is in the background. Puerta de las Angosturas
1990) where there was topographic control. In contrast, section, northern part of Paganzo basin. See Figure 2 for
post-Tupe Late Carboniferous–Early Permian coastal location.
elevations are believed to have had a cold, temperate
paleoclimate, as suggested by foraminifera and mollusc
fossils in the Huentelauquén Formation on the coast of
central Chile (Rivano and Sepúlveda, 1985). By lower
Patquía time, climatic warming had set in. Glacial envi- coincided with accumulation of bituminous black shales
ronments are not characteristic of other Early Permian in the Paganzo basin (Figure 14) and the Vitiacua
Gondwana basins (Zalan et al., 1987; Visser, 1991; Eyles, Formation of the Tarija basin. Organic-rich shales of this
1993). However, Zalan et al. (1987) and Russo et al. (1986) age also occur in the Iratí Formation of the Paraná basin
have documented Early Permian glaciation in the Paraná and the Whitehill Formation of the Karoo basin (Franca
and Chaco-Paraná basins, respectively. et al., 1995; Tankard et al., 1995, their figure 23).
By the end of early Patquía time, the climate was In Gondwana reconstructions, the Late Carbonif-
universally arid, and desert dune fields were wide- erous–Early Permian Paganzo basin was located
spread, as was the case for the fluvial-eolian Cangapi between 30° and 45° S lat, compared to 70° S lat in the
Formation in the Tarija basin of northwestern Argentina. Early Carboniferous (Smith et al., 1981; Scotese and
This warming trend also resulted in a pronounced sea Barrett, 1990). Consequently, glacial paleoclimates over-
level rise during the late Kungurian or Kazanian printed Guandacol deposition; these were the late
(Sempere et al., 1992; Sempere, 1995). This episode Visean–early Namurian and late Namurian glacial peaks
294 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard
Figure 15—Tectonic model for evolution of Paganzo basin complex. Initially the Paganzo developed as a number of discrete
basins by reactivating old basement fabrics. In the Late Carboniferous (Tupe time), these were joined together in a single
wide basin. (Modified after Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1993.)
(J. C. Crowell, 1990, personal communication). Eyles
(1993) has reviewed this geology and attributes this early
glaciation to oblique collision, rotation of large crustal
blocks, and glaciation on tectonically uplifted areas.
During the Late Carboniferous, the world became
distinctly colder as the Gondwana ice sheets expanded
(Dickins, 1993). However, the characteristics of sedimen-
tary facies show that the upper Tupe Paganzo basin was
already at warmer latitudes. These latitudinal differences
also explain why Carboniferous sedimentation rates
were higher in the Paganzo and Tarija basins than in the
Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins (see Russo et al., 1986;
Zalan et al., 1987); the former basins were periglacial at
that time.
Much of Paganzo deposition occurred in a succession
of transgressive-regressive cycles. An abrupt lowering of
sea level from the late Namurian to early Westphalian,
together with a change in the rate of subsidence, resulted
in the unconformity between the Guandacol and Tupe
successions. Maximum flooding occurred during the
Westphalian and Stephanian (Tupe sequences 2 and 3).
There was a smaller advance in the Artinskian (lower
Patquía) (see Figure 16). The Upper Permian (Kazanian)
organic-rich or bituminous shales in the upper Patquia,
Vitiacua, and Irati formations all indicate a warm, post-
glacial climate and pronounced transgression (Sempere
et al., 1992).
A long history of early–middle Paleozoic basin
evolution ended with the Late Devonian–Early Carbonif-
erous Chañic orogeny (Aceñolaza and Toselli, 1976;
Salfity and Gorustovich, 1983). This diastrophic phase is
expressed throughout southwestern Gondwana by a
substantial hiatus. The basin deposits on either side of
this regional unconformity are very different. The early
Paleozoic basins were largely underfilled marine basins.
In contrast, the Carboniferous and Permian successor
basins were predominantly terrestrial depocenters. The
Lower Carboniferous stratigraphy in the Paganzo basin
is poorly understood, but lithostratigraphic, biostrati-
graphic, and radiometric age data place it above the
Chañic unconformity (Polansky, 1970; Ramos and
Ramos, 1979). In the Precordillera, Carboniferous strata
overlie folded pre-Carboniferous rocks.
Guandacol deposition occurred in small, isolated
depocenters (Figure 15). Despite their small size, a rela-
tively thick succession (nearly 2000 m) of sandstones and
conglomerates were stacked adjacent to a basin-
bounding fault (Figure 4), suggesting that the rate of
subsidence exceeded the rate of sediment supply.
Massive synsedimentary deformation (Figure 4)
supports this interpretation. Braided alluvial fan and
debris flow deposits suggest a rugged relief. The
Guandacol depocenters strongly resemble the transten-
sional pull-apart basins of strike-slip zones (e.g., Nilsen
and McLaughlin, 1985). Ramos (1988b) has interpreted
strike-slip faults in Mendoza Province in a right-lateral
sense due to displacement of the Chilenia terrane. Thick
sedimentary sections above the Pampean-Precordillera
and Precordillera-Chilenia sutures contain Visean fossils,
thus dating the initiation of Guandacol basin formation
to the Visean.
Fault-controlled subsidence initially formed small
half-grabens in the eastern part of the Guandacol basin.
These pull-apart basins subsided intermittently in a
series of rapid spurts over a 35-m.y. interval. This episode
was succeeded by the widespread Tupe complex as the
small basins of the transtensional system ceased activity
and the various depocenters were amalgamated in a
uniformly subsiding depression. This change in basin
dynamics is marked by a regional unconformity. The
Tupe succession onlapped this unconformity and over-
lapped the older interbasin highs and, for the first time,
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina
Figure 16—Back-stripped tectonic and basement subsi-
dence curves for Permian–Carboniferous Paganzo basin
showing three stages of subsidence: rapid transtensional
subsidence, regional subsidence, and increased rates of
subsidence in the Permian attributed to stress relaxation.
The geohistory plot includes outcrop data, petrophysical
logs, and seismic data. (Modified after Fernandez-Seveso
et al., 1993.)
expanded the Paganzo basin across the Pampean terrane
(Figure 15).
A third style of subsidence was established in early
Patquía–De la Cuesta time. Patquía sediments record
maximum expansion of the basin as they onlapped even
farther across the basement. There was a general lack of
relief in the basin, although some sedimentary facies
suggest an increase in the rate of subsidence. This phase
most closely resembles a shallow epeiric basin or intra-
continental sag. This pattern persisted until inversion at
the end of the Permian marked a tectonic reorganization
and the onslaught of Triassic extension by orogenic
collapse (Tankard et al., 1995).
This tectonostratigraphic interpretation is summa-
rized in back-stripped tectonic and basement subsidence
curves (Figure 16) (see Bond and Kominz, 1984). The
stratigraphy has been decompacted taking into account a
7000-m post-Permian section and empirical porosity to
depth relationships. The greatest inaccuracy in the
Paganzo subsidence curves is their imprecise chronology.
The back-stripped subsidence curves record three
styles of subsidence (Figure 16). The first phase of subsi-
dence, spanning about 30 m.y., was the most rapid and
resembles an open rift style (Meyer, 1991; Williams,
1995). Field and seismic mapping suggest that
Guandacol depocenters subsided as transtensional pull-
apart basins related to a dextral strike-slip system. In the
Paganzo basin, the conglomeratic-volcanic complex of
the Punta del Agua Formation (Gonzalez and Bossi,
1986) is the only evidence of magmatism at this stage.
The small amount of magmatism during the dynamic
stage of subsidence of an intracratonic basin facing a
convergent plate boundary has been noted elsewhere
(Mann et al., 1983; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985). The
succeeding Tupe part of the curve is flatter, perhaps
295
Figure 17—Interpretation of regional tectonic setting of
Paganzo basin complex. The structural framework that
formed the broadscale basin architecture probably
resulted from right-lateral displacement between terranes
and northeastward-splaying of the Sierra de Valle Fértil
fault in the passive Pampean terrane. Rhombic pull-apart
basins were probably associated with this diverging strike-
slip system.
because of a smaller wrench component. This extensional
stage culminated in extrusive magmatism along the
terrane boundaries in early Patquia time. Slightly higher
subsidence rates in the Late Permian may be attributed
to extensional relaxation (see Bally and Snelson, 1980), as
Mpodozis and Kay (1990) and Llambias and Sato (1990)
have suggested for the Gondwana margin. Upper
Patquía alluvial fan and debris flow facies support this
interpretation.
The Carboniferous Paganzo basin straddled the
Pampean, Precordillera, and Chilenia terranes (Figure
17). The basin initially took advantage of terrane bound-
aries and the relative strengths of the terranes them-
selves. The Guandacol depocenters developed as
transtensional pull-apart basins. Ramos (1988b) docu-
ments a dextral shearing system. Major displacements
occurred along the western boundaries of the Pampean
and Precordillera terranes. The Sierra de Valle Fértil fault
system is a major crustal structure and terrane boundary
that was reactivated in the Paleozoic (Baldis et al., 1982).
We believe that horizontal displacement was not
restricted to the terrane boundaries, but that secondary
strike-slip faults and associated normal faults related to a
296 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard
shear couple dissected the more passive Pampean
basement (Figure 17).
This system of composite wrench faults and a
network of transtensional and transpressional compo-
nents is common in areas of oblique convergence (Ryan
and Coleman, 1992). These composite plate boundaries
may also result in rotation of crustal blocks. The Pie de
Palo block within the Precordillera terrane (Figure 2)
may be an example. Rapalini (1989) has already docu-
mented oblique convergence and block rotation along
this margin of Gondwana. Subduction during the
Carboniferous has been described by Ramos et al. (1986)
and Mpodozis and Ramos (1989). Fielding and Jordan
(1988) have addressed the Recent deformation of the
Precordillera and Sierras Pampeanas in the Andean
foreland as a tilt-block province.
HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF
PAGANZO BASIN
Routine geochemical studies, including total organic
carbon (TOC), C15+ extractable bitumen, optical identifi-
cation of organic macerals, elemental analyses, gas chro-
matography, thermal alteration indices (TAI), and
vitrinite reflectance have been performed on hundreds of
surface samples gathered from 32 sections, as well as on
cuttings samples from the Salinas de Mascasín well
(Figure 2) (Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1991). All argilla-
ceous units in the Paganzo basin were sampled and
potential source rocks identified. The TOC and
extractable bitumen histograms (Figures 7, 10, 13)
represent basinwide averages. Weathering alteration of
surface samples was adjusted as follows: TOC × 1.3 and
C15+ extractable bitumen × 2. The following results were
obtained:
• Guandacol dark shales (Figure 7) have low to
moderate TOC values (range 0.1–2.5%, max. 5%).
The C15+ extractable bitumen values are low
(0–700 ppm). Woody and cuticular characteristics
suggest a gas-prone succession.
• Tupe carbonaceous shales are not encouraging
(Figure 10). Sequences 2 and 4 deposited in lacus-
trine environments should have the best potential,
but TOC values are low to moderate (range
0.5–2.5%, max. 7%). The C15+ extractable bitumen is
very low (0–200 ppm, locally 600 ppm). Organic
material consists of gas-prone woody structures,
herbaceous material, cuticles, and sporomorphs.
Even marine mudstone facies are lean (see Villar
and Lopez-Gamundi, 1993).
• The lower Patquía–De la Cuesta mudstones were
deposited in strongly oxic conditions. Organic
material includes microplankton, botryoidal algae,
sporomorphs, and woody structures.
• The upper Patquía–De la Cuesta shows a dramatic
increase in source potential (Figure 13), with good
TOC values (average 1.2%, max. 5%) and excellent
C15+ extractable bitumen content (range 250–2000
ppm, high 4000 ppm). The organic matter is
composed mainly of agglutinated amorphous
types with a low woody component. Some of the
best samples contain botryococcus algae and disin-
tegrated pollen grains and occasionally have more
than 85% spongy amorphous material. Microscopic
and chromatographic analyses indicate lacustrine
type I and II kerogens with sapropelic affinities.
These geochemical studies suggest good to very
good potential for oil generation.
The upper Patquía–De la Cuesta shales were
deposited in lacustrine and restricted marine environ-
ments during a prominent transgressive phase that was
influenced by a warm, temperate postglacial climate (see
Dickins, 1993). The highest source potential occurs in
shales near the base of the upper Patquía–De la Cuesta
(Figure 14). These oil-prone shales are particularly wide-
spread in the northern part of the basin; this facies is
more arenaceous toward the south. Generated oil is
observed in outcrop where it fills pores, cavities, and
fissures and is even associated with andesite sills.
The results of fieldwork, exploration wells, and
seismic interpretation suggest that Upper Permian
source rocks are probably widespread in Paganzo strati-
graphic units that are now preserved in Tertiary tilt-
block basins. There is also source rock potential in the
Triassic Ischigualasto basin (Figure 5) similar to the Cuyo
basin. Surface oil occurrences in the Paganzo basin have
been known for many years (Fernandez-Seveso et al.,
1991; G. Kelly, 1993, personal communication). These
include asphalts and impregnated oil in Tertiary
outcrops of Niquivil Viejo (Figure 2). Heavy oil has also
been reported in wells in the Bermejo, Niquivil (northern
part of Mogna–Las Salinas ridge), and Las Salinas areas.
Except for wells drilled near the basin edge in the Salinas
de Mascasín, which reached the Tupe, no wells in either
the Paganzo or Ischigualasto basin have reached source
rock depth. All of the wells drilled in Tertiary sediments
and continental red beds are of probable Cretaceous age.
The Paganzo basin is still largely untested, although
there is substantial evidence to suggest that it is
prospective.
REGIONAL PALEOGEOGRAPHIC
IMPLICATIONS
The sedimentary facies, stacking arrangements, and
distribution of the Paganzo Group reflect the geody-
namic setting of a suite of pull-apart basins. These basins
evolved after the basal Carboniferous Chañic dias-
trophism by transtensional processes, perhaps related to
dextral convergence of Chilenia (Ramos, 1988b). Indeed,
Lower Carboniferous Guandacol counterparts are well
exposed in Paganzo latitudes (Archangelsky, 1986;
Gonzalez and Bossi, 1986; Lopez-Gamundi et al., 1989;
Cingolani et al., 1990).
The Paganzo basin is at one end of the Precordillera
thrust belt and tilt-block province that dominates north-
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina
Figure 18—Carboniferous paleogeographic reconstruction
showing tectonic framework (Mon and Salfity, 1995), Early
Carboniferous depocenters of Bolivia (after Reyes, 1972),
and Mandiyuti paleovalleys after Tankard et al. (1995).
B, Bermejo; IA, Izozog Arch; M, Mendoza; S, Sucre; SC,
Santa Cruz; SE, Santiago del Estero; T, Tucuman; V, Villa-
montes; and Z, Zudañez.
western Argentina as far as the Bolivian border (Figure
18), after which it is subordinated by the eastward
surging thrust belt of southern Bolivia. Basement struc-
tures have controlled basin development in north-
western Argentina since the late Precambrian (Salfity et
al., 1975; Willner et al., 1987; Mon and Salfity, 1995).
These faults were repeatedly reactivated in the early
Paleozoic and culminated in a giant transpressional pop-
up structure attributed to the Chañic orogeny. This Puna
arch is astride west- and east-vergent basement-seated
structures that flank sedimentary basins on either side of
the arch (Mon and Salfity, 1995, their figure 6).
The post-Chañic sedimentary basins subsided on
either side of the Puna arch during the Somuncura phase
of extension (Mon and Salfity, 1995). Compared with the
2000-m thickness of the Paganzo succession, the
Carboniferous rocks of the northwestern Argentinian
Tarija basin are closer to 1000 m in thickness (Figure 19)
(Mingramm et al., 1979). The Lower Carboniferous
Machareti supersequence is stratigraphically equivalent
to the Guandacol. Like the Guandacol, the Tupambi and
Tarija formations are characterized by rapid dumping of
297
sediments, large-scale synsedimentary deformation, and
prominent paleovalleys (Starck et al., 1992). Reyes (1972)
has attributed this Machareti Group sedimentation to
fault-controlled subsidence in small rift basins.
Carboniferous rocks are widespread in the Andean
ranges and Chaco basin of southern Bolivia (Figure 18)
where they form prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs. The
succession in the Eastern Cordillera and sub-Andean
foothills is remarkably similar to that of the Paganzo
basin, except that the Bolivian examples have been
detached and transported piggy-back on thin-skinned
thrust sheets of Tertiary age. The Machareti and
Mandiyuti groups are stratigraphic equivalents of the
Guandacol and Tupe supersequences, respectively
(Figure 19).
In outcrop, the Saipuru, Tupambi, and Tarija forma-
tions (Machareti Group) are counterparts of the
Guandacol supersequence of northwestern Argentina,
but without the same amount of repetitive stacking of
depositional sequences (Figure 19). Their deposition is
ascribed to lacustrine, braided alluvial fan, and bayhead
delta settings.
• Lacustrine facies occur in each of the formations.
They are typically argillaceous and contain thin
turbiditic layers, rhythmites, and sporadic drop-
stones. Bioturbation and rooting occur locally. The
Saipuru contains large slump structures.
• Alluvial fan and braided fluvial facies dominate the
Tupambi Formation and also occur in the Tarija.
The coarse-grained and conglomeratic sandstone
intervals consist of multiply stacked channel units.
Inclined depositional surfaces and cross beds are
common. The Tupambi is characterized by thick
sequences of debris flow diamictites, ubiquitous
ripple drift and dewatering structures, and massive
soft sediment deformation. Together these suggest
accumulation in a rapidly subsiding or collapsing
depocenter. Furthermore, cross-bed azimuths at
Zudañez are eastward directed, and those in Piray
River outcrops are oriented toward the west.
• The upper part of the Tarija Formation contains
coarsening-upward progradational sequences that
are locally associated with bioturbation and rooted
surfaces. A lacustrine-restricted marine bayhead
delta setting is inferred. Marine fossils diagnostic of
the Levipustula levis zone indicate the Visean–West-
phalian transition (Trujillo Ikeda, 1989; Sempere,
1995).
The Upper Carboniferous Escarpment Formation is
the Tupe counterpart. It is a cliff-forming unit consisting
of stacked fluvial sandstone complexes 400–500 m thick.
Unlike the Tupambi–Tarija sequence, the Escarpment
deposits have suffered far less synsedimentary deforma-
tion. In the sub-Andean foothills, the Escarpment sand-
stones are geographically associated with the older
Tupambi rocks (M. Cirbian, 1992, personal communica-
tion).
In the subsurface of the Chaco basin, exploration
seismic and well data show that Carboniferous
298 Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard
sediments form a widespread cover. An anastomosing
network of Escarpment paleovalleys has been mapped
from a relatively dense grid of seismic lines (Figure 18)
(YPFB proprietary files). These paleovalleys erode deeply
into the Machareti section and have themselves been
eroded by pre-Cretaceous structural inversion. The
Escarpment paleovalleys are typically up to 500 m deep
and consist internally of stacked channel sandstones and
mudstones. There were at least five episodes of paleo-
valley incision and aggradation suggesting intermittent
base level changes.
In the upper Mandiyuti, the San Telmo Formation
contains poorly bedded diamictites with striated clasts,
shallow cross-bedded fluvial sandstones, and varved
lacustrine shales with plant fossils. Pollen assemblages in
the varved shales of the Cañada Honda well indicate a
nonmarine aquatic environment of Stephanian age
equivalent to the Tupe of the Paganzo basin (Azcuy,
1979; W. A. M. Jenkins, 1991, personal communication).
We infer a periglacial outwash plain paleogeography.
DISCUSSION
Fieldwork and subsurface data provide convincing
evidence that the Permian–Carboniferous Paganzo basin
started its history as a suite of isolated but structurally
Figure 19—Regional stratigraphic correlations. Villamontes
section from Sempere (1995). Formation names are as
follows: Ca, Cangapi; El, Elvira; Es, Escarpment; Ic, Ichoa;
Iq, Iquiri; LM, Los Monos; LP, Las Peñas; Sa, Saipuru; ST,
San Telmo; Ta, Tarija; Tu, Tupambi; and Vi, Vitiacua.
linked pull-apart basins. Guandacol deposition reflects
rapid accumulation, facies stacking, and synsedimentary
deformation adjacent to basin-bounding faults. Tupe and
Patquia–De la Cuesta stratigraphy gradually onlapped
the interbasin highs as the earlier transtensional basins
were amalgamated in a single, broadly subsiding basin
(Figure 17).
This ancient system of crustal strike-slip faults
diverges northward where it combines with the east-
west Boomerang Hills–Chiquitanas suture to form the
deep Chaco basin of southern Bolivia (Figure 18). The
Chaco salient of the Bolivian Andes reflects this thick
sedimentary pile.
In the Boomerang area, seismic data shows exten-
sional reactivation of basement structures during the
middle Paleozoic. This may coincide with Early
Carboniferous Tupambi deposition.
The Machareti and Mandiyuti groups of Bolivia and
northernmost Argentina are stratigraphically equivalent
to the Guandacol and Tupe supersequences, respec-
tively. The paleogeographic setting of stacked braided
alluvial fans and lacustrine sediments in the Machareti
Group, together with evidence of rapid subsidence,
suggest a tectonic setting similar to that of the Guandacol
Paganzo basin. We believe that extensional or transten-
sional processes also affected the Machareti. However,
the Tarija and Chaco depocenters were shallower but
 Tectonics and Stratigraphy, Late Paleozoic Paganzo Basin of Western Argentina
more widespread, reflecting the northward-diverging
shear system (Figures 18, 19). Paleocurrent analysis
shows that these depocenters were filled from the east
and west.
The system of paleovalleys mapped seismically in the
Chaco basin is believed to have drained into transten-
sional basins. Its orientation matches the extensional
trend. This interpretation suggests that the repetitive
base level adjustments reflected in paleovalley formation
and aggradation may have a tectonic explanation.
Sediment was apparently derived from the east and
southeast along the Chaco Boreal high (Sempere, 1995).
Like the Tupe, the Mandiyuti cover is regionally more
widespread. Sempere (1995) notes that the Upper
Carboniferous–Permian stratigraphy onlaps older paleo-
relief, much like the Tupe–Patquía of northwestern
Argentina. A prominent transgression occurred in late
Kungurian–Kazanian time, during which the Vitiacua
calcareous mudstones were deposited. The Vitiacua has
high TOC values and is equivalent to the upper
Patquía–De la Cuesta and Irati (Brazil) formations.
Although oil-prone, the Vitiacua has so far attracted little
exploration interest.
This tectonostratigraphic interpretation highlights
several issues which have yet to be addressed:
• The Paganzo–Ischigualasto basin complex has
evolved through several episodes of middle
Paleozoic strike-slip movement, Mesozoic
extension and inversion, and late Tertiary contrac-
tion that have created the present tilt-block basin
province (e.g., Fielding and Jordan, 1988). The
possibility of multiple source rock intervals
suggests the need to unravel this structural
complexity as a guide to source rock distribution
and maturation.
• In Bolivia, a detailed biostratigraphic study of the
Carboniferous section is needed. The dynamics of a
transtensional basin system cast doubt on existing
stratigraphic correlations.
• There is a striking resemblance of the Chaco salient
of the Bolivian Andes and the Mackenzie
Mountains of northern Canada (Eisbacher,
1985).The Chaco and Mackenzie salients are both
associated with thick Proterozoic and Paleozoic
depositories, and each has detached and trans-
ported Carboniferous basins of probable pull-apart
origin (Machareti and Antler) (H. R. Balkwill, 1994,
personal communication). A comparison of these
two thrust belts would be fruitful.
Acknowledgments We thank L. Alvarez, P. Aukes, C.
Azcuy, I. E. Brisson, M. Cirbian, T. E. Jordan, O. Lopez-
Gamundi, O. Lopez Paulsen, M. A. Perez, V. A. Ramos, K.
Raskin, and M. A. Uliana for helpful discussions. M. Arguijo,
O. Decastelli, and M. Distefano helped with the geochemistry.
Drafting was undertaken by D. Betty and S. Bond and typing
by K. Bojarski. The paper was reviewed by C. J. Schmidt, H. J.
Belotti, and H. J. Welsink. Finally, we thank the exploration
management of YPF SA for support and permission to publish.
299
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Fernando Fernandez–Seveso
YPF SA
Av. Roque Saenz Peña 777
1364 Buenos Aires
Argentina
Anthony J. Tankard
Tankard Enterprises
P.O. Box 81002
Calgary, Alberta T2J 7C9
Canada
Mesozoic Rifts

QUEBRADA DE HUMAHUACA, Jujuy province, Argentina.

Orange-colored rift deposits of the Upper Cretaceous Salta Group are
unconformable on purple Cambrian strata and are overthrust by green
Ordovician rocks.

Edgar Ortiz, 1994, watercolor, 30 × 23 cm

 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin,
Southern Altiplano, Bolivia

H. J. Welsink E. Martinez
Perez Companc O. Aranibar
Neuquén, Argentina J. Jarandilla
Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia

Abstract

T he southern Altiplano rift basin forms part of the Cretaceous rift system that extends from Peru to north-
western Argentina. Seismic and potential field data suggest that basin formation was controlled by a
preexisting structural grain consisting of northwest-southeast and northeast-southwest tectonic lineaments
within a Precambrian–Paleozoic basement. Variable extension was achieved through transfer fault zones that
coincide with northwest-southeast trending lineaments. Rift subsidence can be divided into an early rift (Berri-
asian–Cenomanian) and a late rift episode (Turonian–Campanian) with a total accumulation of up to 1000 m of
sandstones and shales. A period of tectonic quiescence followed that resulted in a regional sag basin character-
ized by thin-bedded, calcareous lacustrine deposits. This sequence includes the oil-prone shales and reservoir
carbonates of the El Molino Formation, which has been correlated with the hydrocarbon-producing Yacoraite
Formation in northwestern Argentina.
At the beginning of the Tertiary, rift-related subsidence had ceased and was gradually replaced by subsi-
dence resulting from Andean compression. An Eocene unconformity marks the subtle change to this new
episode of basin formation. This was followed by a major Oligocene unconformity that characterizes the onset
of increased subsidence rates related to the emplacement of large thrust sheets of the Eastern Cordillera. More
than 4 km of synorogenic sediments accumulated in the adjacent Altiplano foredeep. Inversion of the Creta-
ceous rift structures took place during this compressional phase. In the southern Altiplano, this inversion
resulted in hydrocarbon traps similar to those in the rift basins of northwestern Argentina.

Resumen

L a cuenca de rift del Altiplano del sur es parte del sistema extensional cretácico andino, extendiéndose
desde Perú hasta el noroeste argentino. Datos sísmicos, gravimétricos y magnéticos sugieren que la
evolución de la cuenca fue controlada por un marco estructural preexistente que consiste en lineamientos
tectónicos de rumbo noroeste-sureste y noreste-suroeste dentro de un basamento precámbrico-paleozoico. La
extensión variable fue conseguida por zonas de fallas de transferencia que coinciden con lineamientos de
rumbo noroeste-sureste. La subsidencia del rift es divida en un episodio de rift temprano y tardío, con una
acumulación total de hasta 1000 m de areniscas y pelitas. Continuó un período de quietud tectónica que resultó
en una cuenca de subsidencia regional caracterizada por depósitos lacustres calcáreos en capas delgadas. Estos
sedimentos incluyen las pelitas generadoras de petróleo y calizas reservorio de la Formación El Molino, la cual
fue correlacionada con la Formación Yacoraite, productiva de hidrocarburos en el noroeste argentino.
En el inicio del Terciario, la subsidencia del rift había concluido siendo reemplazada gradualmente por
subsidencia resultante de la compresión andina. Una discordancia eocena marca el cambio sutil a este nuevo
episodio de formación de cuenca, seguido por una discordancia oligocena que caracteriza el incremento en las
velocidades de subsidencia relacionado al emplazamiento de láminas de corrimiento en la Cordillera Oriental.
Mas de 4 km de sedimentos sinorogénicos fueron acumulados en la adyacente antefosa del Altiplano. La
inversión de las estructuras cretácicas de rift ocurrió durante esta fase compresiva. En el Altiplano del sur esta
inversión resultó en trampas de hidrocarburos similares a las documentadas en las cuencas de rift del noroeste
argentino.

Welsink, H. J., E. Martinez,. O. Aranibar, and J. Jarandilla, 1995, Structural inversion of a 305
Cretaceous rift basin, southern Altiplano, Bolivia, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H.
J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 305–324.
306 Welsink et al.

INTRODUCTION
During the Cretaceous, several basins developed
along the western margin of South America, now a
major hydrocarbon-producing province (Macellari,
1988). Bolivia forms an exception, as production pri-
marily comes from Paleozoic reservoirs. As a conse-
quence, the southern Altiplano is an area considered to
be potentially prospective but yet without commercial
hydrocarbon production. The presence of a gas seep in
Corregidores, an oil seep in Colchani, and impregnations
of solid petroleum in Casira (Figure 1) have allowed us
to define possible Cretaceous and Devonian source rocks
(Edman et al., 1989).
The present study was undertaken to reevaluate the
hydrocarbon potential of the Vilque area in the southern
Altiplano (Figure 1) and to document inversion of rift-
related structures along the northern flank of the San
Pablo high that until recently had not been considered
part of the Andean rift basin (Figure 2). Comparison of
these structures with those of the oil-producing rift
basins of northwestern Argentina creates opportunities
favorable for exploration in the Altiplano.

REGIONAL GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK

Within the Andean orogen, the Altiplano-Puna
plateau forms a geologic province that dominates the
central Andes of southern Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile,
and northern Argentina (Figure 1). Located between the
Eastern and Western Cordillera, it covers about 140,000
km2 from southwestern Peru to northwestern Argentina.
In Bolivia, the Altiplano covers about 100,000 km2, its
surface being a plateau, 3800–4000 m above sea level,
that is characterized by Quaternary fill of fluvial,
fluvioglacial, and lacustrine sediments. In the southern
Altiplano, the salt flats (Salar) of Uyuni and Coipasa
comprise evaporitic lithium-bearing sediments that are
of economic interest. Highlands within the Altiplano
consist of sedimentary rocks ranging in age from
Precambrian to Cenozoic. Cenozoic volcanism is ex-
pressed as intrusives, lava flows, and extensive ignim-
britic flows, especially in the central Altiplano.
From a structural viewpoint, the Altiplano forms a
contractional tectonic province that was deformed and Figure 1—Location of Altiplano with respect to the Andean
uplifted in the Tertiary as a result of the Andean front of Eastern Cordillera and the volcanic belt of Western
orogeny. The mechanisms of crustal thickening and Cordillera. Major tectonic lineaments divide the Altiplano
uplift remain poorly understood and are based on into northern, central, and southern segments. The study
models of magmatic underplating (Thorpe et al., 1981) area (dotted) within the southern segment is confined by
or, more recently, crustal shortening (Allmendinger et al., the Uyuni-Kenyani fault zone to the west, the Andean
1983; Isacks, 1988; Sheffels, 1988). Interpretations of the thrust front to the east, and the San Pablo high to the
Cretaceous succession reveal a preexisting extensional south. Alota and Pululus are outcropping transpressional
tectonic province that extended from Peru to north- structures composed of Ordovician rocks.
western Argentina, what is now known as the Creta-
ceous Andean basin (Moreno, 1970; Reyes, 1972; Reyes porated in thrust sheets that terminate at the southern rift
and Salfity, 1973; Cherroni, 1977) (Figure 2). border (Figure 2). Away from this front, only incipient
Beginning in the late Oligocene, the Andean orogeny inversion of rift-related normal faults took place
overprinted the extensional structures as they became (Bianucci et al., 1982).
involved to varying degrees in the Andean deformation. Major tectonic elements that characterize the various
The rift basins east of the Andean thrust front are incor- structural domains of the Altiplano have been identified
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia
(Aranibar and Martinez, 1990; Cady and Wise, 1992).
Figure 1 shows a simplified division into three segments
separated by major northwest-southeast tectonic linea-
ments. The southern segment includes the southern
Altiplano basin, which is constrained by three major
tectonic elements. To the west and north, the Uyuni-
Kenyani fault zone forms a linear suite (or belt) of trans-
pressional structures that contain Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary sediments. To the
east, westward-verging thrust sheets expose a similar
stratigraphy. This fold and thrust belt is a westward-
verging backthrust belt of the main Andean thrust
system (Roeder, 1988). The San Pablo high and the
volcanic belt of the Western Cordillera form the southern
margin of the study area.
Exploration History
Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB),
the Bolivian national oil company, executed the first
phase of Altiplano exploration between 1960 and 1976,
307
Figure 2—Northwestern Argen-
tinian rift system and its
extension into neighboring
countries. Major tectonic linea-
ments localize extension and
control the distribution of Early
Cretaceous volcanism.
(Modified after Cherroni, 1977;
Salfity,1985; Marquillas and
Salfity, 1988.)
and during this period acquired much of the geologic
and geophysical data. Surface mapping covered 40,000
km2, and 8900 km of seismic reflection data were shot.
YPFB also collected gravity data and was responsible for
the registration of an aeromagnetic survey in 1969.
Results of these studies are discussed in several propri-
etary YPFB reports that were used in this project.
Only five wells have been drilled (Figure 1), all of
which were dry. However, the Vilque well in the
southern Altiplano had dry gas shows in the Neogene–
Oligocene San Vicente Formation. Based on these disap-
pointing well results, this first phase of exploration was
terminated. Interest in the area was renewed in 1986 with
reinterpretation of seismic data of the southern Altiplano
and digital conversion of the gravity data. Most recently,
an extensive aeromagnetic survey was acquired in 1989.
Preliminary results of these recent studies are given by
Aranibar and Martinez (1990) and Yalamanchili et al.
(1991). The present paper presents an interpretation
resulting from the compilation and integration of all
available data.
308 Welsink et al.

At present, the Altiplano basins do not produce any

commercial hydrocarbons. However, three factors
suggest that these basins are prospective: (1) about 45,000
tons of oil have been produced in Pirín at the southern
end of Lake Titicaca in Peru, (2) nearby producing fields
in northwestern Argentina source the oil from the Upper
Cretaceous Yacoraite Formation, and (3) there are oil and
gas seeps in the Altiplano. We believe that the Altiplano
remains a potentially attractive hydrocarbon play area.
Recently, the Upper Cretaceous El Molino Formation has
been identified as a potential source rock in the Altiplano
basins, while hydrocarbons from seeps have been corre-
lated with Devonian and Cretaceous source intervals
(Edman et al., 1989; M. Cirbián, 1992, personal communi-
cation).

METHODOLOGY AND DATABASE

The present study addresses available geologic and
geophysical data, including geologic surface maps,
gravity, aeromagnetics, reflection seismic, and well infor-
mation. These have been integrated and interpreted. Our
approach has involved the evaluation and compilation of
available information, followed by preliminary seismic
interpretations and integration with the gravity,
magnetic, and field data. Preliminary interpretations
include the recognition of major faults, seismic strati-
graphic sequences, and their geometries. The resulting
tectonic elements map was subsequently used as a Figure 3—Main features of the southern Altiplano and
framework for more detailed mapping of seismic reflec- summary of available information used in the interpretation
tions and the construction of isopach maps to establish (Tupiza-Casira area excluded). Dotted area shows
the extensional architecture of the southern Altiplano coverage of geologic maps.

Table 1—Stratigraphy of the Southern Altiplano

Formation Thickness Description

Tertiary
Chocaya 52–950+ m Continental coarse-grained clastics and volcanic clastics, rapid facies changes; shales
and light gray tuffs
San Vicente 100–3600 m Alluvial system of sandstones and conglomerates grading into shales and tuffs in the
basin center. Interbedded salt
Potoco 35–2798 m Red fluviolacustrine sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones, and shales
Cayara 7–60 m Reworked fluviolacustrine sandstones
Sta. Lucia 30–90 m Lacustrine marls and mudstones with oxidation zones and paleosoils indicating exposure

Cretaceous
El Molino 38–350 m Basal conglomerates and sandstones followed by stacked shallowing-upward sequences
comprising thin-bedded calcareous lacustrine deposits; black marls
Chaunaca 64–400 m Lacustrine siltstones and shales, thin-bedded basal limestones, fossiliferous
Aroifilla 15–560 m Fluviolacustrine sandstones and shaly siltstones, evaporitic levels

Devonian
Vila-Vila 920 m Shallow marine arkosic sandstones

Silurian
Catavi 1600–3530 m Shallow marine shelf sandstones
Uncía 100–195 m Dark gray mudstones, sandstones interbedded with graptolite-bearing layers
Llallagua 60–350 m Packages of quartzitic sandstones and rhythmic dark gray mudstones; turbidites and
submarine fans
Cancañiri 100–540 m Diamictites, debris flows and slope deposits; heterogeneous glaciomarine deposits
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia 309

basin. Finally, the hydrocarbon prospectivity was

evaluated by comparing the tectonostratigraphic
framework and inversion with those of the rift basins of
northwestern Argentina.
The geologic data used in this study were obtained
between 1960 and 1976, including geologic maps,
measured stratigraphic sections, and well information
(Figure 3). The field data of the Casira and Tupiza areas
are not included in the present study. The geologic maps
were generated by various YPFB field parties at original
1:20,000 and 1:50,000 scales; we have compiled these into
a map at a scale of 1:100,000 to obtain compatible inter-
pretations. This scale allows the identification of the
principal features without loss of detail and also corre-
sponds to a level of investigation that matches the
present seismic grid.
The measured sections were reinterpreted in terms of
major unconformity-bounded sequences and associated
facies changes before being integrated into the regional
seismic stratigraphic framework. The present study
includes 24 measured sections in the southern Altiplano
(Figure 3), representing a Paleozoic–Tertiary strati-
graphic column (Table 1, Figure 4).
Only one well is present in the southern Altiplano
(Figures 1, 3, 4). The Vilque-x1 was drilled in 1972–1973
to a total depth of 3559 m and was abandoned dry. The
well was drilled on the basis of structural relationships
expressed at the surface because no seismic data were
available at that time. Units encountered include the
Tertiary San Vicente and Potoco formations, the Creta-
ceous El Molino Formation, and undifferentiated Silurian
rocks at drilling depth (Figure 4). A thrust fault with 380
m of throw was encountered at 1835 m and repeated the
Potoco Formation. The well tested gas (80% nitrogen)
that flowed 1.4–1.9 mmcf per day from a zone below the
salt in the San Vicente Formation. Other tests recovered
water.
The geophysical database consists of gravity, aero-
magnetic, and reflection seismic data. The location of
these surveys is shown in Figure 3. The extensive gravity
database was acquired by YPFB between 1965 and 1974
and consists of 57,530 gravity stations covering approxi-
mately 80,000 km2 of the northern, central, and southern
Altiplano (see Cady and Wise, 1992, for an overview). Figure 4—Lithologic column of the Vilque well. (See
Figures 1 and 3 for location.)
The 0.5-km by 5-km grid in the southern Altiplano
contains about 15,000 stations (Figure 3). In 1987, the data
were reprocessed after digital conversion. The new Nearly 15,000 km of flight lines cover the southern
gravity maps form the basis of recent structural interpre- Altiplano. Yalamanchili et al. (1991) discuss acquisition
tations of the Altiplano (Aranibar and Martinez, 1990; and processing of these data.
Yalamanchili et al., 1991; Cady and Wise, 1992) and were In 1970, YPFB started the recording of 767 km of reflec-
used for this study after integration with other geophys- tion seismic lines in the southern Altiplano. These are
ical and geologic data sets. analog data and of low fold, and their quality is conse-
The first geophysical reconnaissance in the study area quently poor. In 1974–1975, YPFB acquired 1200 km of 48-
was acquired in 1967 when 17,000 km of flight lines of channel vibroseis data in the Salar de Uyuni area north of
aeromagnetic data were registered. Interpretation of the Uyuni-Kenyani fault zone. South of the Uyuni-
these data defined the major magnetic lineaments that Kenyani fault zone, the Vilque area was covered by 17
were attributed to structural boundaries between seismic lines totaling 705 km in a grid varying between 10
different geologic provinces. In 1989, a new high-resolu- km by 10 km and 5 km by 5 km (Figure 3). The data were
tion aeromagnetic survey was flown in the southern and processed to a final stack of 24-fold and reprocessed for
central Altiplano, consisting of 32,841 km of flight lines in this study. The quality of the lines is generally good
a 2-km (north-south) by 6-km (N 120˚ W long) grid. except for areas where subsurface salt is present.
310 Welsink et al.
INTERPRETATION
Compilation of Geologic Maps
The major structural trends and Cretaceous outcrop
locations are shown in Figure 5. The rocks that outcrop
are Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Cretaceous, and
Tertiary in age. The Cretaceous outcrops (Figure 5) are
no older than the Aroifilla Formation (Figure 6). Struc-
tural trends reflect anticlinal axes and thrust faults
oriented in northeast-southwest and north-south direc-
tions. The map shows the Uyuni-Kenyani fault zone as a
northeast-southwest trending linear suite of thrust faults
attributed to a strike-slip fault zone. To the east, the San
Vicente thrust fault is conspicuous. This fault marks the
deformation front of the westward-verging Altiplano
fold and thrust belt.
Stratigraphic Sequences
The compilation of measured field sections establishes
and correlates unconformity-bounded sequences. As
major unconformities reflect the basic changes in basin
tectonics, the intervening megasequences characterize
the evolution of the basin. This scale of analysis is more
Figure 5—Bouguer gravity
data with principal outcrop
trends mapped by YPFB. Solid
areas represent outcrops of
Cretaceous sediments of the
rift and sag subsidence
phases. The Bouguer values
were calculated using a
density of 2. 67 g/cm3. (YPFB
database was processed in
cooperation with Freie Univer-
sität Berlin, Germany.)
compatible with the seismic data that we used to
establish and correlate the seismic stratigraphic
sequences. We propose a tectonostratigraphic column
comprising five megasequences (Figures 6, 10). The most
prominent unconformities are those at the base of the
Cretaceous and at the base of the Tertiary San Vicente
Formation. Between them are the rift and sag mega-
sequence (4A and 4B), a transitional zone (5A), and the
foredeep stage (5B). This transition belongs to mega-
sequence 5 because it represents the initial phase of fine-
grained foredeep deposition and subdued topography
(Potoco Formation), followed by coarse-grained molasse-
type sediments (San Vicente Formation) (see Allen et al.,
1986).
This tectonostratigraphic column is an ideal represen-
tation of the subsurface based on available field data and
seismic stratigraphic interpretations. The Lower Creta-
ceous succession (pre–Aroifilla Formation) does not
outcrop in the immediate vicinity of the Vilque area, and
its presence is inferred from seismic stratigraphy. The
stratigraphy reflects facies changes related to the position
of the basin margin and shows the potential reservoir
and source rock intervals. Correlation with tectonic
events was achieved by structural–stratigraphic analysis
of the field data and seismic lines (Table 2).
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia 311

Figure 6—Generalized
tectonostratigraphic chart of
the southern Altiplano
showing major unconformity-
bounded sequences derived
from seismic data and
regionally integrated with
measured field sections.
Arrows in last column
indicate fault activity: down,
normal; up, reverse
(inversion or thrusting). S,
source rocks; R, reservoir
rocks; white areas, shale;
solid triangles, diamictite.
Lithologic symbols same as
in Figure 4.

Gravity and Magnetic Trends
The gravity values of the southern Altiplano basin
decrease progressively to the east (Figure 7); a –460 mgal
minimum coincides with the 6000-m high mountains,
suggesting that gravity values decrease with increasing
elevation (Cady and Wise, 1992). Depth to magnetic
basement exceeds 3000 m below sea level and increases
toward the central Altiplano (Yalamanchili et al., 1991).
Major lineaments were identified on the gravity and
aeromagnetic data. Figures 7 and 8 show these linea-
ments superimposed on the Bouguer gravity map of the
southern Altiplano. In this area, the orientations of the
anomalies are mainly southwest-northeast and clearly
mark the Uyuni-Kenyani fault zone. Internally, these
trends are dissected by northwest-southeast transverse
lineaments. A major change to north-south and
northwest-southeast trends occurs north of Uyuni and is
characterized by a first-order transverse lineament that
marks the northern limit of the Uyuni-Kenyani fault
zone (Figures 1, 7).
Secondary ENE to WSW magnetic trends (Yalaman-
chili et al., 1991) are not resolved on the Bouguer gravity
map. This is because gravity data only record Paleozoic
trends, while magnetic data also show structural trends
in magnetic (Precambrian) basement. Similar discrepan-
cies are also present on the rifted margin of eastern
Canada (Welsink et al., 1989b).
312 Welsink et al.

Table 2—Seismic Stratigraphic Sequences of the Southern Altiplano

Sequence Geometry Description

a
5B
Foredeep Westward thinning wedge Continental foredeep fill. Westward decrease in grain size and thickness
San Vicente suggest link with emplacement of thrust sheets in the Eastern
Cordillera. Seismically low to high amplitude and continuity and zones
without coherent reflections (salt); downlap indicates progradation
from the east.
5A
Transition Planar to slightly wedge Thermal sag to foredeep transition. Predominantly shale, but eastward
Potoco shaped increase of sandstone and conglomerate suggests an eastern source.
Cayara Moderate to high seismic amplitude. Good continuity decreases
southward. Onlaps Paleozoic highs.
4B
Sag Saucer shaped Regional sag reflecting maximum expansion of the Cretaceous basin
Sta. Lucía that onlaps and oversteps rift borders. Seismically poorly resolved
El Molino due to slight thickness, moderate amplitude and continuity.

4A
Late rift Wedge shaped Half-graben fill. Early rift succession reflects the decaying rift intensity
Chaunaca that culminates with deposition of Miraflores limestones. Continuing
Aroifilla expansion of the rift and late stage transition to thermal sag.
Early rift Seismically moderate to high amplitude and moderate continuity, with
Miraflores to Macha onlap onto Paleozoic basement.

3 Carboniferous is absent in the southern Altiplano.

1 and 2 Prerift basement, low to moderate amplitude without coherent

reflections.
aRepresents internal San Vicente reflection that forms top of a series of strong reflections (Figure 15).

Seismic Sequences spond to Paleozoic highs, gravity lows to Cretaceous

Preliminary interpretation of the seismic data is based
on sequence geometries and the characteristics of reflec-
tion terminations. The sequence boundaries identified in
the Vilque well were tied to the major unconformities
recognized on the seismic data. Seismic line 2587-28 (see
Figure 10) shows an example of the interpreted seismic
sequences. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of each
megasequence.
Structural Styles
The structural elements define two main structural
styles (Figure 9). First, extensional structures are charac-
terized by listric and planar normal faults of opposite
polarities (Figures 10, 11, 12, 13). Second, contractional
structures show reverse faults and their associated forced
folds (Figures 12, 13). There appear to be no low-angle
thrust faults, although a shallow thrust within the Potoco
Formation has been encountered in the Vilque well.
Discussion
The structural interpretation of the seismic data is
shown in Figure 9, where it is superimposed on the
Bouguer gravity data. The structural elements on the
seismic data match the gravity data: gravity highs corre-
depocenters. As a result, the integration of the Bouguer
gravity and seismic data has facilitated structural
mapping (Figure 14).
Figures 5, 7, 8, and 9 show correlation between the
individual trends. Based on the seismic and field data,
we interpret some lineaments on the gravity and
magnetic maps as structural trends (anticlines) or discon-
tinuities (faults). The interpretation shown in Figure 14
includes fabrics derived from the geologic map and the
gravity and aeromagnetic data (Figures 5, 7, 8).
BASIN ARCHITECTURE
Extensional basins generally consist of asymmetric
half-grabens that are linked by either transfer faults
(Bally, 1982; Gibbs, 1984; Tankard and Welsink, 1987,
1989) or complex accommodation zones (Scott and
Rosendahl, 1989). These transverse structures form an
integral part of the extensional system and accommodate
contrasting polarities and differential extension by
oblique-slip motion. The transverse offsets are mainly
parallel to the extension direction and often coincide
with lineaments (Welsink et al., 1989a).
Our integration of gravity and magnetic trends,
surface geologic trends, and trends based on seismic data
shows a typical rift basin geometry that is divided into
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia
three distinct areas (Figure 14). The transverse gravity
and magnetic lineaments correspond to the boundaries
of these structural segments.
North of the Vilque well, the basin has an unfaulted
western margin and deepens toward the east. The central
segment is the deepest part of the basin; it is bounded to
the east by a Paleozoic high (Murusa) that is clearly
defined by seismic, gravity, and field data. To the west,
listric basin-bounding faults have opposite polarities. The
southern segment is characterized by shallow depocen-
ters along the northern flank of the San Pablo high and
by shallow intrusives interpreted from the aeromagnetic
data (Yalamanchili et al., 1991).
INVERSION
Structural inversion involves the reactivation of an
extensional fault system during contractional deforma-
tion. The process affects individual faults as well as entire
basins (Williams et al., 1989). This implies that an
inverted structure requires a preceding extensional
phase. In highly deformed areas where destruction of the
extensional geometries is severe, inversion is difficult to
313
Figure 7—Bouguer gravity data
and major trends. Note change
in gravity trend from northeast
to northwest north of Uyuni.
recognize. Examples from the southern Altiplano,
however, show a progressive suite of structures that
formed in response to low- and medium-grade inversion
(Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, 15).
The sequence of structural inversion is well illustrated
in the area between lines 2587-28 and 2585-28. Along line
2587-28 (A–A', Figures 9, 10), there is no evidence of
inversion and the seismic reflectors show only normal
fault separations. Southward, line 25106-28 (B–B', Figures
9, 11), shows the first indications of inversion at the rift
borders. Subtle anticlines formed by forced folding are
associated with inversion of the rift-bounding faults.
Line 2586-28 (C–C', Figures 9, 12) records a funda-
mental change in basin geometry across a transverse
lineament and also illustrates the development of a major
pop-up structure bounded by reverse faults. The eastern
reverse fault is the most important. The extensional faults
clearly cause normal stratigraphic separations, as well as
reverse separations after passing through the null point
(see Williams et al., 1989). This structure is shown on line
2585-28 (D–D', Figures 9, 13) where, in what was then the
center of the rift, the western reverse fault formed the
main fault. Seismic lines farther south do not show any
evidence of inversion and only a few rift structures.
314 Welsink et al.
Figures 14 and 15 show that the contractional struc-
tures are contained within the zone of rifting, thus
strongly supporting their correlation. The presence of
Cretaceous rift deposits in the main thrust sheets of
the Altiplano (e.g., Uyuni-Kenyani, Andamarca, and
Sevaruyo) (Figure 1) indicates that they resulted from
inversion of extensional faults within the Cretaceous
Andean rift basin (Figure 2).
HYDROCARBON PERSPECTIVES
The development of extensional basins in the
Altiplano and in northwestern Argentina was initiated at
the beginning of the Cretaceous. Early and late rift stages
were succeeded by a Late Cretaceous regional sag basin
characterized by thin-bedded calcareous lacustrine
deposits (Cherroni, 1977; Boll, 1990). These sediments
represent the source and hydrocarbon reservoir intervals
in northwestern Argentina (Yacoraite and Olmedo
formations). In the Altiplano, the equivalent rocks of the
El Molino Formation have recently been identified as a
potential source rock (Edman et al., 1989; M. Cirbián,
1992, personal communication), and several reservoir
and seal intervals are known to exist (Figure 6). Active oil
Figure 8—Bouguer gravity data
with magnetic trends and
anomalies superimposed. The
higher amplitude magnetic
anomalies are associated with
shallow intrusives outside the
volcanic belt (Yalamanchili et
al., 1991). (Magnetic data
originate from aeromagnetic
survey acquired in 1989.)
and gas seeps in the Altiplano mark the presence of a
mature Cretaceous source rock and an additional source
rock that is believed to be of Paleozoic age (M. Cirbián,
1992, personal communication). This additional source
rock increases the prospectivity of the Altiplano
compared to northwestern Argentina, where Paleozoic
rocks are progressively eroded from north to south.
In the southern Altiplano, the seismic data show
evidence of substantial amounts of normal faulting that
resulted in large fault traps and depocenters that were
favorable to generation of hydrocarbons. Traps include
tilted normal fault blocks that were formed during Creta-
ceous extension and contractional structures due to
inversion or newly formed thrusts during the late
Oligocene and later. We believe that inversion has locally
destroyed the Cretaceous traps and caused remigration
of Paleozoic oils. Cretaceous oils possibly migrated into
these newly formed traps, analogous to entrapment in
northwestern Argentina (Bianucci et al., 1982).
It has been shown that transfer zones not only form
trap door structures but also control the facies distribu-
tion of reservoirs and source rocks in the depocenters
that they separate (Tankard et al., 1989; Welsink et al.,
1989a). Consequently, exploration opportunities are
strongly affected by the transfer zones and could differ
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia
from one depocenter to the other. The negative results of
the Vilque are thus not representative of the entire
southern Altiplano. Good exploration opportunities
remain in the area.
DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the broad-scale outline of the Creta-
ceous rift system as it developed in the Altiplano and in
northwestern Argentina. In northwestern Argentina,
there is a clear relationship between tectonic lineaments,
locations of Early Cretaceous volcanism, and configura-
tion of the Cretaceous depocenters. These predominantly
northeast-southwest trending first-order lineaments are
associated with the basement arches characteristic of the
Pampean terrane (Baldis, 1990). The Aconquija lineament
(Figure 2) separates the crystalline basement of the
Pampean massif and the northwestern Argentinian rift
system that developed north of it by reactivation of
anisotropic Precambrian basement and Paleozoic rocks
(Salfity, 1985). In the Altiplano, a single major lineament
315
Figure 9—Structural features
based on interpretation of
seismic lines (Figure 3) and
superimposed on the Bouguer
gravity. Note the match
between the two data sets.
A–A', B–B', C–C', and D–D' are
portions of seismic lines
shown in Figures 10, 11, 12,
and 13, respectively.
trends northeast-southwest. The Uyuni-Kenyani fault
zone subparallels the first-order lineaments of north-
western Argentina, while other conspicuous transverse
lineaments trend northwest-southeast (Figures 2, 7, 8).
Integration of seismic, gravity, and aeromagnetic inter-
pretations of the southern Altiplano suggests that these
smaller second-order transverse lineaments acted as
transfer faults during extension. On a larger scale, two
first-order northwest-southeast lineaments divide the
Altiplano into northern, central, and southern segments
(Figures 1, 2). We believe that these first-order lineaments
in the Altiplano functioned as first-order transfer faults to
control the style and type of basin formation (see
Tankard and Welsink, 1989).
The analogy between the northwestern Argentinian
rift basins and those of the southern Altiplano is evident
in the seismic data. The seismic line published by
Bianucci et al. (1982) clearly shows the inversion of the
rift sequence in the Lomas de Olmedo basin (Figure 2) by
the reactivation of extensional faults. The rift system was
variably affected by the Andean deformation. In the
Lomas de Olmedo basin, inversion developed to an early
(text continues on p. 320)
316 Welsink et al.

Figure 10—Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic line 2587-28 (A–A' in Figure 9), showing a central horst flanked by half-
grabens with opposite polarities. Numbered sequences correspond to those in Figure 6 and Table 2. Line is not migrated.
(Vertical exaggeration 3:1 at 1. 5 sec two-way time.)
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia 317

Figure 11—Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic line 25106-28, unmigrated (B–B' in Figure 9). Same rift geometry as in line
A–A' (Figure 10), but with incipient inversion of the basin-bounding faults. (Vertical exaggeration 3:1 at 1. 5 sec two-way
time.)
318 Welsink et al.

Figure 12—Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic line 2586-28, unmigrated (C–C' in Figure 9), showing a change in rift
geometry south of a major transverse fault between B–B' and C–C'. Note the major inversion of the rift center and the break-
through at the eastern rift margin. (Vertical exaggeration 3:1 at 1. 5 sec two-way time.)
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia 319

Figure 13—Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic line 2585-28, unmigrated (D–D' in Figure 9). Widening of rift and break-
through at previously western rift margin. (Vertical exaggeration 3:1 at 1. 5 sec two-way time.)
320 Welsink et al.
stage and was not fully developed until it reached the
Alemania and Metán basins (Grier, 1990). This style of
variable deformation also characterizes the southern
Altiplano rift basins (Figure 15).
The stratigraphies of the southern Altiplano and
northwestern Argentina are similar at the scale of the
unconformity-bounded sequence (Figure 16). The simi-
larity at this scale suggests that the two areas were
tectonically linked and shared the same processes in the
evolution of their basins (rift and sag). Linkage was
achieved through reactivation of northwest- and
northeast-trending lineaments. However, they were not
yoked together until deposition of the El Molino and
Yacoraite formations (Cherroni, 1977). The similarity in
structural and stratigraphic evolution characterizes the
Cretaceous rift basins of southwestern Bolivia and north-
western Argentina. This linkage suggests obvious explo-
ration attractions of the Bolivian Altiplano.
Conversely, the tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of
the Salar de Atacama basin (Figures 2, 16) is different and
reflects a transition from a back-arc to a fore-arc basin
setting during the Cretaceous and Tertiary (Flint et al.,
Figure 14—Rift architecture
interpreted from seismic and
potential field data. Internal
transfer faults divide the basin
into three segments of
opposite polarity and variable
amounts of extension. In areas
without seismic control, the
isopachs of the Cretaceous rift
sequence have been guided
by Bouguer gravity trends.
(See Figure 9 for explanation
of symbols.)
1993). Extension of the northwestern Argentinian rift
system into northern Chile is therefore not likely. Recent
work and reflection seismic indicate the presence of indi-
vidual half-grabens such as the Salar de Atacama basin
(Flint et al., 1993). The regional sag basin may have
connected the areas prior to Andean contraction.
Along the length of the Andean orogen, the develop-
ment of a suite of extensional basins is attributed to the
Mesozoic evolution of the western continental margin of
South America (Uliana et al., 1989). These basins line up
en echelon with rift basins across the South American
continent in the zone between the Agulhas-Malvinas
transform and the Martín García high, offshore Uruguay
(Figure 17). Their location and NNW-SSE orientation
suggest that they are related to reactivation of the
Paleozoic structural fabric (Uliana et al., 1989). Although
this reactivation is generally attributed to evolution of the
Pacific subduction margin, the influence of South
Atlantic rifting may also have been important. Based on
the trend and ages of alkaline volcanism (148 Ma for
Salado basin, ~128 Ma for northwestern Argentinian
basin, and 82.5 Ma for Andean basin), Grier (1990) corre-
 Structural Inversion of a Cretaceous Rift Basin, Southern Altiplano, Bolivia
Figure 15—Schematic drawings of the seismic lines in
Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13, showing the sequential develop-
ment of inverted structures. Numbered sequences corre-
spond to those in Figure 6 and Table 2.
321
lated development of a failed rift to South Atlantic
rifting. Basalts in the Asunción basin (Figure 17) seem to
fit this trend, with an age of ~136 Ma (Wiens et al., 1993).
Figure 17 clearly shows the NNW-SSE trend of the
Triassic–Jurassic rift basins that were the first to form at
the fringes of Gondwana (Uliana et al., 1989). Northeast-
southwest transfers offset and link these basins. During
the Cretaceous, South Atlantic rifting prior to breakup
produced a northwest-trending right-lateral shear
system in which rift basins propagated inward and the
Triassic transfers were reactivated as normal faults. The
rifts are distributed as en echelon suites of basins such as
those described by Nelson et al. (1992) by the way they
interact. Following their terminology, rift jumps occur
when rifts are isolated and en echelon, such as between
the Neuquén and Cuyo basins and between the Andean
and West Peruvian basins. Rift splays can be observed
between the Cuyo and Bolsones basins, and rift offsets
are clear within the Neuquén and Colorado basins. Rift
passes occur when basin-bounding faults overlap and
encompass an intervening high. This might be the case in
the northwestern Argentinian basin, where the Salta-
Jujuy high is surrounded by rift basins. A rift gap occurs
when a connection is missing or less evident and when
the basins are collinear, such as between the Andean and
northwestern Argentinian basins.
Andean reactivation of extensional faults during
inversion resulted in a style of contractional deformation
that reflects the inheritance of the extensional fabric. In
northwestern Argentina, Grier (1990) recognized
inversion of rift-bounding faults based on stratigraphic
relationships across thrust faults and their coincidence
with basin margin trends. The association of thrust fault
vergence and rift basin margin was also noted. We
suggest that the preference of thrust fault vergence
caused by an extensional fabric may also be applicable to
the Bolivian Eastern Cordillera. Adjacent to the
Altiplano, a distinct westward-verging fold and thrust
belt is antithetic to the main Andean thrust system
Figure 16—Comparison of
stratigraphy, deformation
style, and timing in adjacent
areas during the Cretaceous
and Tertiary: Salar de
Atacama (northern Chile),
southern Altiplano
(southern Bolivia), and
northwestern Argentinian
basins. Arrows represent
type and timing of faulting;
white areas, shale; v,
volcanic rocks. Lithologic
symbols same as in Figure
4. (Modified after Flint et al.,
1993; Salfity and Marquillas,
1981; G. D. Vergani, 1993,
personal communication.)
322 Welsink et al.
Figure 17—Composite map of Triassic and Cretaceous rift
basins showing two distinct trends as a result of different
stress regimes reactivating basement structures. (Modified
after Cherroni, 1977; Salfity, 1985; Macellari, 1988; Uliana et
al., 1989.)
(Roeder, 1988) and contains a well-developed Cretaceous
rift and sag sequence. This suggests that eastward-
dipping extensional faults of a western rift margin were
inverted. The eastward change to eastward-verging
thrust faults might reflect the change to westward-
dipping extensional faults of the opposite basin margin.
Structural inversion involves the reactivation of a
preexisting extensional fault system during compression.
The presence of Cretaceous rift sediments in the main
structures of the Altiplano, such as Uyuni-Kenyani,
Sevaruyo, and Andamarca (Figure 1), suggests that these
structures are the result of inversion, and similar struc-
tures are believed to be present in the subsurface of the
central and northern Altiplano. The development of the
extensional architecture and its subsequent inversion
created optimal conditions for source rock and reservoir
rock deposition and for trap formation in the central and
northern Altiplano. The Paleozoic section that was
involved in the same deformational cycle may be locally
prospective.
Gravity highs are generally associated with positive
Paleozoic topography at depth. However, if the Vilque
well had indeed reached Paleozoic rocks at total depth,
then the extensive gravity low in this area would be in
contrast to the observed relationships between gravity
and basement structures (e.g., Murusa high, Figure 9).
Gravity modeling, which accounts for the presence of salt
in the San Vicente Formation, showed that the presence of
a basement high such as Murusa is unlikely. This has
several possible explanations. First, the Vilque well may
not have encountered Paleozoic rocks, suggesting the
presence of more rift sediments below total depth.
Second, a blind thrust fault could have emplaced
Paleozoic rocks. Third, the influence of topographic
elevation on gravity values increases substantially
eastward. Age dating appears to be correct, supporting
the presence of a Paleozoic thrust sheet above an untested
Cretaceous section. The exploration potential of the area
thus remains untested. A similar association may exist in
the westward-verging fold and thrust belt along the
eastern border of the Altiplano where Cretaceous rocks
are repeatedly thrusted at the surface. Within this fold
and thrust belt south of Oruro (Figure 1), the combination
of a well-developed El Molino Formation and structure at
depth may offer exploration opportunities.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Miguel Cirbián
for his helpful suggestions and Yacimientos Petrolíferos
Fiscales Bolivianos for permission to publish this paper. The
comments of K. Biddle, P. Ziegler, C. Fernandez Garrasino, H.
Belotti, and G. Vergani are very much appreciated.
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324 Welsink et al.

Authors’ Mailing Addresses

H. J. Welsink
Perez Companc
C. C. 181
8300 Neuquén
Argentina

E. Martinez
O. Aranibar
J. Jarandilla
Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos
Casilla 1659
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Bolivia
 Geometry and Seismic Expression of the Cretaceous
Salta Rift System, Northwestern Argentina

Alberto H. Comínguez Victor A. Ramos

CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires
Universidad Nacional de La Plata Buenos Aires, Argentina
La Plata, Argentina

Abstract

T he foothills of the central Andes of northwestern Argentina hinder the interpretation of the complex
structural rift system developed during late Mesozoic extension. Andean compressive deformation
inverted the Salta rift system, resulting in a series of complex structures with trends oblique to the main Andes.
The Lomas de Olmedo basin, a failed branch of the rift system located east of the Andean orogenic front, was
selected to undertake deep reprocessing of the available industrial seismic lines. A 150-km-long seismic section
of the basin, recorded with Vibroseis and dynamite sources, was reprocessed. Extended correlation applied to
the Vibroseis seismic data yielded reliable results down to 9 sec two-way travel time. Acoustic horizons identi-
fied within this interval include the deepest synrift deposits in the axial part of the basin and a deep oblique
discontinuity in the crust. On this basis, a complete cross section of the basin was made. This study documents
the asymmetry of the rift, with a prominent zone of thermal uplift in the northern edge. Truncation of the
Paleozoic beds and identification of a deep oblique discontinuity at 7–8 sec (18–21 km deep) suggest that a
northward-dipping detachment controlled the asymmetry of the system. The rift structure is mildly modified
by folding related to Cenozoic tectonic inversion in the southern sector of the basin. This inversion was
controlled mainly by strike-slip displacements along the previous normal faults.

Resumen

E l pie de monte de los Andes Centrales del noroeste de Argentina esconde la interpretación de un
complejo sistema estructural desarrollado durante la extensión mesozoica tardía. La deformación
compresiva ándica invirtió el sistema del rift Salta, produciendo una serie de estructuras complejas con arrum-
bamientos oblícuos a los Andes. La cuenca de Lomas de Olmedo, una rama abortada del sistema de rift local-
izado al este del frente orogénico ándico, fue seleccionada para realizar un reprocesamiento profundo de lineas
sísmicas disponibles de la industria. En particular fue seleccionada una línea sísmica de la cuenca de 150 km de
longitud, registrada en su mayor parte con Vibroseis y complementada con dinamita. Un algoritmo de
correlación extendida se aplicó a los datos sísmicos de Vibroseis alcanzándose resultados confiables hasta
profundidades correspondientes a 9 segundos de tiempo de travesía doble. Los horizontes acústicos identifi-
cados dentro de este intervalo de tiempo incluyeron tanto los depósitos más profundos de sinrift en la parte
axial de la cuenca, como una profunda discontinuidad oblícua en la corteza. Sobre esta base fue confeccionada
una sección completa de la cuenca. Los resultados de este estudio documentaron la asimetría del rift, con una
zona prominente de levantamiento térmico a lo largo del borde norte. El truncamiento de los estratos paleo-
zoicos, así como la identificación de una profunda discontinuidad oblícua a los 7–8 segundos de doble tiempo
de travesía (aproximadamente 18–21 km), sugieren que un nivel de despegue inclinado hacia el norte controló
la asimetría del sistema. La estructura de rift fue suavemente modificada por el plegamiento relacionado a la
inversión tectónica cenozoica en el sector sur de la cuenca. Esta inversión fue en parte acomodada preferente-
mente por desplazamientos de rumbo a lo largo de las fallas normales previas.

Comínguez, A. H., and V. A. Ramos, 1995, Geometry and seismic expression of the Creta- 325
ceous Salta rift system, northwestern Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J.
Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 325–340.
326 Comínguez and Ramos

INTRODUCTION
The Salta rift comprises a complex suite of extensional
troughs that characterize the Late Cretaceous–early
Tertiary paleogeography of northwestern Argentina. The
western part of the rift was inverted during the Andean
deformation in the late Tertiary and has since been
involved in the complex fold and thrust belt. To under-
stand the original structure of the Salta rift system, it was
necessary to study the easternmost branch, adjacent to
the present orogenic front of the Andes. The purpose of
this study is to document the geometry and seismic
expression of the Lomas de Olmedo basin in an area
where compressional deformation was only mild or
nonexistent (Figure 1). We have used these data to
interpret the tectonic setting and evolution of the rift
system.
This research is part of the CONICET–CAPLI
(Argentine National Science Foundation, Argentine
Committee for the Lithosphere) program undertaken as
a join venture by Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales
(YPF S.A.) and the Universities of La Plata and Buenos
Aires. The aims of this research program are to study
and reprocess seismic reflection data that have a poten-
tially deep record.

Figure 1—Isopach map of the Salta rift system and its rela-
tionship to the Andean basin of Bolivia. The outlines of the
FIELD WORK AND PROCESSING Amazonia and Arequipa cratons are shown. (Based on
A 150-km-long section of seismic data from three field Salfity, 1982.)
programs acquired by YPF S.A. from 1981 to 1983 were
reprocessed (Figures 2, 3). Vibrators were used as a
source in the southern sector of the line; the remaining
record involved dynamite. Final collection of data from
these programs required major efforts from both the
mathematical processing of multichannel seismic infor-
mation and monitoring of the preliminary results prior to
the final seismic section (Figure 4).
The YPF Alto de la Sierra well (ADSL x-1) was used as
a control to constrain interpretation of the various
acoustic horizons. Geologic information from several
abandoned wells near the line contributed to a broader
understanding of the seismic data. In the Appendix we
desribe the mathematical reprocessing, its relevance, its
limitations on interpretation, and its impact on the inter-
pretation of the Cretaceous rift.

TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
The location of the Cretaceous Andean basins and the
Salta rift system in this part of South America is
controlled by late Precambrian–Cambrian tectonic
fabrics. This is expressed in the various Precambrian
cratons that were amalgamated during the Pampean
orogeny in the Early Cambrian. The complex distribu-
tion of the basins is partially controlled by a triple Figure 2—Isopach map of Lomas de Olmedo basin and
junction involving the Amazonia, Arequipa, and Pampia Salta rift system showing the Andean orogenic front. West
cratons (Ramos and Vujovich, 1994). The Lomas de of the front is a severe inversion of the rift. Also shown is
Olmedo basin subsided along the suture between the the location of the seismic line. (Based on Salfity, 1980;
Amazonia and Pampia cratons. Gómez Omil et al., 1989; Ferreiro, 1989; Carle et al., 1991.)
Geometry and Seismic Expression, Cretaceous Salta Rift System, Northwestern Argentina 327

← Figure 3—Prerift geologic map showing location of

seismic lines 04196 and 02128. This later line was also
reprocessed and contributed to the general interpretation
of the basin. (Modified after Carle et al., 1991.)

Several publications have discussed the Salta rift

system, but the tectonic setting of the Lomas de Olmedo
basin has only been adressed by Bianucci et al. (1981).
These authors have attributed the geometry of the Salta
rift to hotspots that controlled the inception of the
different branches. Traditionally, these basins have been
described as an intricate combination of topographic
highs and lows. This paleogeography has been docu-
mented in detail by Moreno (1970), Salfity (1979, 1980,
1982), Salfity et al. (1985), and Salfity and Marquillas
(1986). However, as noted by Allmendinger et al. (1982),
these paleogeographies have not been palinspastically
restored to accommodate Andean shortening. Only
recently have Grier and Allmendinger (1991) attempted
to restore a complete cross section of the basin. Neverthe-
less, their restoration does not include the west-east
asymmetry and the oblique nature of the master detach-
ment of the basin.

(below)
Figure 4—Migrated seismic line 4196 with vertical exagger-
ation of about 4× to enhance the relationship between
prerift and synrift deposits. Note that in the axial part of the
basin (CDP 4200–4500), the seismic character of the synrift
deposits contrast with the basement fabric. See geologic
interpretation in Figure 7.
328 Comínguez and Ramos
Table 1—Subsurface Paleozoic Unitsa
Northwestern Sector Age Southeastern Sector
Huamampampa
Formation Devonian Tonono Formation
Icla Formation Devonian Rincón Formation
Santa Rosa Formation Devonian Caburé Formation
Kirusillas Formation Silurian Copo Formation
Las Breñas Formation Cambrian– Las Breñas
Ordovician Formation
aAfter Mingramm et al. (1979).
Due to the substantial Andean shortening of the basin
west of the orogenic front (Figure 3), it is difficult to
establish the original structure of the basin. Conse-
quently, special attention was given to the Lomas de
Olmedo basin, a branch of the rift located east of the
present Andean thrust front.
SALTA RIFT STRATIGRAPHY
The Salta rift basins have a simple stratigraphy that
has been known since the early work of Moreno (1970),
Reyes and Salfity (1973), and Reyes et al. (1976). The
stratigraphy involved in the deformation is divided in
this paper into prerift, synrift, and postrift sequences.
Prerift Sequences
The western part of the rift succession was deposited
over the Puncoviscana Formation. This unit comprises
Precambrian–Lower Cambrian turbiditic deposits that
fringe the western edge of the middle–upper Precam-
brian Pampia craton. The Lomas de Olmedo basin was
developed on lower Paleozoic deposits that were previ-
ously deformed during the Chanic orogeny at the end of
the Devonian (Turner and Méndez, 1975).
The subsurface map traversed by the seismic lines
shows that the present trend of the subcrops reflects the
unconformity between the synrift and the Paleozoic
deposits (Figure 4). Although this unconformity and the
present outcrop pattern were well known in the sub-
Andean region, as recognized by Reyes (1959) in
northern Argentina and southern Bolivia, it was tradi-
tionally attributed to a pre-Cretaceous folding since
Padula’s (1959) work. However, the approximate east-
west orientation does not fit any of the Paleozoic trends
of deformation mapped in northwestern Argentina by
various authors (e.g., Turner and Méndez, 1975).
Bianucci and Homovc (1982) were the first to recognize
that the prerift doming, uplift, and differential erosion
were a consequence of an early stage of Cretaceous rift
development.
In the present study area and along the seismic lines,
the units listed in Table 1 are recognized. This strati-
graphy is combined with the succession identified in the
sub-Andean belt of Argentina and Bolivia. The Cambrian–
Ordovician deposits belong to a westward-facing clastic
platform, with the shore zone located a few kilometers to
Figure 5—Strength attribute by color demodulation
analysis of a window in the northern sector of line 4196
showing basement seismic character of Precambrian
basement. (A) Coherency of the Ordovician top reflectors
represent the strongest and most persistent acoustic
horizon in the study area. (B) An angular unconformity
exists between Paleozoic prerift and (C) Cretaceous rift
deposits (see interpretation in Figure 6).
the east of the study area. The Silurian and Devonian
sequences were deposited in a foreland basin east of the
Ocloyic orogenic front. This front developed during the
Late Ordovician collisional event, which was related to
final docking of the Arequipa terrane (Ramos, 1986).
There is a strong contrast in strength attribute between
the Precambrian basement character and the lateral
coherency of the Cambrian–Ordovician deposits, as
determined by color demodulation analysis in the north-
western area (Figure 5). The seismic velocity of these
rocks ranges between 5800 and 6000 m/sec. It is apparent
that the basement consists of crystalline Precambrian
rocks of the Pampia craton, similar to that intersected in
several exploration wells farther east (Russo et al., 1979).
The seismic characteristics of the various Paleozoic
units are shown in Figure 6. One of the most conspicuous
acoustic horizons corresponds to the top of the Las
Breñas Formation (Table 1). The lateral coherence traces
this horizon throughout most of the rift system
(Acevedo, 1986). Seismic interval velocities for these
deposits computed from stacking velocity analyses range
from 4100–4500 m/sec in the northwestern part of the
basin to more than 4600 m/sec in the central and deeper
parts of the seismic line.
The southeastern part shows that subhorizontal beds
of the Las Breñas Formation are preserved with a thin
cover of Copo Formation at the southern end of the line
(south of CDP 5.400). A strong angular unconformity
truncates the Paleozoic deposits in the northern area
(Figures 5, 6), while in the southern area it is represented
by a paraconformity (Figure 7).
 Geometry and Seismic Expression, Cretaceous Salta Rift System, Northwestern Argentina 329

Figure 6—Uninterpreted and interpreted migrated seismic line 4196, northwestern part, with vertical exaggeration of about
4× to enhance the Paleozoic stratigraphy. Vertical scale is two-way time, in seconds.
330 Comínguez and Ramos
Figure 7—(Top) Migrated seismic line 4196; see Figure 4 for location. (Bottom) Geologic interpretation of the seismic line and
location of the Alto de La Sierra x-1 exploration well.
Synrift Deposits
The synrift deposits are represented by different units
of the Pirgua Subgroup. This subgroup is composed of
proximal fanglomerates, fluvial conglomerates, and red
sandstones and shales associated with alkaline basaltic
rocks (Figure 8).
Volcanic Rocks
The chemistry of the volcanic rocks has been studied
in detail by Galliski and Viramonte (1988). These rocks
represent within-plate volcanism associated with major
lineaments that bound the rift, such as the Isonza and
(continues across facing page)
Aconquija lineaments. This Early Cretaceous volcanism
constitutes the first volcanic cycle of Reyes et al. (1976)
and Salfity (1982) (Figure 8). Volcanic rocks crop out in
the Alemanía and Metán basins where they are repre-
sented by two different pulses in the El Cadillal and La
Yesera formations. The first is characterized by alkaline
trachytes, in part perpotassic, which have ages of
112–128 Ma, while the second is composed of K-foidites
(nepheline-leucite normative) of 97–103 Ma according to
Galliski and Viramonte (1985, 1988). Farther north along
the topographic high between Lomas de Olmedo and El
Rey basins, the Cachipunco basalt is exposed.
This first magmatic cycle, contemporaneous with sedi-
 Geometry and Seismic Expression, Cretaceous Salta Rift System, Northwestern Argentina
Figure 7 (continued)
mentation of the Pirgua Subgroup, is also associated with
alkaline granitoids (the 96–155 Ma El Aguilar, Cobres,
and Tusaquillas stocks; Méndez et al., 1979). The ages of
basaltic volcanism decrease toward the east (Bossi and
Wampler, 1969; Reyes et al., 1976; Valencio et al., 1976).
The second magmatic cycle of the Salta Group (Salfity,
1982) is also contemporaneous with the Pirgua Subgroup
and has two eruptive centers. One is located in the
depocenter of the Alemanía basin (see Figure 3) and is
represented by the Las Conchas basalt (76–78 Ma); it also
interfingers with the upper levels of the Las Curtiembres
Formation. The Las Conchas basalt is volumetrically the
more important unit. It is characterized by basanites,
mugearites, and tephrifonolites with abundant peridotite
xenoliths. These extrusives were explosive and had
multiple centers of eruption. The other eruptive center
331
consists of lava flows of trachyandesitic composition
intercalated with the Los Blanquitos Formation of the
Tres Cruces basin (Coira, 1979).
A third volcanic cycle is widespread at Río Capillas
over the Salto-Jujeña high (Figure 2) along the Puntitas–
El Totoral lineament of the Lomas de Olmedo basin
(Bianucci et al., 1981) and the Alemanía basin (63–55 Ma)
(Cortelezzi et al., 1979; Omarini et al., 1987). The rocks of
the third volcanic cycle are mainly basalts (Cortelezzi et
al., 1979) and lamproitic dikes (Omarini et al., 1987). A
fourth volcanic cycle, consisting of volcanic rocks
emplaced in the Yacoraite Formation, is represented by
the Palmar Largo volcanics. These volcanics were
emplaced during reactivation of normal faulting and are
composed of olivine basalts, andesites, and leucoan-
delacites (Carle et al., 1991).
332 Comínguez and Ramos

The evolution of these volcanic rocks records Table 2—Interval Velocity and Depth Versus Timea
migration of the volcanic centers from the northeast-
trending fault margins of the various basins in the Early Two-Way Time Interval Velocity Depth
Cretaceous (first volcanic cycle), to the axis of maximum (msec) (m/sec) (m)
subsidence in the Alemanía and Tres Cruces basins by 0–825 2081 0–858
the end of the Cretaceous (second volcanic cycle). The 825–1200 2630 858–1351
third and fourth volcanic cycles migrated to the eastern- 1200–1425 2846 1351–1671
most basin and were restricted to the edge of the Salto- 1425–2475 3568 1671–3544
Jujeña high and the axis of the Lomas de Olmedo basin. 2475–2925 3979 3544–4439
The general trend within the Pirgua Subgroup is from 2925–3150 4112 4439–4901
peralkaline to subalkaline rocks, indicating greater 3150–3450 4576 4901–5587
melting in the source associated with increasing 3450–5700 5767 5587–12074
extension and larger eruption volumes. The fourth cycle 5700–7350 ~7000 12074–~18000
is again more alkaline, showing minor reactivation of the
aLINE 04196, CDP = 4385.
rifting.

Sedimentary Rocks of isotopic dating of the interbedded volcanics, a

In the Alemania outcrop area, a 50˚–74˚ angular
unconformity separates the base of the Pirgua Subgroup
from the prerift basement (Grier et al., 1987). Seismic
velocities in the lower Pirgua Subgroup in the Lomas de
Olmedo basin range from 3.3 to 4.0 m/sec and may
exceed 4.5 m/sec in the deeper parts of the basin.
The various lithologic units of the Pirgua Subgroup
shown in Figure 8 consist of two major tectonosedimen-
tary sequences (Gómez Omil et al., (1989). A lower
sequence (La Yesera and Las Curtiembres formations)
corresponds to alluvial fan facies along the active
margins of the rift, but laterally interfingers with fluvial,
eolian, and distal playa facies in the central part of the
basin. The first unit was deposited over a surface with
considerable topographic relief. The second unit (Los
Blanquitos and related formations) has similar but lower
energy facies and fine-grained deposits that accumulated
on a subtler relief due to the filling of the basin and to
less active tectonics. Both units together have a
maximum thickness greater than 5000 m as inferred from
the interval velocities at CDP 4385 (Table 2). On the basis
Valanginian–Santonian age is assigned to the Pirgua
Subgroup.
Postrift Deposits
Postrift deposits are represented by the Balbuena and
Santa Bárbara subgroups. The Balbuena Subgroup repre-
sents an early sag phase, partially interrupted by minor
fault reactivation, that was also responsible for the
Palmar Largo basalts. The Balbuena Subgroup is
composed of the Lecho, Yacoraite, and Olmedo forma-
tions. Some authors (e.g., Gómez Omil et al., 1989),
separate the Olmedo Formation from this subgroup due
to the unconformity that intervenes between the Olmedo
and underlying units.
The Balbuena Subgroup consists of carbonates and
subaqueous clastic facies that onlap a major unconfor-
mity above the Pirgua Subgroup and older Paleozoic
rocks. The areal distribution of the Balbuena Subgroup
greatly oversteps the original margins of the basin
(Figure 8). The various formations are characterized by

Figure 8—Tectonostratigraphy of the Salta rift.

 Geometry and Seismic Expression, Cretaceous Salta Rift System, Northwestern Argentina
tabular geometries and lateral persistence. The Yacoraite
Formation represents a shallowing-upward sequence of
carbonate and subaqueous clastic facies. Eolian clastics
typify the Lecho Formation (Gómez Omil et al., 1989).
The Olmedo Formation is composed of black shales and
anhydritic evaporites that reach a maximum thickness in
the central part of the basin. This formation developed in
hypersaline lakes in the depocenters of the basin which
were surrounded by mudflats, while the northern
margin of Lomas de Olmedo basin received some fluvial
sands. Based on a rare microfauna, a Campanian–Maas-
trichtian age is inferred for the Yacoraite Formation.
The upper sag deposits are represented by several
units of the Santa Bárbara Subgroup. The Mealla, Maíz
Gordo, and Lumbrera formations record the evolution of
a closed basin (Cazau et al., 1976). Their shales, marls,
and local carbonates were deposited in a suite of
ephemeral lakes with variable discharge and flooding
that alternated with fluvial deposits. Based on their fossil
fauna, a Paleocene–Eocene age is assigned to the Santa
Bárbara Subgroup. The sag phase succession is more
than 2200 m thick.
The basin was finally filled by a tabular body of distal
fluvial sediments of late Cenozoic age characterized by
seismic interval velocities ranging from 2600 to 2800
m/sec. These are the synorogenic deposits related to
successive uplift and east-shifting of the Andean
orogenic front. This front is presently located more than
120 km west of the seismic line.
STRUCTURE OF LOMAS DE OLMEDO
BASIN
An outstanding feature of the study area is the
asymmetry of the rift system (Figure 7). This asymmetry
is evidenced by the degree of doming preserved in the
prerift deposits, as well as in the distribution and vertical
throws of the normal faults. Doming was greater along
the northern margin of the basin (Figures 5, 6), as shown
by the present truncation of the Paleozoic units. In
contrast, truncation is not recognized in the southern
part of the section (Figure 9), suggesting that doming
was mild or nonexistent.
This truncation is noticeable not only in the subsurface
of the basin but has also been mapped in the Sierras
Subandinas, west of Tartagal (Reyes, 1959, 1978). This
topography has been recognized as the Michicola arch
(Vilela, 1967), but its origin is controversial. Salfity (1980)
attributed this arch to the Late Ordovician orogenic front,
while other authors have interpreted it as a peripheral
bulge associated with Andean shortening. The west-
northwest trend of the Michicola arch is parallel to the
rift basin, and its age is older than the rift deposits. Its
regional distribution indicates a genetic link with
doming prior to the tectonic collapse of the basin.
A series of east-west trending normal faults bound
both flanks of the basin. The northern faults have greater
throws than their southern counterparts. Most of the
faults cease normal displacement by the top of the Pirgua
333
Subgroup. However, in the southern half of the area,
there is evidence of faulting in the Balbuena Subgroup.
When analyzed in detail, it is clear that the faults are
mostly associated with minor folding (Figure 10)
(Chiarenza and Ponzoni, 1989). These folds are attributed
to contraction related to strike-slip displacement along
the previous normal faults. Incipient positive flower
structures are locally associated with these faults. Strike-
slip displacements are related to interaction of Andean
compression and the oblique west-southwestward trend
of the rift structures.
Beneath these basin-forming faults along the southern
part of the line, there is a conspicuous subhorizontal
reflector between 7 and 8 sec (about 18–21 km depth)
(Figure 11). This acoustic marker separates relatively
transparent (except for faults) upper crust from highly
reflective lower crust (stacking velocities show an
increase in interval velocity that coincides with the lower
zone). Similar reflection patterns elsewhere have also
been interpreted as the interface between upper and
lower crust (e.g., Peddy and Keen, 1987). For example,
compare the intracrustal boundary shown in Figure 11
with that illustrated by Hall (1989, his figure 1).
The top of the reflective zone dips northward at 3.5˚
beneath the depocenter. This dipping reflector is inter-
preted as parallel to the detachment zone that controls
the rift system. However, it is not visible in the northern
part of the reprocessed seismic line because of insuffi-
cient source energy and possibly because, with increasing
depth, the discontinuity loses its identity and is dis-
persed in a ductile lower crust.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE
SALTA RIFT
The seismic evidence shows that northwestern
Argentina was subjected to extension during most of
Cretaceous and early Tertiary time (see Uliana et al.,
1989). Compared with neighboring rift systems, such as
the Chaco-Paraná rift of northeastern Argentina, north-
western Argentine rifting may have been linked in time
and space to the extensional regime responsible for the
opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Extensional
stretching of these basins decreased at these latitudes
toward the west. This is inferred from the magnitude of
the β-factor, the chemical composition of the basaltic
lavas (alkaline basalts in the Salta system and continental
flood basalts of tholeiitic composition in the Chaco-
Paraná basin), and the relative volume of the basalts,
with a minimum in the Salta rift.
The asymmetry of the rift is partially controlled by the
west-northwest trend of the suture between the
Amazonia and Pampia cratons. This suture has the same
orientation as the Michicola arch. Ramos and Vujovich
(1994) argue that the late Precambrian–Early Cambrian
suture between these two blocks is northward dipping,
implying that the main detachment of the rift system
developed synthetically to the earlier subduction zone.
The focus of doming at the northern margin of the
Figure 9—Uninterpreted and interpreted migrated seismic line 4196, southeastern part, with vertical exaggeration of about 4×
to enhance the Paleozoic stratigraphy. Compare the structural attitude of the subhorizontal Paleozoic deposits with the tilted
attitude shown in Figure 6.
Figure 10—Uninterpreted and interpreted migrated seismic line 4196, central sector, with vertical exaggeration of about 4×.
to show the incipient tectonic inversion of the rift system. Note the minor folding near the normal faults, indicating possible
contraction related to strike-slip displacements.
336 Comínguez and Ramos
Figure 11—Window of the deep southern sector of the seismic line of Figure 2, showing the inclined seismic discontinuity
between 7 and 8 sec two-way time.
basin establishes the area of maximum thermal uplift
and highest thermal gradients prior to the collapse of the
rift (Figure 12). This normally coincides with the area of
maximum lithospheric attenuation (Wernicke and Tilke,
1989; Kusznir et al., 1987). As the detachment theory
predicts, however, maximum lithospheric attenuation
may be offset from the locus of fault-controlled subsi-
dence. In the Lomas de Olmedo rift system, the litho-
spheric attenuation is north of the fault-controlled axis of
the basin. The position of the doming is consistent with
the northward-dipping, oblique, deep reflector that
presently controls the asymmetry of the rift.
The synrift deposits are more than 5000 m thick above
the rift axis. The fault-controlled subsidence that accom-
modated this synrift fill is also associated with alkaline
basaltic volcanism (Fraga and Introcaso, 1990). Although
sedimentation of the Balbuena Subgroup marked the
beginning of the sag phase due to thermal subsidence,
interfingering of alkaline basalts at Palmar Largo with
Yacoraite limestones indicates temporary reactivation of
the tensional regime. The basalts are mainly associated
with normal faults at the southern margin of the rifting.
The Santa Barbara Subgroup marks the closing of the sag
phase when the basin was completed filled.
The area received more than 2700 m of distal synoro-
genic deposits during late Cenozoic Andean deformation
and encroachment of the sub-Andean thrust front.
An understanding of the thermal history of the basin
and the consequent rift and synorogenic filling indicates
that the northern part of the Lomas de Olmedo basin had
maximum lithospheric thinning, with relatively large
additions of heat into crust. This asymmetry must be
taken into account when evaluating the hydrocarbon
potential of Lomas de Olmedo basin.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their
gratitude to the management of YPF S.A. for their logistical
support of the CAPLI research program, as well as to Cristina
Vistalli, Hugo A. Bianucci, Osvaldo Acevedo, and Jorge
González Naya for their helpful comments during the research.
The authors acknowledge Teresa Jordan, Suzanne M. Kay, and
Andrés Boll for their review of the manuscript. This project
was also supported by the Antorchas Foundation of Argentina.
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Appendix
FIELD WORK AND PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS
Vibroseis Data
The section of the line where three Mertz vibrators
were used (CDPs 4000–5900 in Figure 2) involved 48
recording channels per shot point with equal 100-m
receiver group intervals and a 100-m displacement from
shot to shot along 100 km of the line (24 fold). We were
able to combine two separate field programs into a single
geometry simulating a unique regional experiment
because their respective field parameters coincided. A
14–56 Hz 16-sec linear upsweep was used, while a field
record of 21 sec was collected at a sample rate of 4 msec.
The “self-truncating” extended correlation algorithm
(Okaya and Jarchow, 1989; Cominguez and Ramos, 1991)
was used to cross correlate between the sweep and the
record. The original frequency band of 14–56 Hz was
preserved for the first 4 sec of the seismic section, with
the upper frequency decreasing from 4 sec at a rate of
2.625 Hz/sec. The frequency band corresponding to
different time levels of the Vibroseis seismic section is
summarized in Table A-1.
A 16-sec section was originally calculated. However,
despite careful monitoring work intended to remove
noisy zones in each correlated trace of the field gathers,
we were unable to image acoustic horizons in the deeper
parts of the crust because of the relative signal decay on
the traces. Consequently, it was decided to reduce the
final migration to 9 sec.
Other important aspects of the Vibroseis data
processing were (1) application of “zero phase” deconvo-
339
Authors’ Mailing Addresses
A. H. Comínguez
Gerencia de Estudios Especiales - Piso 13
Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales
Av. Diagonal Norte 777
1364 Buenos Aires
Argentina
Victor A. Ramos
Departamento de Geología
Universidad de Buenos Aires
Ciudad Universitaria–Pabellór 2
1428 Buenos Aires
Argentina
lution prior to the velocity analysis; (2) use of the
Claerbout (1976) finite difference migration algorithm; and
(3) complementing the fault analysis with color complex
demodulation techniques (Taner and Sheriff, 1977).
Explosive Source Data
Sources involved 13–16 kg dynamite charges were
used in the sector defined from CDP 3076 to 4000 in the
northern sector of seismic line 04196 (see Figure 2). Field
work consisted of 96 recording channels per shot point
with equal 50-m receiver group intervals and a 50-m
displacement per shot. Thus, fold was 48. The record was
6 sec long with a 2-msec sample rate (although a 4-msec
resample rate was later used for economy).
Prior to channel stacking, a deconvolution operation
with unmodified phase (zero phase deconvolution) was
applied, which resulted in flattening of the amplitude
spectrum along the 16–50 Hz frequency band. With this
operation, precise seismic velocity analysis was ensured
up to 6 sec of trace length (in turn, a good acoustic
response from the crust was found to occur in this
sector). Likewise, since phase characteristics of the
diffracted signals were kept unmodified, they could be
properly focalized by the migration process.
Special techniques such as finite difference migration
and complex demodulation were used in a similar way
to that of the section sector where vibrators were used.
A summary of field parameters is presented in Table
A-2 for both Vibroseis and explosive data.
340 Comínguez and Ramos

Table A-1—Frequency Bandwidth at Various Time Levelsa Table A-2—Lomas de Olmedo Field Parameters

Time Bandwidth Line 04196, CDP = 4000–5900

(sec) (Hz)
0–4 14–56
5 14–53
6 14–51
7 14–48
8 14–45
9 14–43
aSelf-truncating extended correlation was applied to the recorded Vibroseis data (line
04196). No consideration was given to frequency absorption, which is likely to take
place in any crustal medium.
Source: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Vibroseis
Type: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mertz-9
Number: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Sweeps: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16–24/vibrator
Sweep frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . .14–56 Hz, linear
Vibrator time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 sec
Recording time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 sec
Recording system: . . . . . . . . . . . .MDS-10
Number of channels: . . . . . . . . . .48
Sampling interval: . . . . . . . . . . . .4 msec
Station Spacing: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 m
Near offset: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 m
Far offset: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2600 m
Fold: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Spread configuration: Symmetric (2600x300-P-
300x2600)

Line 04196, CDP = 3076–4000

Source: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dynamite
Charge: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13/16 kg
Source depth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16/31 m
Charge interval: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 m
Recording time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 sec
Recording system: . . . . . . . . . . . .MDS-10
Number of channels: . . . . . . . . . .96
Sampling interval: . . . . . . . . . . . .2 msec
Station Spacing: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 m
Near offset: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 m
Far offset: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2650 m
Fold: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Spread configuration: Symmetric (2650x300-P-
300x2650)
 Cretaceous Rifting, Alluvial Fan Sedimentation,
and Neogene Inversion,
Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina

C. J. Schmidt C. H. Costa
Department of Geology C. E. Gardini
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A. Departamento de Geología
Universidad Nacional de San Luis
San Luis, Argentina
R. A. Astini
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas
Físicas y Naturales P. E. Kraemer
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales
Córdoba, Argentina Universidad Nacional de Córdoba
Córdoba, Argentina

Abstract

T wo north-trending, west-verging, fault-bounded Neogene basement uplift systems (Sierras Chicas of

Córdoba and Serranías Occidentales of San Luis) of the Sierras Pampeanas of central Argentina are
inverted Early Cretaceous rifts. Their geometry and position 2000 km from the Atlantic continental margin and
the geometry of Neogene inversion is dependent on the earlier fabric of the basement rocks. The trends of reac-
tivated faults in the rifts are consistent with an Early Cretaceous extension direction orthogonal to the Atlantic
spreading center. The principal north-northwest rift trends were produced by dextral-oblique rifting along
previous basement sutures, and isolated depocenters may have formed as transtensional pull-apart basins. The
Sierras Chicas are the easternmost of the Pampean uplifts. They were uplifted along the eastward-dipping
Punilla thrust fault zone. Three Cretaceous depocenters containing two depositional megasequences and
volcanics are preserved as remnants of a larger basin. The sediments were deposited in restricted half-grabens
dominated by alluvial fans and playa lakes. Paleocurrent analyses indicate that the Punilla fault was a normal
fault during deposition.
Neogene inversion of normal fault trends thrusted proximal fanglomerates over their former source terrain.
Cretaceous rocks on the hanging wall of the Punilla fault zone were folded into a west-verging monocline in
the Sierra de Pajarillo area. The steep limb of the monocline is underlain by a fault-bounded wedge of cataclas-
tically deformed basement rocks.
The Serranías Occidentales of San Luis are similar to the Sierras Chicas of Córdoba. Depositional environ-
ments are similar, and fault-bounded depocenters can be identified within the larger Cretaceous San Luis
basin. The Cretaceous normal faults follow basement fabric. Neogene inversion of the Serranías Occidentales
produced short-cut faults and back-thrusts, a vertical thrust-bounded Cretaceous section (at Sierra Quijadas),
and a dramatic change of trend (north-northwest to northeast) in the basement thrust faults (Sierra del
Gigante).

Resumen

D os sistemas serranos (Sierras Chicas de Córdoba y Serranías Occidentales de San Luis), pertencientes a
las Sierras Pampeanas Orientales de Argentina y formados por basamento ascendido a lo largo de
fallas con rumbo meridional y vergencia oeste durante el Neógeno, son parte de un rift Cretácico inferior
invertido. Su geometría y ubicación a 2000 km del margen Atlántico, junto a la geometría de la inversión
neógena, dependen de la fábrica previa existente en las rocas del basamento. Los rumbos de las fallas de rift
invertidas son consistentes con la extensión ocurrida en el Cretácico inferior con direcciones ortogonales con
respecto al centro de divergencia centro-atlántico. El rumbo nor-noroeste fue producido por rifting dextral
oblicuo a lo largo de antiguas suturas del basamento, que condicionaron la generación de depocentres aislados
como cuencas transtensionales de tipo “pull-apart.” Las Sierras Chicas constituyen los contrafuertes más orien-

Schmidt, C. J., R. A. Astini, C. H. Costa, C. E. Gardini, and P. E. Kraemer, 1995, Cretaceous 341
rifting, alluvial fan sedimentation, and Neogene inversion, southern Sierras Pampeanas,
Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South
America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 341–358.
342 Schmidt et al.

tales de las Sierras Pampeanas y fueron elevadas por el corrimiento Punilla, buzante al este. Remanentes de tres
depocentros cretácicos se preservan en las Sierras Chicas, en donde se registran dos megasecuencias con
vulcanitas intercaladas. Las sedimentitas fueron depositadas en hemigrávenes restringidos, donde predomi-
naron abanicos aluviales y barreales salinos. Las paleocorrientes indican que el lineamiento Punilla se comportó
como una falla normal durante la sedimentación.
La inversión neógena del fallamiento normal cretácico sobrecorrió fanglomerados proximales sobre su
antigua área de aporte. Sucesiones cretácicas en el bloque superior del corrimiento Punilla fueron plegadas
conformando un monoclinal con vergencia oeste en el área de la Sierra de Pajarillo. El flanco empinado del
monoclinal se apoya sobre una cuña fallada de basamento cataclásticamente deformado.
Las Serranías Occidentales de San Luis son similares a las Sierras Chicas de Córdoba, desarrollando durante
el Cretácico paleoambientes análogos. En San Luis peuden también reconocerse depocentros menores contro-
lados por fracturas. Las fallas normales cretácicas están controladas por la fábrica del basamento. La inversion
Neógena de las Serranías Occidentales produjo retrocorrimientos y corrimientos de atajo en el bloque inferior
(“short-cut faults”), una sección verticalizada limitada por fallas en la Sierra de Las Quijadas y un marcado
cambio de rumbo de nor-noroeste a noreste en la orientación de los corrimientos de basamento en la Sierra del
Gigante.

INTRODUCTION
The effects of Early Cretaceous crustal extension
during the initial breakup of Gondwana were felt far
inland from the continental margin in Argentina. The
general trend of these rift basins were oblique to the
Atlantic spreading center (Figure 1) (Gordillo and
Lencinas, 1967a,b, 1979; Yrigoyen, 1975; Criado Roqué et
al. 1981; Uliana et al., 1989). However, the details of
rifting are obscure because of limited surface exposure
and the lack of subsurface information.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the pattern of
Neocomian rifting and Neogene inversion along the
Sierras Chicas of the Córdoba Province and the Serranías
Occidentales of the San Luis Province and to examine the
extent to which basement fabric has influenced later
deformation. We also consider why the rifts penetrated
the South American plate so far inland and why it has an
orientation oblique to the trend of the Atlantic spreading
center. The study is principally field based. Cretaceous
rifting was examined mainly through the provenance of
the nonmarine rift fill and the identification of probable
Cretaceous faults. Neogene inversion was examined
through field mapping and some kinematic studies.
The inverted Cretaceous rift basins of the southern
Sierras Pampeanas are located in the Sierras Chicas and
the Serranías Occidentales of San Luis (Figure 2).
Neocomian sediments in the Serranías Occidentales of
San Luis were first described in detail by Flores (1969),
who interpreted these hills and the Neogene Beazley
basin (Figure 2) as a small (15,000 km2) Cretaceous conti-
nental depocenter, which is referred to as the San Luis
basin (Flores, 1979; Riccardi, 1988) (Figure 1). The
geometry of the eastern basin in the Sierras Chicas is
inferred from isolated outcrops scattered over a wide
area within the range.
The effect of Andean deformation on the southern
Sierras Pampeanas has been outlined by Gordillo and Figure 1—Location of known or inferred Neocomian rift
basins in Argentina and Chile. Locations of study areas are
Lencinas (1979), Criado Roqué et al. (1981), Jordan and
shown in boxes. C, Córdoba; SL, San Luis; SJ, San Juan.
Allmendinger (1986), and Introcaso et al. (1987). In Terranes: CH, Chilenia; PC, Precordillera; WP, western
general, the major Neogene thrusts are spaced 50–100 Pampean; EP, eastern Pampean; RP, Rio de la Plata
km apart. They strike approximately north-south and are craton; PEL, Pelotas. (After Uliana et al., 1989; terrane
mostly west-verging. Anomalous trends do exist, boundaries after Ramos, 1988.)
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
Figure 2—Location map showing the principal ranges of
the Sierras Pampeanas with locations of more detailed
maps (Figures 3, 13) shown. Shaded areas are the inferred
pre-Neogene limits of Lower Cretaceous continental
deposits. (After Jordan et al., 1989.)
however, and the Serranías Occidentales and several of
the faults of the Sierras Chicas system provide excellent
examples of trends that depart from a north-south
direction. One of the goals of this paper is to examine
possible causes for these anomalous trends.
The Neogene structure is fundamentally basement
involved. Where upper Paleozoic or Mesozoic rocks are
exposed on the hanging walls of the thrusts, they are
sharply folded over the uplifted basement blocks, similar
to the basement-cored folds of the Rocky Mountain
foreland of the western United States (see Jordan and
Allmendinger, 1986). Where no sedimentary strata are
exposed, the prominent middle–upper Paleozoic erosion
surface is usually tilted toward the east from 2˚ to 12˚, a
fact that is most commonly attributed to rotational uplift
along listric faults in the basement (Jordan and
Allmendinger, 1986; Costa, 1992). Where Paleozoic–
Tertiary rocks are exposed on the footwalls of these
thrusts, they are rotated to steep dips against the thrusts
and are locally overturned.
The character of the upper Precambrian–lower
Paleozoic crystalline basement rocks has been summa-
343
Figure 3—Regional geologic map of the Sierras de
Córdoba showing the three outcrop areas of Cretaceous
rocks in the eastern part of the range (Sierras Chicas) and
the locations of detailed maps (Figures 5, 9, 10). Town
abbreviations: SR, Santa Rosa; LC, LaCumbre; C, La
Calera; Cos, Cosquín; LG, La Granga; CD, Capilla del
Monte. (From Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979.)
rized by Dalla Salda (1987). He divided the southern
Pampean ranges into (1) a western zone (Sierra de
Valle Fertíl–Serranías Occidentales of San Luis) of low-
to medium-grade rocks containing relatively few
granites and migmatites and (2) a wide eastern zone
composed principally of Hercyno-type low pressure,
high temperature metamorphic rocks with abundant
granitoids. Mylonites are common in both zones.
Martino et al. (1993) concluded that most of the
mylonitic belts are Ordovician–Devonian in age and
are superimposed on upper Proterozoic high-grade
rocks. The mylonites appear to be uniformly eastward
dipping with a top-to-the-west sense of shear. Major
Neogene thrust faults appear to follow mylonite belts
or boundaries between high-grade and low-grade
rocks (Baldo et al., 1993).
344 Schmidt et al.

THE SIERRAS CHICAS

Neogene Structure
The Sierras Chicas are bounded on the west by the
eastward-dipping basement-involved Punilla thrust fault
zone, which separates the range from the adjacent
Punilla Valley (Figure 3). The fault zone consists of
numerous linear overlapping fault segments with
different strikes and dips (Massabié and Szlafsztein,
1991). In this sense, it resembles ubiquitously segmented
faults that bound the major ranges of the Laramide
Rocky Mountains of the western United States. Strikes
vary from 320˚ to 20˚ and dips from about 25˚ to at least
50˚ (Kraemer et al., 1988; Massabié and Szlafsztein, 1991).
Hanging wall rocks of the Punilla fault zone consist of
upper Precambrian and lower Paleozoic metamorphic
basement and subordinate Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
(Figure 3). In most places, the strike and dip of the fault
zone parallels that of foliation in the basement rocks
(Gordillo and Lencinas, 1969; Kraemer et al., 1988;
Massabié and Szlafsztein, 1991; Kraemer and Martino,
1993).
Uplift of the Sierras Chicas along the fault zone is at
least as old as the locally derived fanglomerate of the
Casagrande Formation (Pliocene) and has continued into
the Quaternary. Footwall rocks are generally Eocene
(Cosquín Formation) (Lencinas and Timonieri, 1968;
Kraemer and Martino, 1993) to middle Pleistocene
(Kraemer et al., 1988) in age. Where exposed in the
footwall, Pleistocene sediments tend to be undisturbed
and horizontal, whereas the Tertiary section (such as at
Cosquín) dips steeply and is itself faulted over Pleis-
tocene sediments. Kinematic analysis of a north-trending Figure 4—Generalized stratigraphic columns: (a) Sierra de
segment of the fault at Cosquín is consistent with east- Pajarillo succession, (b) Estancia del Rosario succession
west (reverse slip) shortening (Kraemer and Martino, at LaCumbre, (c) Saldán Formation, and (d) Sierra de Los
Condores succession. Distance between sections is
1993), although a similar analysis at Santa Rosa (Figure 3)
shown in kilometers. Approximate relative vertical position
indicates a history of heterogeneous movement with of sections is shown. Columns a, b, and d are truncated by
both sinestral and thrust slip events (Kraemer et al., erosion at their tops. Division between upper and lower
1988). megasequence is at the top dashed correlation line
between columns. See Figure 3 for locations.
Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
were part of an extensive nonmarine synrift fill that
Paleogeographic Setting extended from the southern Sierras Chicas to the
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks crop out extensively in Guasayán Hills (Figure 2). The Neocomian age of the
parts of the Sierras Chicas. The Sierra de Los Condores Cretaceous deposits in the Sierras Chicas is constrained
on the south and the Sierra de Pajarillo on the north by K-Ar dates from mafic lava flows. Seventeen dates
(Figure 3) are areas of extensive outcrops on the hanging from flows in the Sierra de Los Condores Group range
wall of the Punilla thrust fault zone. Isolated outcrops from 114 ± 5 to 129 ± 8 Ma (Gordillo and Lencinas, 1967b;
also occur on the hanging wall of the Punilla fault zone Stipanicic and Linares, 1975), and the basalt within the
south of the Sierra de Pajarillo near La Cumbre (Figure Rosario conglomerate near La Cumbre is dated as 119 ± 5
3). Another large outcrop area of Cretaceous rocks occurs Ma (Gordillo and Lencinas, 1967b). Six dates for basalt
at La Calera east of the Punilla fault zone along the dikes at the Embalse de los Molinos north of the Sierra de
eastern front of the range (Figure 3). The outcrops at La Los Condres area range from 122 ± 10 Ma to 151 ± 10 Ma
Calera (Saldán Formation) are on the hanging wall of a (Stipanicic and Linares, 1975), suggesting that rifting may
steeply east-dipping reverse fault (La Calera fault) have begun in the latest Jurassic.
(Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979). These outcrops all contain The general pattern of sedimentation was controlled
conglomerates, sandstones, argillaceous material, and by the development of fault-bounded half-grabens. A
evaporites that we attribute to deposition in alluvial fan, regional survey of the stratigraphy suggests that these
braided stream, mud flat, and playa lake settings that rocks were deposited in two megasequences, although
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
nowhere is the complete succession present because of
postdepositional Andean uplift and erosion. The lower
megasequence is dominated by locally derived basement
detritus, whereas the upper megasequence is interlay-
ered with mafic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
(Figure 4). Stratigraphic columns for the four principal
outcrop areas indicate that the two megasequences can
generally be correlated from place to place (Figure 4).
They also suggest that the three areas containing lower
megasequence rocks (Figure 4, sections a, c, d) were
separate depocenters within the larger rift basin, as
compared to areas such as La Cumbre (Figure 4, section
b) which have a thin lower megasequence.
These synrift continental deposits rest noncon-
formably on upper Precambrian and lower Paleozoic
basement rocks. It appears that intraplate rifting in the
Sierras Chicas was largely restricted to the Neocomian
and that it had no Triassic or Jurassic precursor as in
345
Figure 5—Geologic map of the
Sierra de Pajarillo and Capilla del
Monte areas of the Sierras
Chicas. Lines of cross section
(Figure 6) are shown. See Figure
3 for locations. (Modified from
Pastore and Methol, 1935.)
areas to the west and south (Uliana et al., 1989). In the
late Paleozoic–Jurassic, the Sierras Chicas and other
Córdoba ranges (Figure 3) apparently maintained a
positive tectonic relief compared to the areas toward the
east and west (see Jordan et al., 1989).
Sierra de Pajarillo
The northernmost outcrops of Cretaceous rocks in the
Sierras Chicas cover an area of about 400 km2, including
the Pajarillo, Copacabana, and Maza ranges north of
Capilla del Monte (Figures 5, 6). These outcrops plunge
below the Neogene Salinas Grande basin (Figure 3) on
the north, so the original extent of the basin is unknown.
These sedimentary rocks are assigned to the lower
megasequence (Figure 4). They were deposited in
alluvial fan and playa lake environments in a small half-
graben under arid climatic conditions (Pezzi and Astini,
1992; Astini et al., 1993) (Figure 7). Deposits range from
346 Schmidt et al.

Figure 6—Structural cross sections from the Sierra de Pajarillo and Capilla del Monte areas. See Figure 5 for locations.

coarse, proximal, immature conglomerates to distal,

laterally extensive siltstones and mudstones with inter-
layered evaporites. The mapped alluvial fan depositional
systems on the western and southern boundaries of the
basin correlate with finer grained bajada and sporadic
braidplain deposits in the eastern and northern tracts.
Together with the distribution of evaporites on the east
and northeast, they define the asymmetry of the basin.
Paleocurrent analysis (Figure 8) indicates provenance
areas to the southwest and south across fault controlled
northwest-southeast and east-west oriented basin
margins. Conglomeratic layers were initially widespread
but gradually retreated toward the western and southern
borders, while sandy ephemeral stream and playa lake
deposits characterized the eastern tracts.
South of the Sierra de Pajarillo along the western front
of the Sierras Chicas, isolated Cretaceous outcrops have Figure 7—Block diagram of the general depositional style
survived Neogene uplift. The largest of these, east of La and structure of the Sierra del Pajarillo–Capilla del Monte
Cumbre (Figure 5), shows an interlayered volcaniclastic area. Facies: (1) upper fan debris flows, (2) middle and
upper megasequence similar to that of the Sierra de Los distal fan, (3) braided and ephemeral streams, and (4)
Condores (see Gordillo and Lencinas, 1967b). The lower muddy and saline playa lakes.
megasequence at La Cumbre is only 30 m thick
compared to at least 650 m in the Sierra de Pajarillo basin
(Figure 4, sections a, b). The following discussion is derived largely from Poiré
et al. (1988a,b) and Sánchez et al. (1990, 1993). The
Sierra de Los Condores Embalse Río Tercero Formation makes up the lower
Gordillo and Lencinas (1967a, 1979) described the megasequence and contains immature boulder to pebble
synrift volcanic rocks in this area and provided five grade conglomerates overlain by trough cross-bedded
stratigraphic sections that define the stratigraphy. The sandstones, siltstones, and bioturbated mudstones that
sequence is over 250 m thick and is referred to as the Los contain mudcracks and thin layers of gypsum. Pebble
Condores Group, which is composed of the Embalse Río imbrication and cross-bed azimuths are northeast-
Tercero Formation, the Cerro Colorado volcanics, the directed, indicating a basement terrane provenance from
Cerro Libertad conglomerates, and the Rumipalla lava the southwest across the downthrown side of the
flows (Figure 4). northwest-trending Punilla fault zone (Figure 9). The
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
Figure 8—Paleocurrents plotted as rose diagrams (see
Nemec, 1988). Current data at locations 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11,
and 12 are from cobble imbrication; location 4 from imbri-
cation, trough cross strata, and cut-and-fill structures;
location 5 from planar cross strata and troughs in cross-
bedded conglomerates; location 6 from trough cross
strata, ripple lamination, and minor imbrication; location 7
from ripple lamination and climbing ripples; and location 8
from ripple lamination, climbing ripples, and ripple trains.
(Data for the Sierra de Pajarillo from Astini et al., 1993.)
alluvial fans appear to have prograded toward the east
and northeast. Scarcity of braided fluvial deposits and
sand flat facies suggest an inland arid depositional envi-
ronment with extensive bajadas.
The Embalse Río Tercero Formation is capped with a
30-cm-thick horizon of purple tuffites. The overlying
Cerro Libertad conglomerate of the upper megasequence
is polymictic with minor sandy trough cross-bedded
conglomerates locally containing large amounts of
347
Figure 9—General geologic map of the Sierra de Los
Cóndores area. See Figure 3 for location. (Modified from
Gordillo and Lencinas, 1967a; Sánchez et al., 1990; Sisto et
al., 1993.)
volcanic and volcaniclastic material (Figure 4). Sánchez et
al. (1990) indicate a dominantly eastern source during
second megasequence deposition, away from a west-
dipping normal fault boundary. They also suggest that
the northern boundary of the basin was a down-to-the-
south normal fault during deposition.
Saldán
The easternmost outcrops of Neocomian continental
deposits span about 150 km along the eastern flanks of
the Sierras Chicas from Rio Tercero northward
(Figure 3). They are bounded on the west by the La
Calera fault zone (Figures 3, 10). The complete succession
along the Río Suquía (Figure 10) is over 350 m thick with
a covered interval between the two megasequences
(Figure 4). The lower megasequence has an aggrada-
tional, slightly coarsening-upward trend with a
pronounced lateral interfingering of facies. The upper
megasequence is less evident and partially covered, but
shows a better organization of deposits. Piovano and
Astini (1990) identified four distinct facies in the lower
megasequence which they compared with arid climate
348 Schmidt et al.
Figure 10—General geologic map of the area of Saldán
Formation outcrops in the eastern Sierras Chicas. Paleo-
current data at locations 1, 2, and 3 are from imbrication;
locations 4, 5, and 6 from ripples and ripple trains in plan
view. See Figure 3 for location. (Map modified from Santa
Cruz, 1972.)
alluvial fan and playa lake complexes. One characteristic
of the lower megasequence in the Saldán Formation is
the absence of a well-developed fluvial facies. The abrupt
change from coarse-grained to fine-grained facies is
typical of terminal bajadas where stream-dominated
facies are poorly developed. However, the upper
megasequence contains cross-bedded conglomerates and
sandy conglomerates typical of more humid braided
alluvial systems.
The coarsest conglomerates of the Saldán Formation,
with marble boulders up to 3.5 m in diameter, occur in
the lower megasequence adjacent to the La Calera fault,
suggesting that it was down to the east during deposi-
tion. Paleocurrent indicators for the lower megasequence
show an eastward dispersal pattern (locations 1, 2, 3, 5,
Figure 10). However, the amount of tectonic influence on
sedimentation is less in the upper sequence, where
paleocurrents indicate a more widespread dispersion
(locations 4, 6, Figure 10).
Neogene Inversion
Evidence suggests that the Cretaceous basins of the
Sierras Chicas were structurally inverted along the
previous synsedimentary normal faults. Our discussion
will focus on the Capilla del Monte area (Sierra de
Pajarillo and area to the south), with a briefer discussion
of the evidence for inversion of the other basins.
Geologic Setting of the Sierra de
Pajarillo-Capilla del Monte Area
The structural geology of the Capilla del Monte area,
described by Pensa (1970), Kull and Methol (1979), and
Massabié (1982), is dominated by the Neogene Punilla
fault zone that borders the western front of the Sierras
Chicas (Figure 5). South of the town of Capilla del
Monte, the fault zone trends north-northwest (350˚) and
has basement rocks and subordinate outcrops of Creta-
ceous rocks in the hanging wall. North of Capilla del
Monte, the fault zone changes to a northwest trend
(310–315˚), where it forms the southeastern boundary of
the Sierras de Pajarillo, Copacabana, and Maza. Creta-
ceous rocks of the Sierra de Pajarillo basin are on the
hanging wall of the thrust fault zone. The footwall
contains surficial Quaternary deposits and basement
rocks. We believe that considerable thicknesses of
Tertiary sediments may occur below the Quaternary
succession, as it does in footwall exposures in the Punilla
valley at Cosquín 45 km to the south (Figure 3).
The basement consists of foliated quartz feldspathic
gneiss locally interlayered with muscovite schist and
amphibolite. These foliated rocks are cross-cut by largely
unfoliated tonalitic bodies and granite. The gneiss is a
high-grade rock thought to be the product of late
Precambrian–early Paleozoic Brasiliano metamorphism
(Dalla Salda, 1987). The tonalitic rocks have Late
Devonian–Early Carboniferous ages (Stipanicic and
Linares, 1975), suggesting a relationship to the Chánic
orogeny.
The gneiss and associated rocks contain a prominent
north-northwest trending schistosity that dips 30–50˚ to
the northeast (Figure 11). This prevailing fabric in the
basement rocks, described by Massabié (1982), is associ-
ated with isoclinal folds and local mylonitization and has
been injected by numerous aplitic bodies.
Neogene Thrust Faults at Capilla del Monte
The Neogene Punilla fault zone in the Capilla del
Monte area is characterized by an abrupt change of strike
(~45˚) (Figure 5). Cretaceous rocks are found only in the
hanging wall. With respect to the Cretaceous rocks, the
north-northwest trending segment of the fault zone is
exposed at a slightly deeper structural level than the
northwest-trending segment that bounds the Sierra de
Pajarillo basin. The two segments are connected by a 7-
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
Figure 11—Contoured lower hemisphere stereoplot of
poles to foliation in basement rocks on the hanging wall of
the Punilla thrust in the Capilla del Monte area (Figure 5).
Mean foliation attitude shown as a great circle.
km-long zone of faults that cut through the Uritorco
granite on a north-northeast trend (Figure 5).
Both major segments of the Punilla fault zone are
similar in that they are each composed of two principal
faults 1.2–1.7 km apart. The fault on the east is better
exposed in each area and forms a steep mountain front. It
dips 45–60˚ east or northeast. The fault on the west is
poorly exposed through Quaternary cover, but it locally
cuts pediments north of Capilla del Monte. The structure
of the Cretaceous deposits between the two faults is best
exposed south of Capilla del Monte in the hill, locally
called the Cabeza de Soldado, east of the town of Los
Cocos (C–C', Figure 6), and north of Capilla del Monte
along the Quebrada de Luna (A–A', Figure 6).
At Cabeza de Soldado (section C–C'), very coarse
proximal debris flows dip toward the west at 35–45˚
between the two faults (Figure 6). About 1 km upslope
on the hanging wall of the more easterly fault, outcrops
of this conglomerate are finer grained and rest with hori-
zontal nonconformity on the basement. The geometry of
these Cretaceous outcrops suggests a westward-dipping
monocline with thrust faults at the upper (anticlinal) and
lower (synclinal) hinges. Dip separation on the thrust
that cuts through the upper hinge is unknown, but is
probably relatively small (a minimum of about 50 m).
Dip separation on the lower more westerly thrust is also
unknown, but may be as great as several kilometers.
Exposures of basement within the fault-bounded
basement block (section C–C') show strong cataclasis
with closely spaced (2–10 cm) fault-parallel fractures in
unfoliated rocks and ubiquitous foliation-parallel shear
associated with chloritic alteration of ferromagnesian
349
minerals along foliation planes. The fault zone follows
the regional trend of foliation, but in many places
foliation departs from being parallel to the fault trend.
Nevertheless, foliation planes of nearly all orientations in
the fault-bounded block show evidence of shear. Appar-
ently, slip on fractures of many different orientations
parallel to foliation accommodated westward rotation of
the basement block between the two thrust faults. The
basement rocks on the hanging wall of the upper, more
easterly fault are also fractured, but they are considerably
less cataclastically deformed than the basement between
the faults, and chloritic alteration along foliation planes is
virtually absent beyond a few tens of meters away from
the fault. Analysis of slip on fractures at two different
locations in the upper, more easterly fault zone suggests
a direction of shortening oriented nearly west-east,
implying mostly dip slip with subordinate sinestral slip
on the main fault (Figure 12a, b). Slip on fractures in the
basement rocks 100–500 m east of the fault zone are
compatible with this same shortening direction
(Figure 12c).
A similar pattern of faulting and monocline develop-
ment in Cretaceous rocks exists east of La Cumbre
(section D–D', Figure 6). Gordillo and Lencinas (1967b,
profile 1) interpreted Cretaceous rocks to be present on
the footwall of the lower, more westerly thrust.
However, there is no direct evidence that any Cretaceous
rocks exist on the footwall of the thrust.
The northwest-trending pair of Neogene thrust faults
that bound the Sierra de Pajarillo have the same
geometry as those described above except that they are
exposed at a shallower structural level, almost entirely
within the Cretaceous deposits (section A–A', Figure 6).
As elsewhere, there is a west-dipping monoclinal panel
of proximal fanglomerates between the two Neogene
thrusts, and the hanging wall of the upper (more
easterly) thrust contains flat-lying Cretaceous rocks that
become progressively finer grained away from the
frontal thrust. Dip separation for the upper thrust is
about 100 m, whereas dip separation for the lower one is
unknown but probably greater.
Inversion and Control of Fault Trends at
Capilla del Monte
In every area studied in detail along the trend of the
Punilla fault zone, the hanging wall of the more westerly
thrust contains the most proximal Cretaceous rocks,
generally massive pebble to boulder conglomerates with
crude stratification. Analysis of cobble and boulder
imbrication (lower megasequence) at the Cabeza
Soldado (location 10, Figure 8) indicates a western source
perpendicular to the trace of the Punilla fault zone. Two
other locations on the hanging wall (locations 11, 12,
Figure 8) also show a predominance of eastward-
oriented paleocurrent directions. Although no statistical
study was made at the La Cumbre site, examination of
imbrication at three locations indicates a western source
for the lower megasequence conglomerates. At two
locations along the northwest-trending faults bordering
the Sierra de Pajarillo (locations 1, 9, Figure 8), paleocur-
rent analysis of cobble imbrications gives a direction
350 Schmidt et al.
toward the north-northeast, approximately normal to the
strike of the fault zone.
The paleocurrent data and the proximal nature of the
hanging wall conglomerates of the more westerly thrust
of the Punilla fault zone clearly suggest that this thrust
was the bounding normal fault for the Sierra de Pajarillo
basin and for the deposits of the Sierras Chicas to the
south and that it was reactivated during the Neogene.
There was probably little or no Cretaceous deposition to
the west of the Punilla fault zone.
Like the western boundary faults of the Punilla fault
zone, the east-west trending fault that borders the Sierra
de Pajarillo basin on the south is clearly reactivated. The
fault zone at this contact is nearly vertical with the south
side up. The Cretaceous rocks at Los Terrones (Figure 5)
on the north side of the zone are locally turned up
against this fault and dip northward at 20˚–30˚ (section
B–B', Figure 6). Dip separation is unknown, but the base
of the Cretaceous rocks on the south side is projected
Figure 12—Faults and striae
orientations and P and T axis
scatter plots or contoured
diagrams for slickensided
surfaces at (a and b) two
locations along the upper fault
of the Punilla thrust zone and (c)
one location 100–500 m east of
the fault. See Figure 5 for
locations.
higher than the highest basement peak (Uritorico at
1950 m). A minimum dip separation of 1500 m is implied.
Speculation that this east-trending fault zone, and its
parallel counterpart in the basement rocks about 5 km
farther south, were active during Cretaceous deposition
is supported by analyses of paleocurrent directions for
the Cretaceous succession on the north side of the fault
(locations 2–5, Figure 8). They indicate a southern source
perpendicular to this fault zone (Astini et al., 1993). The
deposits against the fault zone at Los Terrones are
composed of middle to proximal fan facies, suggesting
close proximity to an uplifted basement source. This fault
zone may have been an intrabasinal structure during
rifting and acted to isolate the Pajarillo basin on the north
from the rest of the half-graben (Figures 7, 8). This fault
zone may have been a tear fault parallel to transport
during Neogene shortening, thus permitting the
basement block on the south to move vertically more
than the block containing the Pajarillo basin on the north.
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
The evidence of approximately east-west shortening
in this area and at Cosquin (Kraemer and Martino, 1993)
suggests that the northwest-trending segment of the
Punilla fault zone bordering the Sierra de Pajarillo had a
significant component of sinistral slip during the
Neogene.
According to Massabié and Szlafsztein (1991), there is
a strong tendency for the Punilla fault zone to follow
foliation trends in the Sierras Chicas. We have observed
that the north-northwest trending, northeast-dipping
foliation orientation between Capilla del Monte and La
Cumbre is parallel to the main fault zone, although local
changes in foliation are cut by the main fault. About 5
km due east of Capilla del Monte and east of the
Uritorico granite outcrops, foliation within the basement
changes abruptly from north-northwest to northwest
before the basement rocks dive beneath the Cretaceous
cover (Figure 5). The northwest-trending foliation is
subparallel to the northwest-trending boundary faults of
the Sierra de Pajarillo. This suggests that Neocomian
extension exploited an earlier basement fabric and that
the Neogene faults exploited the Cretaceous faults.
Other Evidence of Inversion in the Sierras Chicas
South of Capilla del Monte in the Saldán area
(Figure 3), the western boundary of the Cretaceous
Saldán Formation is everywhere a steep eastward-
dipping reverse fault (La Calera fault) with a minimum
of 50 m of dip separation (Gordillo and Lencinas 1967a,
1979). At La Calera, two reverse faults are separated by a
few hundred meters (Figure 10) (Santa Cruz, 1972).
Because of the existence of very proximal facies with
locally derived marble boulders up to 3.5 m in diameter
on the hanging wall of this fault and because of the
eastward-oriented paleocurrents for the fan facies
(Figure 10), it seems apparent that the La Calera fault
zone was reactivated with a reversal of throw. Inversion
has produced a uniform eastward 5˚ dip for the Saldán
Formation.
The nature of inversion in the Sierra de Los Condores
has yet to be fully documented, although the basin has
clearly been inverted by movement on the Punilla fault
zone (e.g., Sisto et al., 1993). Similar to the Sierra de
Pajarillo and northern Sierras Chicas, the Punilla fault
zone at the Sierra de Los Condores is composed of two
principal faults about 1–1.5 km apart (Figure 9).
However, only basement rocks are exposed between the
two faults. Little is known about these faults. The more
easterly fault may be a west-dipping back-thrust of
Neogene age that is antithetic to the principal fault
(following Gordillo and Lencinas, 1967a), or it may be an
east-dipping Cretaceous normal fault, making the
principal fault a Neogene short-cut fault. Although
Gordillo and Lencinas (1967a) show the fault on the
eastern boundary of the Sierra de Los Condores basin to
be a west-dipping normal fault, Sisto and Cortés (1992)
and Sisto et al. (1993) suggest that the most recent
movement on this fault is oblique with reverse and
sinestral components. They also show that minor east-
dipping thrusts locally follow the strike of the west-
dipping principal fault (Figure 9).
351
SERRANIAS OCCIDENTALES OF
SAN LUIS
The Serranías Occidentales of the San Luis Province
are a suite of small mountain ranges northwest of the city
of San Luis that form the southernmost ranges of the
Sierra de Valle Fertil system (Figures 2, 13). This section
briefly summarizes the Neogene structure, the Creta-
ceous sedimentary rocks, and the evidence for Neogene
inversion of these ranges.
Neogene Structure
The general structure of the Serranías Occidentales of
San Luis is similar to that of the Sierras Chicas, except
that much more of the Cretaceous section is preserved
and less basement is exposed. The Neogene structure of
each of the ranges is essentially that of a west-facing
monocline of Cretaceous rocks above basement. The
monoclinal structure appears to be nearly continuous
over the entire 200 km length of the ranges. The west
(synclinal) hinge of the monocline is broken by an east-
dipping Neogene thrust that trends north-northwest
following the general trend of the Valle Fertil. The trend
changes abruptly to north-northeast in the southern
Sierra del Gigante (location 1, Figure 13). Rocks on the
hanging wall of the thrust are basement (schists,
gneisses, and mylonites) and usually conglomeratic
Cretaceous rocks.
The Cretaceous rocks on the frontal monocline above
the thrust have dips (30˚–60˚ W) similar to comparable
structures in the Sierras Chicas. Locally, however, such
as at the western border of Sierra Quijadas, the Creta-
ceous conglomerates are vertical above the thrust.
Footwall rocks consist of Cenozoic clastics. The Tertiary
section below the thrust, such as along the western
boundary of Sierra del Gigante, is steeply west dipping
to overturned. Average dip on the bounding thrust is
50–55˚ E, and movement is mostly dip slip. However, at
the best exposure of this fault, striking 345˚ and dipping
52˚ E in western Sierra del Gigante (location 2, Figure 13),
slickenlines show a small sinistral component of
movement consistent with a nearly east-west direction of
shortening (Figure 14).
The basement rocks in Sierra Guayaguas are bounded
on the east by a west-dipping thrust (location 5, Figure
13) that we interpret as a back-thrust of the principal
east-dipping thrust. The footwall rocks are conglomer-
ates, basalts, and mudstones that are turned up to
vertical below the thrust. These have been dated as Late
Triassic from faunal evidence (Bossi, 1975; Bossi and
Bonaparte, 1978). The conglomeratic Cretaceous section
lies with slight angular discordance above these rocks,
indicating that this area was the site of proximal deposi-
tion in a Cretaceous basin that was superimposed on
proximal deposition in a Triassic basin.
The west-dipping thrust along the eastern border of
the ranges (Figure 13) is speculative because it is not
exposed. However, such a thrust is required along the
eastern border of Sierra del Gigante where the prominent
basement outcrops of the range end abruptly at a sharp
352 Schmidt et al.
Figure 13—General geologic map of the Serranías Occi-
dentales of San Luis. Numbers refer to locations described
in the text. (Modified from Yrigoyen, 1981.)
northwest-trending photolineament. The thrust fault
mapped west of the ranges in the Bermejo basin (Rio
Desaguadero fault) has been traced to the subsurface
west of Sierra Guayaguas where it has been interpreted
as the major Neogene thrust responsible for uplifting
these ranges and the Sierra de Valle Fertil to the north
(Snyder et al., 1990).
Several northeast-trending faults separate the
Serranías Occidentales into their respective ranges. Most
of these faults probably have minor Neogene movement.
However, the fault that crosses the northern part of the
Sierra del Gigante (location 4, Figure 13) is associated
with minor folds in the basement rocks on its northern
side, suggesting at least two separate episodes of fault
movement, one of which may have occurred in Creta-
ceous time. Likewise, the normal fault on the southern
boundary of the basement rocks of the range (location 3,
Figure 13) shows evidence of Cretaceous movement but
no movement during the Neogene.
Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
The Cretaceous rocks are well exposed in each of the
ranges of the Serranías Occidentales and have been pene-
trated by at least six wells in the Neogene Beazley basin
to the southeast (Figure 2). Continental deposits are
confined to the north-northwest elongated San Luis
basin, which is composed of several depocenters and is
about 3000 km2 in area (Figure 2). The stratigraphy has
been described elsewhere (Flores, 1969, 1979; Flores and
Criado Roqué, 1972; Criado Roqué et al., 1981; Manoni,
1985; Riccardi, 1988). The Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy
(El Gigante Group) was described from the southern
Sierra del Gigante (Flores and Criado Roqué, 1972), and
the formation names have been applied to the rocks in
the Sierra Guayaguas and Sierra Quijadas (e.g., Bossi and
Bonaparte, 1978; Rivarola and Di Paola, 1992) (Figure 15).
Correlation between ranges is tenuous, and it is clear that
each range constitutes a local depocenter and has a
slightly different stratigraphy.
The El Gigante Group (Figure 15) is composed of two
sequences of conglomerates (Los Riscos and La Cruz) that
grade laterally and vertically into fluvial sandstones and
sandy conglomerates (El Jume and Toscal formations),
which in turn grade laterally and vertically into lacustrine
argillites and gypsum beds of the La Cantera Formation
(Figure 15). The cumulative thickness of the group is
estimated to be 1670 m (Yrigoyen, 1975). Although it has
been described as a continuous continental succession
(e.g., Manoni, 1985) resembling the lower megasequence
of the Sierras Chicas, no physical connection between the
two rift basins is known to have existed.
The highest levels of the La Cruz Conglomerate in the
Sierra Quijadas are interlayered with basalt flows that are
thought to be equivalent to the Cretaceous basalts in the
Sierras Chicas (Gordillo, 1972). They have yielded K-Ar
radiometric ages of 106 ± 5 Ma to 161 ± 3 Ma (Oxfordian–
Albian) (González, 1971; Yrigoyen, 1975; Llambías and
Brogioni, 1981). The palynology of the La Cantera
Formation indicates an Early Cretaceous age (Flores,
1969; Yrigoyen, 1975; Bonaparte, 1981).
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
Little detailed sedimentologic work has been done on
the El Gigante Group. However, sedimentologic studies
of the different formations (Manoni, 1985; Rivarola and Di
Paola, 1992) indicate depositional settings and paleoenvi-
ronments similar to those of the Cretaceous deposits in
the Sierras Chicas: alluvial fans and bajadas with a small
braidplain and playa lakes in an arid climate.
The Lagarcito Formation (up to 250 m thick) contains
a basal conglomerate-mudstone-gypsum association
overlain by red sandstone. These have been interpreted
as playa lake deposits grading upward to higher energy
fluvial deposits (Manoni, 1985). Although assigned a
Late Cretaceous age (Yrigoyen, 1975), vertebrate fossils in
the sandstones suggest an Early Cretaceous age
(Bonaparte, 1970, 1971; Sánchez, 1973). These rocks are
more widespread than the El Gigante Group (Manoni,
1985) and are attributed to a postrift sag stage of defor-
mation and deposition.
Neogene Inversion
Evidence that the western boundary thrust of the
Serranías Occidentales was a down-to-the-east normal
fault during the deposition of the Cretaceous rocks is
reasonably well documented for each of the four ranges
of the system. Furthermore, in the Sierra Guayaguas and
Sierra del Gigante, the fabric of the basement rocks can
be shown to have influenced the trend of both Creta-
ceous normal faulting and Neogene thrust faulting.
Sierra Guayaguas
A critical observation for the inversion history of this
range is that two masses of basement rocks in the
northern part of the range are separated by a narrow belt
of Cretaceous conglomerates (probably the La Cruz
Conglomerate). The western mass, composed mainly of
quartzites and amphibolites, is a fault-bounded sliver 300
m wide and 2 km long (location 6, Figure 13). The
western boundary fault is the principal east-dipping
Neogene thrust. The eastern boundary fault separates the
basement block from the La Cruz Conglomerate. The
conglomerate dips 35–40˚ W into the fault, and the fault
dips steeply toward the east (70–80˚). The conglomerate
on the hanging wall adjacent to the fault is made up of
proximal debris flows with clasts up to 2 m in diameter
353
Figure 14—Faults and striae
orientations and P and T axis
scatterplot for four measure-
ments of slickensided
surfaces in the principal
thrust fault zone at location 2
(Figure 13), western Sierra del
Gigante.
composed of the same lithologies as the footwall
basement rocks. In addition, imbrication of tabular clasts
indicates an eastward paleocurrent trend; the conglomer-
ates fine away from the fault. The footwall basement
block was probably the source of the clasts in the La
Cruz, suggesting that this eastern fault was the original
Cretaceous normal fault boundary separating the
Creatceous conglomerate fan from its basement source.
Because the Neogene thrust does not appear to have
reactivated the normal fault, the thrust is interpreted as a
short-cut fault.
The La Cruz unconformably overlies the larger mass
of basement exposed to the east. This mass is thrusted
eastward over Upper Triassic rocks along its eastern
border (location 5, Figure 13). The basement rocks of this
larger mass are different from the western fault-bounded
sliver, consisting of quartz feldspathic gneisses, schists,
and amphibolites with an extensively developed
mylonitic fabric (Simon and Rossello, 1990; Castro de
Machuca and Carrizo, 1993). The fact that no mylonitic
basement clasts occur in the La Cruz Conglomerate
indicates that the source of the clasts was probably the
nonmylonitic basement to the west.
It is likely that basement fabric controlled the orienta-
tion of the Cretaceous normal fault and the Neogene
faults (frontal thrust and back-thrust). Although foliation
attitudes vary considerably within the basement masses,
the strong mylonitic fabric of the main basement mass is
parallel to the normal fault on the west (345˚, 70˚ E). In
addition, the western sliver of basement does not have
the same mylonitic fabric, suggesting that the normal
fault follows a fundamental north-northwest trending
boundary in the basement (i.e., between mylonitic and
nonmylonitic rocks). Simon and Rossello (1990) reported
that the kinematic indicators in the mylonite are consis-
tent with largely dip-slip motion (top to the west) with a
minor sinestral component. The age of the movement
associated with the mylonitization is unknown, but
Simon and Rossello (1990) and Martino et al. (1993)
suggest a Paleozoic age.
The steep eastward dips of the mylonitic zones on the
western side of the main basement mass give way to
moderate westward dips on the eastern side of the mass.
In fact, the attitude of the mylonitic fabric on the eastern
side on the hanging wall of the back-thrust (location 5,
354 Schmidt et al.
Figure 15—Generalized stratigraphy of the Cretaceous
rocks in the Serranías Occidentales of San Luis. Numbers
in parentheses are maximum thicknesses in meters. The
Quebrada del Barrio Formation is only in Sierra Guayagus.
Lagarcito Formation may be Lower Cretaceous. See text
for discussion. (Modified from Yrigoyen, 1975.)
Figure 13) is nearly identical to that of the back-thrust,
suggesting that the back-thrust was also localized along
the earlier fabric.
Sierra Quijadas
Although no basement rocks are exposed in Sierra
Quijadas, the morphology of the Neogene uplift is clear,
and the facies changes in the Cretaceous rocks provide
reasonable indirect evidence of inversion. The Creta-
ceous outcrops are part of a west-verging anticline that is
nearly flat-topped between an eastern and western
hinge. The western hinge marks the abrupt transition
from horizontal strata to vertical strata above the
boundary thrust. The eastern hinge is a more gradual
change from horizontal to gently eastward-dipping
strata.
Inversion is inferred from very rapid facies changes in
the La Cruz Conglomerate from the western border to
the eastern anticlinal hinge (a distance of about 4 km). In
this distance, the La Cruz can be seen to coarsen upward
in the section and fine to the east, from proximal debris
flows with clasts over 3 m in diameter to braided stream
deposits with only a few pebbly zones. Clast imbrication
in the conglomerates suggests a western source. It seems
likely that the western boundary thrust was a normal
fault during deposition of the La Cruz and that the
uplifted basement block on the footwall was the
sediment source for the deposit.
Sierra del Gigante
Sierra del Gigante is composed of a basement massif
flanked on the north and south by proximal facies of
minor Cretaceous basins. The western boundary is a
Neogene thrust that places the basement mass and the
flanking basins over Tertiary sediments. The principal
structure of the basement rocks is a large east to east-
northeast striking antiform (Figure 13) of low to medium
grade metasedimentary rocks (Gardini and Costa, 1987;
Gardini, 1993). Foliations and compositional layering dip
40–50˚ SE in the southern limit and 40–50˚ N in the north.
The northern Cretaceous outcrops (La Cruz Conglom-
erate) generally dip gently northward away from the
basement massif, and cobble imbrications indicate
transport from the southwest. We suggest that the
northeast-trending, northwest-dipping fault (location 4,
Figure 13) was down on the northwest during the depo-
sition of the La Cruz Conglomerate in this area. Minor
folds in the foliated rocks of the fault zone suggest that
the most recent movement (probably Neogene) was
right-reverse. The western border of the Cretaceous
outcrops is a west-facing monocline bounded by the
principal east-dipping thrust. These outcrops, like those
in Sierra Guayaguas and Sierra Quijadas, have cobble
imbrications that suggest transport from the west. It
appears that this northern basin was bounded by normal
faults on the west and on the south, both of which
underwent Neogene movement.
The basement massif in the main part of the range is
thrust westward over Tertiary rocks. Geologic maps of
the range (e.g., Gardini, 1993) suggest that the fabric of
the metamorphic rocks is cut at nearly right angles by the
thrust. However, we find that along the western border
of the range, the foliation in the basement rocks turns
abruptly southward in less than 100 m from the thrust
and becomes parallel with it in several places. The fault-
parallel foliation contains numerous parasitic (z) folds
that plunge steeply west-northwest. The fabric is not
cataclastic as might be expected if its orientation were
changed by folding associated with movement along the
Neogene thrust. Rather, cataclasis in the basement rocks
is confined to within a few meters of the thrust. The
abrupt change in foliation attitude appears to be related
to an earlier ductile folding event of probable Paleozoic
origin; the thrust, and presumably the Cretaceous
normal fault as well, followed this earlier fabric.
Where the western boundary thrust changes trend
abruptly to the southwest in the southern part of the
range (location 1, Figure 13), the hanging wall rocks are
the Cretaceous La Cruz Conglomerate. They are folded
into a northwest-vergent anticline above the thrust. The
structure and stratigraphy is similar to that at Sierra
Quijadas, with coarse conglomerates near the thrust
fining eastward and down section into sandstones,
mudstones, and gypsum beds. Cobble imbrication is
scattered but indicates transport mainly from the west or
northwest. We believe that the thrust was once a down-
to-the-southeast normal fault during deposition of the
Cretaceous rocks. The conglomerate facies appear to be
middle to distal fan deposits, suggesting a westward
 Cretaceous Rifting and Neogene Inversion, Southern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina
recession of the Cretaceous mountain front and the
possibility that more proximal facies are now on the
footwall of the Neogene thrust.
The southern boundary of the basement massif is a
northeast-trending normal fault that dips 50˚ SE (location
3, Figure 13). The conglomerates are proximal clast-
supported debris flows with the largest clast size
exceeding 2 m. The conglomerates fine rapidly south-
eastward, and cobble imbrications in the middle and
proximal fan facies indicate transport from the north.
These rocks were assigned to the lower conglomeratic
sequence (Los Riscos) by Flores (1969) (Figure 15). Near
the fault contact, they are horizontal or dip gently into
the fault. Away from the fault, they dip 10–15˚ SE,
defining a broad hanging wall roll-over undisturbed by
Neogene thrusting. Foliation in the gneisses of the
footwall dips parallel to the normal fault, strongly
suggesting basement fabric control. This normal fault is
on strike with the northeast-trending segment of the
Neogene thrust that bounds the range (location 1, Figure
13). Apparently the abrupt change of trend of the
boundary thrust at this location (from north-south to
northeast-southwest) was influenced by the normal fault,
and the portion of the normal fault southwest of location
1 was reactivated as a thrust. Where the normal fault
changes to a thrust, proximal Riscos conglomerates on
the hanging wall of the normal fault grade into the more
distal overlying La Cruz Conglomerate on the hanging
wall of the thrust.
The frontal Neogene thrust that bounds the Serranías
Occidentales continues southward from Sierra del
Gigante into the Cerrillada de La Cabra (Figure 13).
Rocks interpreted to be Cretaceous in age (probably
Lagarcito Formation) are found in scattered outcrops on
the footwall of the thrust. Although the Lower Creta-
ceous rocks appear to be confined to the region east of
the Cretaceous normal fault that became the range
bounding thrust, the Upper(?) Cretaceous fluvial section
(sag facies) appears to continue to the west of the fault
here. According to Manoni (1985), seismic and well data
indicate that the Lagarcito continues westward to the Rio
Desaguadero fault, which is its sedimentary depositional
or erosional limit.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Although no physical connection has been demon-
strated, the two north-south elongate Cretaceous rift
basins in the southeastern Sierras Pampeanas have
several characteristics in common. Besides nearly
identical ages, the similarities include (1) a westward
asymmetry with east-dipping normal faults dominating
the rift basin geometry and depositional setting; (2) a
lower depositional sequence dominated by proximal
debris flows grading upward and laterally into mid-fan,
braidplain, and playa lake deposits; (3) lava flows at the
top of the lower megasequence or base of the second
megasequence of deposition; and (4) the presence of
depocenters characterized by intersecting fault trends
355
and a bimodal provenance. In both areas, the lower
megasequence has a short fining-upward succession
covered by a thick upward-coarsening succession that
we interpret as deposition during a long period of quies-
cence after a brief period of active, fault-controlled subsi-
dence (see Blair and Bilodeau, 1988). An upper succes-
sion (Lagarcito Formation) representing a sag phase of
deposition is present in the San Luis basin, which may
correlate with the rocks of the upper megasequence from
the Sierras Chicas.
In the Sierras Chicas rift system, comparatively little of
the original geometry and none of the presumed inter-
connectivity or yoking of depocenters is preserved. The
Pajarillo depocenter has a bimodal sediment transport
and at least one important cross fault. The Los Condores
depocenter shows a reversal of sediment transport
direction from the west-bounding fault to the east-
bounding fault between the lower and upper megase-
quences. Nevertheless, the geometry of the three
principal preserved depocenters seems relatively simple
compared to documented examples of tensional rifts
(e.g., Leeder and Gawthorp, 1987) and transtensional
systems (e.g., Nilsen and McLaughlin, 1985). Perhaps
this is because the level of exposure permits only the
earliest fault-sediment patterns to be examined.
However, the simplicity may be real because of the
fundamental control exerted by the west-verging Punilla
and La Calera fault zones that follow earlier basement
fabric. Consequently, a westward asymmetry may have
dominated the fault-sediment pattern all along the
Sierras Chicas.
The surface exposures of the Serranías Occidentales
represent less than 25% of the known surface area of the
San Luis basin. In spite of documented cross faults and
bimodal sediment transport directions, our surface
observations are biased toward the overwhelming
importance of the western boundary fault system that
follows the basement fabric all along the ranges. Future
examination of seismic data for the other 75% of the
basin will probably reveal a more complex fault-
sediment pattern. Nevertheless, the importance of the
reactivated west-verging western boundary fault system
is established, and we suggest that a dominant westward
asymmetry will eventually be revealed for this basin in
seismic sections.
In the San Luis basin, Cretaceous rifting was superim-
posed on earlier Triassic rift basins in the north and
south (Criado Roqué et al., 1981; Uliana et al., 1989), but
in the Sierras Chicas, there is no evidence for rifting
before the Neocomian. This observation may be
important to petroleum potential and future exploration
south in the Levalle basin and Macachin trough
(Figure 1). These subsurface basins are directly in line
with the Sierras Chicas rift trend. If these subsurface rifts
are the uninverted continuation of the basins of the
Sierras Chicas, they may not contain sediments older
than Neocomian. Furthermore, because the sediments
were deposited under arid conditions without significant
lacustrine facies, the source rock potential of these basins
may be limited. It is possible, however, that these unin-
verted basins do have a younger lacustrine facies that has
356 Schmidt et al.
Figure 16—Principal trends of Cretaceous normal faults at
Capilla del Monte and Sierra del Gigante, showing inferred
slip directions and direction of extension compatible with
the fault orientations.
been stripped off the Sierras Chicas because of inversion.
In both of the rift basins, normal faults are controlled
by the anisotropy of the basement fabric (principally
foliation in gneiss and mylonite). At Capilla del Monte in
the Sierras Chicas and at Sierra del Gigante in the
Serranías Occidentales, we can identify six fault orienta-
tions reflected in the basin configuration (Figure 16). Of
these, only one (the east-west orientation at Capilla del
Monte) is not known to be parallel to the local basement
fabric. The direction of crustal extension most compatible
with all of these fault trends is west-northwest to east-
southeast (Figure 16), orthogonal to the trend of the Early
Cretaceous spreading center (Figure 1) reported by most
authors (e.g., Fairhead and Binks, 1991; Tankard et al.,
1995). This implies that there is some strike slip
component to most of the normal faults and that the
main north-northwest trending fault zones in each basin
were subjected to right-oblique rifting. The isolated
depocenters in each rift trend may have formed as
transtensional pull-apart basins controlled by basement
fabric (see also Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard, 1995).
Although the details of the internal geometry of the
rifts appear to be controlled by the local basement fabric,
it is unlikely that this fabric alone was responsible for the
extensional deformation affecting the crust so far inland.
The regional trend of the basement fabric, however, must
reflect fundamental zones of crustal weakness. In the
Sierras Chicas, this is likely the Late Proterozoic (Brasil-
iano orogenic cycle) suture between the eastern Pampean
terrane and the Rio de La Palta craton (see Ramos, 1988)
(Figure 1). In the Serranías Occidentales, it is the Valle
Fértil lineament that is probably an early Paleozoic
(Ocloyic) suture between the western and eastern
Pampean terranes (see Martino et al., 1993) (Figure 1). In
the Late Cretaceous, rifting along these sutures was
abandoned for the more favorably oriented Late Protero-
zoic suture between the Rio de La Plata craton and the
Pelotas terrane (Ramos, 1988) (Figure 1).
Because the rift pattern followed previous crustal
anisotropy, it is not surprising that the pattern of
Neogene contractional features follows many, but not all,
of the normal fault trends. Several faults, including the
northeast-trending normal fault at Sierra del Gigante,
were not favorably oriented for reactivation by east-west
contraction. South of about the latitude of San Luis
(~33˚ S lat), the Sierras Chicas rift trend is in the subsur-
face (Levalle basin) and is not inverted, and the
Serranías–San Luis rift trend has only minor inverted
ranges. This latitude corresponds with the southern
boundary of the flat subduction corridor of the Nazca
plate (Jordan et al., 1983) confirming that contractional
effects of convergence affected Pampean basement weak-
nesses principally within that corridor.
As Jordan and Allmendinger (1986) have described,
the Neogene fault and uplift geometry is similar to that
of the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene Rocky Mountain
foreland of the western United States. The similarities
can be extended to include the folding of the cover rocks
as well, in which asymmetric folding of cover accompa-
nies cataclastic deformation in an underlying fault-
bounded wedge of basement.
Acknowledgments We thank the Fulbright Commission,
Mobil Oil Corporation, Marathon Oil Corporation, and the
Faculty Research Fund at Western Michigan University for
financial assistance in this cooperative work and the Universi-
ties of Córdoba and San Luis for logistical support. We
acknowledge the very helpful discussions of various aspects of
this work with María Sánchez, David Rivarola, Roberto
Martino, Blaine Hall, Art Slingsby, Hayden Tanner, Carlos
Barcat, and Steve Derksen. Francisco Quintana provided a
photogeologic interpretation of the Capilla del Monte area that
greatly helped our interpretation. We are especially grateful for
the helpful advice and able field assistance of Bruce Malamud
and Gustavo Zulliger. Schmidt would like to thank Teresa
Jordan and Richard Allmendinger for their help in getting him
started with work in the Pampean ranges. Analysis of fault-slip
data was facilitated with software (Fault-kin, version 3.25)
written and provided by R. W, Allmendinger, R. A. Marrett
and T. Cladouhos. We also used Stereonet, version 4.5, by
Allmendinger to plot foliation data. Tony Tankard, Craig
Knutson, Teresa Jordan, and Art Slingsby provided helpful
editorial comments and reviews. Some of the figures were
prepared by Bob Havira, Bill Lozier, and Matt Malin. Bev
Britt, Lisa Choiniere, and Robbie Zenero typed most of the
manuscript.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Christopher J. Schmidt
Department of Geology
Rood Hall, Room 1187
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan, 49008-5150
U.S.A.
R. A. Astini
P. E. Kraemer
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba
Avda. Vélez Sársfield 299
5000 Córdoba
Argentina
C. H. Costa
C. E. Gardini
Departamento de Geología
Universidad Nacional de San Luis
5700 San Luis
Argentina
 Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the
Cuyo Basin of Argentina

Daniel Dellapé Andrés Hegedus

Astra C.A.P.S.A. Enterra Oil Field Rental
Buenos Aires, Argentina Neuquen, Argentina

Abstract

M ost of the hydrocarbon reserves in the Cuyo basin are contained in 15 oil fields that are mainly struc-
turally controlled. They include several pools in the 40 million m3 range. Tectonic analysis based on
seismic data tied to well control suggests that most closures relate to folds and reverse faults that are geneti-
cally associated with an earlier extensional fault system that developed during the early Mesozoic collapse of a
late Paleozoic orogenic belt. Reconstruction of the source rock (Middle Triassic Cacheuta Formation) and
reservoir paleogeography (Triassic–Tertiary Potrerillos, Río Blanco, Barrancas, and Papagayos formations)
indicates that synsedimentary extension and differential subsidence were key factors that induced an irregular
distribution of organic-rich strata and porosity development.
Cenozoic contraction linked to Andean orogenesis inverted the Triassic half-grabens and created structural
closures. This resulted in local reservoir enhancement and access to effective charge after late Cenozoic
regional migration. Prospective closures consist of elongate, irregularly spaced to en echelon anticlines and
plunging noses. Axial surfaces display eastward or westward vergence, and shallow folds are replaced at
depth by faulted structures (e.g., Tupungato, Barrancas, La Ventana, and Río Tunuyán fields).
The roots of the structural highs involve stratigraphic depocenters and high-angle faults that show normal
separation at depth and reverse separation at intermediate levels (e.g., Vizcacheras field). The amount of
inversion decreases from west to east, and in the most deformed areas, the cores of the folds were penetrated
by faulting and popped up structures shaped as bivergent thrust wedges bounded by master faults and
converging back-thrusts.

Resumen

L a mayor parte de las reservas de hidrocarburos de la Cuenca Cuyana se encuentran alojadas en 15

campos petrolíferos controlados por trampas de tipo estructural. Estos yacimientos incluyen varias
acumulaciones en el orden de los 40 millones m3. Estudios tectónicos basado en el análisis de secciones
sísmicas calibradas mediante perfiles de pozo, sugieren que la mayor parte de los cierres se relaciona con
pliegues y fallas extensionales, que se desarrolló durante el colapso eo-Mesozoico de un cinturón orogénico del
Paleozoico Tardío. Reconstrucciones de la paleogeografía correspondiente a los intervalos que contienen a la
roca madre (Formación Cacheuta, meso-Triásica) y a los reservorios (Formaciones Potrerillos, Río Blanco,
Barrancas, y Papagayos del Tiásico-Terciario), señalan que los fenómenos de subsidencia diferencial y
extensión sinsedimentaria fueron instrumentales para producir una distribución irregular de los estratos ricos
en materia orgoánica y de los desarrollos porosos.
Procesos de compresión neocenozoica ligados a la orogénesis de los Andes provocaron la inversión de los
hemigrábenes mesozoicos, dando lugar a cierres estructurales y a vías de migración que proveyeron una
efectiva carga de hidrocarburos cuando el petróleo migró en el Cenozoico más tardío. Los cierres prospectivos
se presentan como anticlinales alargados y narices buzantes, con un espaciamiento irregular y arreglo en-
echelón. Las superficies axiales muestran vergencia oriental y occidental, y las estructuras someras de tipo
pliegue son reemplazadas en profundidad por configuraciones falladas (ej. Yacimientos Tupungato, Barrancas,
La Ventana y Río Tunuyán). Las raíces de los altos estructurales involucran zonas de espesamiento de la serie
triásica, y fallas de alto ángulo que muestran separación normal en profundidad y separación inversa a niveles
intermedios (ej. Yacimiento Vizcacheras). La magnitud de la inversión decrece de oeste a este, y en la mayor
parte de las áreas deformadas, los núcleos de los pliegues se han visto penetradas por las fallas y por estruc-
turas de tipo “pop-up”, que tienen forma de cuña limitada por las fallas maestras y por zonas de retrocabal-
gamiento.

Dellapé, D., and A. Hegedus, 1995, Structural inversion and oil occurrence in the Cuyo 359
basin of Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of
South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 359–367.
360 Dellapé and Hegedus
INTRODUCTION
The Triassic–Tertiary Cuyo basin, which covers an
area of about 30,000 km 2 in the northern Mendoza
Province, underlies a lowland segment of the Argentine
foreland. It is located between the mountains of the pre-
Cordillera and the elevated crystalline blocks of the
Pampean Ranges. Exploration activity during the past 50
years has delineated 15 major oil fields in the basin.
These fields are predominantly structurally controlled.
They are mostly half-anticlines, doubly plunging anti-
clines, and noses arranged in an en echelon pattern
defining three main trends (Figure 1) (Criado Roqué et
al., 1960; Turic et al., 1981; Pombo, 1986).
Although faults associated with the closures are
believed to play a significant trapping role, there is no
general agreement on the deep configuration of the
dominant structural style. The traditional interpretation
(e.g., Padula, 1972) is that the productive structures are
large basement blocks bounded by eastward-verging
Figure 1—Structural framework
of the Cuyo basin, showing the
main productive structures and
regional faults. Inset (a) shows
the configuration in latest
Cretaceous–early Tertiary time;
inset (b) shows a reconstruc-
tion at the end of Cenozoic
time.
high-angle faults. Most recent work, supported by better
seismic coverage (e.g., Turic et al., 1981; Pombo, 1986),
attributes the structures to medium- or low-angle faults
involving basement. According to this model, the
dominant faulting is reverse and eastward verging and
probably associated with antithetic thrusts and conjugate
transverse faults involving strike-slip offsets. A more
recent hypothesis (Legarreta et al., 1993) emphasizes
changes in structural polarity and the presence of relay
transfers along the master faults. On this basis, some of
the oil-bearing structures are attributed to inversion of
Triassic extensional faults.
After examining the influence of structural style on
hydrocarbon occurrence, we review some examples in
which the relationships between stratigraphy and
structure are clear. Our aim is to develop a model that
will support more effective exploration and production
activity in the future.
Our study area stretches from south of the city of
Mendoza to the southern part of the Cacheuta subbasin,
encompassing the area of the Cuyo basin oil fields.
 Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the Cuyo Basin of Argentina
Figure 2—Schematic cross section based on seismic lines and wells. Tectonic inversion of the western trend of productive
anticlines and half-grabens is shown. See Figure 1 for location.
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
Underlying the oil-bearing Mesozoic deposits are
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that have been overprinted
by medium- to low-grade metamorphism, referred to as
the Villavicencio Formation (Harrington, 1941), and the
volcanic and pyroclastic outpourings of the Choiyoi
Group (Rolleri and Criado Roque, 1968). The latter unit is
closely related to basal members of the Triassic succes-
sion (Kokogian and Mansilla, 1989).
The Triassic rocks were deposited unconformably on
the Paleozoic substratum. They are genetically related to
an episode of rifting that induced block rotation and fault-
controlled subsidence. During the early depositional
phase, the sediments were restricted to a series of
partially isolated depressions known as the “Superse-
cuencia Inferior” (Kokogian and Mansilla, 1989). In
proximal positions, the rocks are represented by agglom-
erates and conglomerates (Río Mendoza Formation) that
were deposited in alluvial fan systems. In more distal
locations and in younger deposits, the coarse alluvial fan
facies are replaced by finer sediments laid down in fluvial
and lacustrine depositional systems (Las Cabras
Formation). Regional deposition was initially controlled
by fault-driven subsidence linked to rifting, followed by a
period of regional subsidence attributed to thermal decay.
The upper part of the local Mesozoic succession is
known as the “Supersecuencia Superior” (Kokogian and
Mansilla, 1989) and comprises the Potrerillos, Cacheuta,
Río Blanco, and Barrancas formations. These units
represent the rift to sag transition and the regional postrift
sag period itself. They consist of fluvial, deltaic, and lacus-
trine deposits (Kokogian and Mansilla, 1989) that were
361
laid down at a stage when differential subsidence was
important and allowed development of a widespread
depocenter. Thick sedimentary columns accumulated
locally. This depositional pattern had particular signifi-
cance for the distribution of organic-rich lacustrine facies
in the Cacheuta Formation and for the distribution of
reservoir quality sandstones of the Potrerillos, Río Blanco,
and Barrancas formations (Figure 2).
During the sag stage of subsidence, volcanic activity
was sporadic. During the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous,
the Punta de las Bardas Formation, a series of olivine
basalt flows, was extruded (Rolleri and Criado Roque,
1968). By Miocene–Pliocene time, depositional rates had
increased considerably and a 1500- to 2200-m-thick
nonmarine succession was deposited. This sequence
includes fine-grained deposits, sandstones, conglomeratic
sandstones, conglomerates, and tuff interbeds known as
the Mariño, La Pilona, Tobas Grises, and Mogotes forma-
tions. Subsidence patterns during the late Cenozoic are
attributed to tectonic loading linked to encroachment and
uplift of the Precordilleran fold and thrust belt and a
foreland dissected by the Pampean Ranges.
STRUCTURAL STYLES AND HISTORY
OF DEFORMATION
The study area is dominated by an irregularly spaced
series of well-defined elongate anticlines. They are locally
broken by reverse faults that have axial planes
displaying eastward or westward vergence. Legarreta et
al. (1993) have suggested that the principal structural
362 Dellapé and Hegedus
Figure 3—Schematic cross section showing initiation of tectonic inversion. The sedimentary wedges are not well developed.
See Figure 1 for location.
features began to develop at the same time as initiation
of Triassic extension. The present-day structures were
outlined after Cenozoic Andean tectonism.
Anticlinal closures are aligned along three north-
northwest striking structural trends (Figure 1). The
western series of folds includes culminations at
Cacheuta, La Pilona, Estructura Intermedia, Tupungato,
Piedras Coloradas, Chañares Herrados, and Alto Verde.
The central trend includes the following structures: Cruz
de Piedra, Lunlunta, Barrancas, Carrizal, Río Tunuyán,
La Ventana, Vacas Muertas, Punta de las Bardas, and El
Quemado. The eastern trend is more subdued both at the
surface and in the subsurface and comprises the
Rivadavia, Zampal, and Vizcacheras structures.
The individual culminations are connected through a
series of structural saddles. All of them show asymmetric
cross sections, with steeper flanks commonly linked to
conspicuous reverse faults. Seismic control demonstrates
that shallow folded configurations at Tertiary and upper
Mesozoic levels are replaced at depth by less obviously
folded strata displaying a series of differentially
displaced and rotated fault block geometries (Figures 3,
4). These contrasting architectures are associated with
stratigraphic intervals that have laterally varying thick-
nesses. They are ultimately linked to a deformational
history that superimposed contractional strain on an
older extensionally induced basement fabric.
Because the Tertiary succession is piled up without
marked angular unconformities and because Pliocene
strata of the Mogotes Formation are involved in the
shallow folding, the period of contractional deformation
is attributed to a fairly young age (Padula, 1972; Jordan
and Ortíz, 1987).
Seismic sections across the northern part of the Cuyo
basin show definite evidence of asymmetric extensional
structures during sedimentation of the Middle and
Upper Triassic sequences. A series of master faults
induced sedimentary thickening into half-graben type
tectonic depressions (Figures 3, 4, 5). The deformation
sequence involves three stages: (1) extension, block
rotation, and half-graben fill; (2) regional sag and differ-
ential subsidence; and (3) compression and inversion.
Extension, Block Rotation, and
Half-Graben Fill
During this episode from about 245 to 232 Ma,
interval A–B was deposited (Figures 3, 4, 5). Geodynamic
control is attributed to extensional collapse of a late
Paleozoic orogen developed after intracratonic compres-
sional deformation and crustal thickening near the
margin of the Gondwana supercontinent (Mpodozis and
Kay, 1990; Legarreta et al., 1993). The extensional episode
is recorded in the suite of listric and planar faults.
 Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the Cuyo Basin of Argentina
Figure 4—Schematic stratigraphic section showing distribution of sedimentary units and sequence boundaries. Not to scale.
(Courtesy of L. Legarreta.)
Fault throws are locally as much as 3500–4000 m.
They resulted in substantial Middle Triassic depocenters
at Tupungato and Piedras Coloradas and also near
Vizcacheras, Zampal, and Rivadavia (Figure 1). The
distribution of these depocenters is coincident with the
eastern and western structural trends. The central trend
developed around a paleotopographic high that
coincided with a transfer zone linking the opposed half-
graben systems. Location above the paleohigh is
reflected in attenuated development of the entire Triassic
succession.
Regional Sag and Differential Subsidence
Interval C–D (Figures 3, 4, 5), deposited from about
232 to 25 Ma, records gradual reduction of rifting and
progressive increase of regional subsidence. The Jurassic,
Cretaceous, and early Tertiary sequences (Barrancas,
Punta de las Bardas, and Divisadero Largo formations)
appear to be only locally displaced by extensional
faulting and display a more regular thickness trend.
However, regional isopach mapping and seismic control
(Figures 3, 4) indicate that the hanging wall sides of the
half-graben troughs suffered a comparatively higher
subsidence rate during the latest Triassic and
Jurassic–Paleogene periods. A 3000-m-thick succession at
Tupungato, for example, correlates with a 500-m-thick
section at Río Tunuyán and with a 1000-m-thick succes-
sion at Vizcacheras (Figure 5).
The effect of differential subsidence is also demon-
strated by the facies patterns within each genetic
interval. Local concentrations of sandstones deposited
by successive fluvial systems are usually coincident with
originally low paleopositions, and shales with high
paleopositions.
363
Compression and Inversion
During the latest Cenozoic, compressional stresses
related to Andean orogenesis induced tectonic inversion
and differential uplift of some of the principal Triassic
depocenters, thus forming structural culminations.
Depositional troughs adjacent to the principal basin-
forming faults became structural highs due to east-west
contraction and lateral slip. Anticlinal culminations were
thus forced on top of former depocenters (see Williams et
al., 1989).
The seismic control shows that some positive struc-
tural features such as Tupungato, Piedras Coloradas, and
Vizcacheras are developed above an unusually thick
Triassic succession. As a result of the inversion process
(see Bally, 1984; Biddle and Rudolph, 1988; Williams et
al., 1989), originally low blocks have turned into positive
features. Typically the roots of the structural highs
involve an expanded stratigraphic succession, and the
former high-angle master faults show reverse separation
at intermediate stratigraphic levels and fade out into the
younger stratigraphic units.
Several examples of inverted half-graben and graben
structures are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. Several of
these structures show opposing polarities. Those located
to the west along the western productive trend involve
faults dipping to the east beneath thick Triassic deposits.
Those along the eastern structural trend behave as a
mirror image with a sedimentary prism to the east
adjacent to the master faults (Figure 3).
The area along the central structural trend shows
small inverted half-grabens verging in an eastward or
westward direction, depending on their original location
on the former regional high. The area is characterized by
a thin, lower Mesozoic stratigraphic sequence that is
364 Dellapé and Hegedus

(a)

(b)

Figure 5—(a) Interpreted seismic section and (b) geologic cross section in an west-east orientation. Note the tectonic
inversion in the western part. Numbers on contacts are ages (in Ma). Symbols as in Figure 4.
 Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the Cuyo Basin of Argentina
interpreted as a transfer zone between half-graben
systems rotated in opposite directions.
The magnitude of inversion changes laterally and
shows variable expression at successive stratigraphic
levels. Therefore, it is possible for the inversion to be
inconspicuous at basement level while significant defor-
mation of strata is present at the base of the Tertiary. This
implies that the post-Triassic and Tertiary successions
were deformed due to folding while the basement
reacted rigidly and lacked noticeable arching. In those
zones where inversion was milder, the sag stage Creta-
ceous deposits were locally shortened and flexed
without faulting (Figure 3). At more advanced stages of
deformation, the cores of the folds were penetrated by
faulting and developed “pop-up” wedges flanked by
downward-convergent reverse faults that are believed to
reflect inverted antithetic and second-order synthetic
accommodation faulting.
Some of the master faults that were reactivated as
reverse faults are linked to zones of antithetic deforma-
tion interpreted as converging back-thrusts. These faults
play an important role in some of the oil-bearing struc-
tures, which locally has a direct effect on hydrocarbon
trapping. The presence and degree of development of
these structures depends on the magnitude of the local
compressional stresses. The most common structural
traps are related to arching at shallow levels, while a
reduced magnitude of fold-related closure is more
common at depth. At greater depths, blocks that
preserve noninverted normal offsets are largely unex-
plored, but appear to be affected by burial depth and
deteriorated reservoir quality.
STRUCTURAL STYLES IN THE
VIZCACHERAS BLOCK
In spite of its condensed sedimentary development,
the stratigraphy of the Vizcacheras block records all of
the depositional events documented in the thicker
sections to the west. One similarity is the thick sandstone
sections deposited in depressions (Figure 3) during the
thermal sag stage (Barrancas and Papagayos formations).
An analysis of seismic sections and well control demon-
strates significant variations in fault activity.
Normal Faults
Normal faults formed boundaries for early Mesozoic
depocenters. The oldest Triassic sequences were
deposited on the downthrown side of the faults, while
the upturned flanks of the blocks remained above depo-
sitional base level. These normal faults have dip separa-
tions on the order of 1000 m.
Differential block faulting was active during depo-
sition of the Late Triassic and younger Mesozoic
sequences. Displacement rates were subdued but still
sufficient to induce lateral changes in facies and in thick-
nesses. An essentially parallel set of seismic reflections
365
within the 2000-m-thick Tertiary succession demon-
strates that normal faulting was not active during the
Cenozoic.
Well data and geologic analysis of the seismic sections
support the interpretation shown in Figure 3, which
shows a general east–west thinning and locally thick
Triassic sections due to normal fault offsets. Near the
structural culminations, the Triassic succession thins and
is devoid of reservoir quality sandstones.
Inverted Normal Faults
Inception of the compressional stress field associated
with Andean orogenesis is reflected in reverse reactiva-
tion of the inherited normal master faults (Figure 3).
Seismic images of intermediate and young stratigraphic
horizons demonstrate reverse separations. The newly
developed structural fabric includes back-thrusting along
antithetic faults, block arching, and general uplift of the
area that hosts the Vizcacheras oil pool.
Due to its location distant from the mountain front,
the Vizcacheras block suffered only relatively moderate
compressional stress compared to the patterns recorded
for the western trend. The local structure at Vizcacheras
shows only a modest amount of inversion. The present
structural culmination reflects close proximity to mildly
inverted antithetic faults and dips toward a structural
low on the hanging wall side of the original half-graben.
The present trapping configuration is believed to be an
inverted rollover feature.
EFFECT OF FAULTING ON THE
HABITAT OF OIL
Syndepositional faulting was not only an important
factor controlling the structural evolution and final
geometric configuration of many hydrocarbon traps, it
also exerted a considerable influence on source rock and
reservoir distribution in the Cuyo basin.
Source Rock Distribution
The persistence of lacustrine systems throughout
Triassic deposition favored organic productivity and
preservation. The main source rock interval of the Cuyo
basin is in the Cacheuta Formation. Thinner and less
organic-rich members also occur in the Las Cabras,
Potrerillos, and Río Blanco formations. The area near La
Pilona, Tupungato, Piedras Coloradas, and Chañares
Herrados represents the best hydrocarbon “kitchen” in
the basin because of its thick, organic-rich shales and
adequate thermal history (Chebli et al., 1984; Jordan and
Ortíz, 1987). The region near Vizcacheras and Rivadavia
is less favorable because of its reduced thickness and less
than optimum level of organic maturity.
Comparison of lithofacies distributions and faulting
patterns shows that listric faulting created depositories
adjacent to the fault plain that supported preservation of
366 Dellapé and Hegedus
lacustrine facies under euxinic bottom conditions.
During lacustrine highstands, clastic influx was reduced
and persistent organic sedimentation occurred on the
downthrown sides of the half-grabens. Burial under a
thick Cenozoic succession matured the lacustrine shales
and charged the Mesozoic reservoirs (Chebli et al., 1984;
Jordan and Ortíz, 1987; Rosso et al., 1987).
Reservoir Development
Commercial oil pools in the Cuyo basin are contained
mostly in the sandstone reservoirs deposited by fluvial
systems. Stratigraphic reconstructions suggest the
existence of a drainage network dominated by major
distributories running parallel to the half-graben axes.
Lateral drainage was less important in providing
reservoir quality sandstones. Locations near paleohighs
commonly caused preservation of a condensed strati-
graphic sequence and distribution of poor quality sand-
stones.
Suspended load sedimentation, attributed to
overbank flooding at extreme base level highstands,
dominated the margins of synsedimentary depressions.
Reservoir quality is severely reduced or nonexistent
along the margins of the half-grabens where the
Mesozoic succession is thinner. This type of depositional
pattern is recorded within the Potrerillos, Río Blanco,
Barrancas, and Papagayos formations, the main produc-
tive intervals in the area.
Trapping
Our observations of seismic sections indicate that the
oil-bearing traps are linked in variable degrees to the
principal or secondary listric normal faults that
controlled depositional thickening. In particular, the
original fabric comprising a suite of linked extensional
faults played a critical role in guiding stress during
inversion at a time when the faults acquired reverse
separation and most of the structural closures were
formed.
Productive structures are thus related to the inversion
processes that produced the structural culminations and
plunging noses, combined with basin blocks having
favorable stratigraphy, such as reservoirs with access to
source rocks. This occurs at Tupungato, Piedras Colo-
radas, and Chañares Herrados fields (Figure 5).
Closures at several fields appear to be related to the
transfer offsets of antithetic fault systems enhanced by
stratigraphic condensation and reservoir pinchouts along
the flanks of older half-grabens (e.g., Vizcacheras). Some
of the pools are associated with structural culminations
produced by transfer zones that connect grabens with
opposing polarities. In those positions, the traps coincide
with wedges bounded by reverse faults (“pop-up” struc-
tures). Because these features developed by reactivation
of structures that were already elevated, reservoir devel-
opment was restricted to a few specific intervals
(Barrancas, La Ventana, and Vacas Muertas fields).
Hydrocarbon Recovery
Petroleum generation in the basin is a comparatively
recent process, suggesting that some of the master faults
may have acted as conduits for hydrocarbon migration.
For many years it was believed that zones producing at
commercial rates were naturally fractured reservoirs,
such as the Río Blanco pools in Tupungato, Piedras
Coloradas, and Chañares Herrados fields. These fields
have produced oil for nearly 50 years. However, full-
diameter core studies and considerable horizontal
drilling have demonstrated a negligible amount of frac-
turing in oil-productive zones. Besides the presence of
sandstones, the most important factor controlling reser-
voir quality is the magnitude of diagenetic overprint.
CONCLUSIONS
Observations of the structural and stratigraphic char-
acteristics of several fields in the Cuyo basin indicate that
reverse faults that are prominent in the present structural
configuration are genetically related to a system of linked
extensional faults (see Gibbs, 1988) dominated by half-
grabens and transfer zones. Mesozoic extensional
faulting resulted in differential subsidence that accom-
modated a 4000-m-thick clastic wedge. This tectonic
environment affected the distributions of both source
rocks and reservoir rocks.
Cenozoic inversion of this preexisting extensional
fabric produced asymmetric structures that were
dissected by antithetic flank faults (back-thrusts) and that
provided well-defined structural closures. The structural
culminations in the productive trends show east- and
west-vergent axial planes. Many seismic sections show
that folds at shallow and intermediate depths are seated
above deeper faulted structures of the previous exten-
sional block architecture. Several anticlinal cores involve
thicker successions than those occurring along their
flanks.
During the latest Cenozoic, at the climax of Andean
orogenesis, the Mesozoic extensional structures were
comprehensively inverted and the structural traps
developed to their present configurations. These anti-
clines and structural noses have the capacity to reservoir
oil volumes in the range of 200 million m3.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge Astra
C.A.P.S.A. and Enterra Oil Field Rental for release of data.
Raul Genovesi drafted the illustrations, and Fiona Shakespear
helped with the English translation. Critical reviews by Miguel
Uliana and editorial work by Tony Tankard and Herman
Welsink substantially improved the paper for publication.
 Structural Inversion and Oil Occurrence in the Cuyo Basin of Argentina
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Daniel Dellapé
Astra C.A.P.S.A.
Tucumán 744
1049 Buenos Aires
Argentina
Andrés Hegedus
Enterra Oil Field Rental
Ruta 22 entre calles Caracas y Lima
Colonia Valentina
8300 Neuquén
Argentina
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift in the
Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina

René Manceda Daniel Figueroa

Area Exploración Neuquén, YPF S.A. Proyectos Exploratorios. YPF S.A.
Neuquén, Argentina Buenos Aires, Argentina

Abstract

T he Malargüe fold and thrust belt formed by Mesozoic rift inversion during Tertiary compressional
orogeny. Mesozoic extension created the Neuquén basin in west-central Argentina and controlled most
structural styles and the geometry of the fold and thrust belt, which is characterized by basement-cored oppo-
sitely verging structures. Subsidence curves and palinspastically restored isopach maps of Mesozoic sedimen-
tary fill describe a complex pattern of asymmetric half-grabens bounded by major faults of opposite polarity
and accommodation zones related to a rift phase during Late Triassic–Early Jurassic time, as well as Middle
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous postrift regional subsidence. Balanced cross sections show the relationship between
preexisting extensional fabrics and contractional basement-involved thrusts and back-thrust structures that
generated the half-graben inversion. Overpressured shales and three evaporite levels favored formation of
duplexes, triangle zones, and detachment of the cover as a result of basement-involved shortening.

Resumen

L a Faja Fallada y Plegada de Malargüe resultó de la inversión tectónica del rift mesozoico, generada por
los movimientos compresivos terciarios. Este sistema extensional, que originó la Cuenca Neuquina en el
centro oeste de Argentina, controló en gran parte el estilo y la geometría de la faja fallada y plegada, caracteri-
zada por involucrar el basamento en el núcleo de estructuras con vergencias opuestas. El análisis del relleno
sedimentario del rift mesozoico mediante curvas de subsidencia y mapas isopáquicos palinspastizados,
permitió caracterizar depocentros relacionados con fallas maestras de polaridad cambiante, que se vinculan
mediante zonas de acomodación. Se determinó también una etapa rift durante el Triásico Superior-Jurásico
Inferior y una etapa de subsidencia termal durante el Jurásico Medio-Cretácico Inferior. La relación entre la
geometría inicial y la estructura actual de la faja fallada y plegada se muestra mediante secciones estructurales
balanceadas en las que el basamento se halla afectado por corrimientos y retrocorrimientos que inviertieron los
hemigrabenes. La presencia de niveles evaporíticos y pelitas euxínicas sobrepresionadas en cobertura favoreció
la formación de duplexes, zonas triangulares y pliegues de despegue.

INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to document the extensional

The Malargüe fold and thrust belt is that part of the
Cordillera de los Andes between the Diamante and
Barrancas rivers (Figure 1). This fold and thrust belt is the
climax of a long history of Phanerozoic geologic develop-
ment along the Pacific margin of South America,
including reactivation of old terrane boundaries to form
Paleozoic and Mesozoic basins.
architecture of the Mesozoic basin and its control on the
subsequent development of the Malargüe fold and thrust
belt. Reconstruction is based on an analysis of the
Jurassic rift fill, palinspastically restored isopach maps,
and subsidence curves. Together, these elements describe
the extensional framework of the Malargüe basin tract.
Structural cross sections contrast this rift geometry with
the results of Tertiary compression and basin inversion.

Manceda, R., and D. Figueroa, 1995, Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén rift in the 369
Malargüe fold and thrust belt, Mendoza, Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and
H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 369–382.
370 Manceda and Figueroa

Figure 1—Geologic map of the Malargüe tract of the Neuquén basin. (Adapted from Kozlowski, 1992.)
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift, Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Malargüe fold and thrust belt is a Cenozoic defor-
mational system that resulted from the interaction of
Pacific margin subduction with preexisting extensional
basin structures. The successive phases of the Andean
orogeny deformed the sedimentary fill of the Neuquén
basin, as well as older rocks such as the Permian–Triassic
Choiyoi Group. The older units were essentially precur-
sors to the Neuquén successor basin, forming a basement
to the Neuquén cover sequence (Figure 2).
Most of the Argentine Mesozoic basins are attributed
to extensional processes related to fragmentation of
Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean
(Uliana et al., 1989). There were three principal periods of
basin formation. (1) An early episode of Triassic rifting
was widespread, but was aborted without formation of
ocean basins. (2) Renewed extension in the Jurassic even-
tually culminated in continental fragmentation. (3) The
Cretaceous episode encompassed the transition to post-
rift regional subsidence, which is generally believed to
reflect thermal decay.
The Neuquén basin records all three episodes,
although Jurassic extension by reactivation of older
crustal fabrics was the most important (Ramos, 1989;
Uliana et al., 1989). Jurassic extension also records more
widespread sedimentation and volcanism, implying an
expansion of the fault-controlled Triassic framework
(Uliana et al., 1989). Reflection seismic sections and field
work in Neuquén (Gulisano, 1981; Gulisano and Pando,
1981) suggest that Jurassic extension resulted in a tract of
tilted blocks. Seismic data show that the half-grabens
subsided along boundary faults of various orientations
(Uliana et al., 1989). There have been numerous studies
of the Jurassic stratigraphy (summarized in Gulisano,
1981; Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989; Legarreta and
Uliana, 1991). Figure 2 shows the stratigraphy of the
Jurassic section.
Jurassic stratigraphy is complex because extension
created numerous depocenters that were subjected to
different rates of subsidence and sediment supply, as
well as provenance. Fault-controlled subsidence was
conspicuous in Middle Triassic–Sinemurian time, but
subsequently succumbed to a more regional pattern of
subsidence as the various depocenters were amalga-
mated (Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989; Legarreta and
Uliana, 1991). Nevertheless, an irregular topography
persisted, especially adjacent to the principal faults,
where it influenced the distribution of the Jurassic
megasequences. Although the early horst and graben
topography of the Neuquén basin reflects extensional
processes (Digregorio et al., 1984; Uliana et al., 1989), the
detailed structural framework is poorly understood.
METHODOLOGY
In an attempt to reconstruct the initial geometry of the
basin, we have analyzed 131 petroleum exploration wells
that were drilled through the Chacay-Lotena groups and
locally encountered pre-Cuyo geology. Also integrated
371
were 20 outcrop sections, mostly measured by YPF geol-
ogists. All surface and subsurface data were palinspasti-
cally restored. The restored Jurassic isopach maps
describe the original extensional geometry of the
Neuquén basin. This interpretation was tested by subsi-
dence curves using the Bond–Kominz method (1984).
Bond and Kominz include porosity and cementation
changes in their calculation of the uncompacted
thickness. We have derived porosities from well logs and
thicknesses from detailed outcrop sections. Relative sea
level changes and ages were inferred from Haq et al.
(1988). This rigorous approach avoids overestimation of
the uncompacted initial thicknesses (Figure 3).
EVOLUTION OF MALARGÜE BASINS
This paper focuses on the rift basins and their patterns
of subsidence in La Valenciana area (Figure 1), using
curves that discriminate between total and tectonic subsi-
dence (Figure 3). Each half-graben was analyzed inde-
pendently.
The Jurásico cycle spans Hettangian–earliest Kimmer-
idgian time (Figure 2). Internally, it consists of intermit-
tent rift sedimentation and an upper part attributed to
thermal decay of the rift system. The tectonic subsidence
curve (Figure 3) summarizes this history. Vigorous
rifting is reflected in the coarse-grained Remoredo and
lower El Freno formations. Fault-controlled subsidence
gradually diminished so that the upper El Freno and
Puesto Araya formations are distinctly finer grained.
During the late Toarcian, the rift-partitioned basin was
amalgamated into a broad epeiric sag. This new phase of
regional subsidence persisted until the Callovian when
there was a reversal in the trend of subsidence, as
evidenced by the intra-Callovian unconformity (Dellapé
et al., 1979). Initially, limestones and evaporites were
deposited on a stable platform. The end of the Oxfordian
was marked by a major diastrophism event called the
Araucanian phase (Stipanicic and Rodrigo, 1970). An
intra-Malmic unconformity is related to development of
the adjacent magmatic arc. A relative fall of sea level is
reflected in uplift and erosion of marginal areas and
development of nonmarine depositional environments
(Riccardi and Gulisano, 1990). In post-Araucanian time
(Kimmeridgian–Early Cretaceous), the basin resumed its
pattern of regional subsidence. The reversal of the subsi-
dence trend in Albanian–Campanian time is attributed to
flexural deformation in response to thrust belt loading
(Ramos, 1988) or upper crustal emplacement of
magmatic material (Legarreta and Uliana, 1991).
Vigorous rift subsidence lasted about 25 m.y., and the
thermal subsidence phase another 70 m.y. Outcrop and
subsurface data show an apparent offset of rift and
postrift depocenters, a phenomenon possibly explained
by extensional detachment theory (see Kusznir et al.,
1987). Figure 3 shows a broadscale correlation of strati-
graphic sequences with tectonic events related to styles
of subsidence or periodic inversion. Uliana et al. (1989)
show that depositional patterns were dominated by
active normal faulting until the Toarcian, in agreement
372 Manceda and Figueroa

Figure 2—Stratigraphic column of the northwestern Neuquén basin. (Adapted from Groeber, 1946; Legarreta and
Gulisano, 1989.)
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift, Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina
Figure 3—Subsidence curves of the La Valenciana half-
graben based on the Bond-Kominz back-stripping method
(Bond and Kominz, 1984). The tectonic subsidence curve
shows vigorous subsidence from 215 to 180 Ma. From 180
to 112 Ma, the subsidence gradually decreases (thermal
sedimentation).
with the tectonic subsidence curve. This rift to thermal
transition occurred in the Jurásico cycle of the lower
supersequence. Therefore, it does not fit the depositional
sequence boundaries as they are defined. However, a
broadscale subsidence model addressing the sequence
boundaries remains to be developed.
JURASSIC RIFT GEOMETRY
Palinspastically restored isopach maps of the Jurassic
succession (Figures 4, 5, 6, 7) show a suite of asymmetric
and discrete depocenters, a geometry we interpret as
half-grabens. Figures 4, 5, and 6 show this half-graben
form expressed in various isopach groupings, for
example, Jurassic succession, Cuyo Group, and pre-Cuyo
intervals. Cuyo deposition preserves a major component
of rift subsidence. Higher in the succession, Chacay-
Lotena group isopachs (Figure 7) show a rearrangement
of depocenters, such as abandonment of the Palauco
depocenter. These differences reflect rift-controlled depo-
sition of the lower Cuyo and postrift subsidence with a
strong regional signature for the upper Cuyo and
Chacay-Lotena interval.
The rates of subsidence along rift boundary faults
commonly exceed the rates of sedimentation supply,
resulting in underfilled basins and restricted marine or
lacustrine environments. In these basins, coarse deposits
stack close to the fault plain, while distal areas are more
373
Figure 4—Palinspastically restored isopach map of the
complete Jurásico cycle, based on well and surface data.
Local areas of subsidence (e.g., La Valenciana-Atuel,
Palauco, and Chacay Melehue half-grabens) are separated
by intervening highs (e.g., Dedos-Silla, Bardas Blancas,
and Río Grande valley). Locations of cross sections A–E
(in Figures 10–14) are shown. Contour interval is 100 m.
argillaceous or carbonate dominated (Leeder and
Gawthorpe, 1987; Blair and Bilodeau, 1988). These char-
acteristics of basin geometry and sediment distribution
allow us to interpret the Malargüe basins on the basis of
well control. (Subsequent Andean deformation makes
the seismic expression of basin form even more tenuous.)
Wedge-shaped sedimentary packages and shallowing
toward roll-overs (culminations) and accommodation
zones are observed.
The isopach maps, subsidence curves, and strati-
graphic information together characterize the Jurassic
basin as follows:
• There were separate phases of rift and postrift
subsidence, each of which subsided intermittently.
• Half-grabens are of various sizes, and isopach
maps suggest changes in polarity of the principal
374 Manceda and Figueroa
Figure 5—Palinspastically restored isopach map of the
Cuyo Group, which mimics the previous structural relief.
Contour interval is 100 m.
basin-forming faults.
• The basins are separated by intervening highs.
• There is a marked lateral variation in the distribu-
tion of sedimentary facies with euxinic facies
adjacent to boundary faults.
• Sedimentation started at different times in different
basins, a characteristic also recorded by Groeber et
al. (1953) and Gulisano (1981). In the Atuel River
area, the Cuyo Group began in the Hettangian
(Riccardi et al., 1988). In contrast, in the Bardas
Blancas area, sedimentation began during the late
Toarcian (Gulisano, 1981), while in the Neuquén
province, the oldest sediments in the Cuyo Group
are Pliensbachian in age (Gulisano and Gutierrez
Pleiming, 1984).
We believe that the apparent offsets of rift and postrift
depocenters and the along-strike variation in initiation of
rift subsidence are best explained by an intracrustal
Figure 6—Palinspastically restored isopach map of the
Cuyo Group and pre-Cuyo stratigraphy. These two
intervals combined accentuate the structural geometry of
the basins. Contour interval is 100 m.
detachment model (see Wernicke, 1985; Kusznir et al.,
1987). However, we have no direct evidence for such a
detachment.
The Atuel-Valenciana half-graben (Figures 4, 8, 9) has a
westward-facing polarity, a Jurassic succession thickness
greater than 2000 m, and an area of 9000 km2. This may,
in fact, be a composite feature with more than one half-
graben; there may be one in the Atuel area and another
in the La Valenciana area, with a transfer zone between
them. However, the data are ambiguous. Cuyo sedimen-
tary rocks are as old as Hettangian (Riccardi et al., 1988).
Deep water facies outcrop toward the east. These
deposits thin westward toward Portezuelo Ancho where
they are no older than Sinemurian (Groeber et al., 1953).
The Palauco half-graben (Figures 4, 8, 9) is interpreted
from exploration wells. A thick clastic and volcanic
succession of Lias age (Papú and Zavattieri, 1989) is
mapped. The position of the depocenter and the steepest
slopes of the isopachs along the western border imply an
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift, Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina
Figure 7—Palinspastically restored isopach map of the
Chacay-Lotena Group. Amalgamation of depocenters and
a regional pattern of subsidence are apparent. We attribute
this to postrift processes. Contour interval is 100 m.
east-facing polarity of the main fault. Small depocenters
occur toward eastern Palauco (Figure 14), with similar
geometric characteristics. The thickness of the Palauco
half-graben fill exceeds 1200 m; its area is about 1800 km2.
The Chacay Melehue half-graben (Figures 4, 9) is inter-
preted from a smaller data base. Nevertheless, Groeber et
al. (1953) and Gulisano and Gutierrez Pleiming (1984)
have documented great thicknesses of sedimentary
successions in this area, while toward the east in the
Sierra Reyes, a transition from deep water to platform
Cuyo facies occurs (Gulisano, 1981). We infer an
eastward-facing polarity for the basin-forming listric
normal fault. The depocenter continues toward the
south, where it is more than 2000 m thick and has a
preserved area of 12,000 km2.
In extensional settings, basement highs are formed by
structural relief of normal extensional fault systems, as
well as the transverse components of accommodation
375
zones and transfer faults. Both trends affect the distribu-
tion and thickness of sedimentary facies. In the
Malargüe area, north-south trends are observed (e.g.,
Dedos-Silla area) with condensed sequences (Davidson
and Vicente, 1972). Legarreta and Kozlowski (1984)
observed similar trends in the Andico and Riograndico
cycles. We associate these sequences with roll-over
structures (Figures 4, 8).
The Bardas Blancas accommodation zone (Figures 4,
8, 9) is a composite feature consisting of a conjugate
divergent overlapping transfer zone between the Atuel-
Valenciana and Palauco half-grabens and a conjugate
convergent approaching transfer zone between the
Atuel-Valenciana and Chacay Melehue half-grabens
(Figures 8, 9) (see Scott and Rosendahl, 1989; Morley et
al., 1990). The Rio Grande valley high (Figures 4, 9)
(Kozlowski, 1992) straddles a synthetic collateral transfer
zone between the Chacay Melehue and Palauco troughs.
RELATIONSHIP OF TERTIARY
FOLDING TO JURASSIC EXTENSIONAL
STRUCTURES
Five balanced cross sections for the Malargüe fold and
thrust belt were prepared using surface data, reflection
seismic data, and exploration wells. The sections were
selected to show the present relationship between half-
grabens and Tertiary deformational relief (Figures 1, 4).
Atuel-Valenciana Cross Sections
Balanced cross sections A, B, and C from the Dia-
mante, Salado, and Malargüe rivers areas (Figures 10, 11,
12) show that the faults involving the basement in defor-
mation have planes dipping to the west, thus generating
foreland structures with steep to overturned beds in the
forward limb. These large-scale structures resulted from
fault-propagation folding and fault-bend folding.
Deformation structures developed in the Jurassic
units west of the Diamante River (Figure 10), in the Los
Blancos area (Figure 11), and in the La Valenciana area
(Figure 12) display a vergence to the foreland, coin-
ciding with the initial rift geometry. South of the Atuel
River, this shortening has resulted in triangle zones.
These triangle zones involve Mendoza Group and
younger units as well, showing a displacement of the tip
line to the east and generating back-thrusts and passive
roof duplexes. These are observed in the Salado River
cross section (Figure 11) to the east of Cañada Ancha, in
the Puesto Rojas–Cerro Mollar area (Figure 1) (Plos-
zkiewicz, 1987), and in the Malargüe River cross section
(Figure 12). The surface expression of these triangle
zones is a strongly deformed narrow belt of evaporites
of the Huitrín Formation (Ploszkiewicz and Gorroño,
1988).
Detachment folds are observed in the Salado River
cross section (Figure 11) between the Las Leñas Valley
and Los Molles.
376 Manceda and Figueroa

Figure 8—Isometric block

diagram of half-grabens
and highs based on
complete Jurásico cycle
data.

(below)
Figure 9—Structural rela-
tionships among half-
grabens and interpretation
of the basin-forming
extensional fault system.
Generalized cross
sections show changes in
structural style along
strike and changes in
polarity of the master
faults.
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift, Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina 377

Figure 10—Cross section A, Diamante River area. The Atuel half-graben in the west is inverted, generating a complex duplex
system. The structure in the Diamante River area involves basement and reflects the southward plunge of the Cordón del
Carrizalito. See Figure 4 for location.

Figure 11—Cross section B, Salado River area. Note the detachment folding in front of the Las Leñas anticline and the
triangle zones east of the Los Blancos anticline. (Cañada Ancha zone was adapted from Condat et al., 1989.) See Figure 4 for
location.
378 Manceda and Figueroa
Figure 12—Cross section C, Malargüe River area. La Valenciana anticline is formed by inversion of the Jurassic depocenter,
producing a triangle zone at its edge. The presence of back-thrusts in the Tricolor hill are believed to be subordinate to the
main deformation; it verges toward the foreland. See Figure 4 for location.
Accommodation Zone Cross Section
Similar characteristics of deformation affected the
basement-cored accommodation zones with a duplex
verging toward the foreland in Bardas Blancas (Manceda
et al., 1990, 1992) and fault-bend folding in La Batra,
where it is associated with a southward plunge of the
Malargüe anticline (cross section D, Figure 13).
In contrast, the Portezuelo del Viento structure and La
Zeta and La Guanaca faults (Figure 13) as well as the
subsurface Los Cerrillos structure verge in the opposite
direction. These structures are not associated with
inversion tectonics, nor are they related to a Jurassic
depocenter. Instead, they appear to reflect adjustment to
fold and thrust belt deformation.
The sedimentary cover, which drapes a thin Jurassic
succession along the accommodation sidewall, has
developed duplexes similar to the belt found between
the Campanario Mountain and Portezuelo del Viento
and the triangle zone of Bardas Blancas (Plozkiewicz,
1987; Manceda et al., 1990).
Palauco Rift Cross Section
Structural inversion is conspicuous in the Palauco
half-graben where Tertiary compressional tectonics have
reactivated the basin-forming listric normal faults in a
reverse sense. Both the Jurassic fill and the basement
have been compressed and elevated (cross section E,
Figure 14). The asymmetry of the structures toward the
west is based on abundant well control. A significant
characteristic of the Palauco structure is that only the
low-angle listric normal fault has been reactivated, while
the high-angle component has not been affected. Conse-
quently, the hanging wall of the back-thrust involves
basement. Hayward and Graham (1989) have described
these characteristics as a shortcut fault. Toward the east,
the available data suggest that the inverted faults have
rooted in the synrift succession without generating
shortcuts (see Suppe, 1986). Asymmetry toward the
foreland forms surface topography in the Sierra de
Palauco, Ranquilco-Del Petiso, and Cerro Fortunoso
areas.
Interpretation
The cross sections show that the Atuel-Valenciana and
Palauco half-grabens were inverted by Tertiary compres-
sional tectonics, forming large-scale structures. Neverthe-
less, there are other anticlinal structures in the foldbelt,
such as Sierra Azul-Bardas Blancas, Sierra de Cara Cura,
Sierra de Reyes, and Bloque Dedos-Silla (the Dorsal del
Tordillo of Davidson and Vicente, 1972, and Legarreta
and Gulisano, 1989), that do not correspond to the
thickest Jurassic synrift deposits. These are attributed to
structural inversion of normal faults that formed the
internal structure of the half-grabens. However, these
antithetic secondary faults are difficult to map because
the database is not dense enough to record their subtle
form.
Although tenuous, the large-scale structure associated
with the Cordillera del Viento is attributed to structural
inversion of the Chacay Melehue half-graben. This has
generated a back-thrust toward the west that explains
the abrupt relationship between basement and the
synorogenic prism. To the east, the Jurassic succession
lies unconformably on the basement which at the surface
dips slightly to the east.
 Inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift, Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina 379

Figure 13—Cross section D, Rio Grande area. As cross section C, the principal deformation is toward the foreland; there are
also subordinate back-thrusts. The thickness of the Jurassic succession has decreased adjacent to the accommodation
sidewall. Contraction of the basement is absorbed in duplexes that also affect the sedimentary cover to the west. Toward the
east, deformation is expressed in triangle zones (Bardas Blancas). See Figure 4 for location.

The Rio Grande high forms the Sierra Azul anticline
and an associated structural depression to the east that is
expressed as the Río Grande valley. This depression is
confined to the west by the thrust structure and to the
east by back-thrusts of the Palauco anticline. This depres-
sion has a complex structure within the cover where
opposing vergences occurred in the late Miocene.
The sudden changes in vergence and structural styles
that were controlled by the Jurassic rift infrastructure are
clearly reflected in the present north-south structural
trends. This is also true for the transfer shortening
between the Malargüe structure and the inverted
depocenter in Palauco, where vergences are opposite,
and between the Bardas Blancas structure and the
inverted depocenter of La Valenciana, where vergences
are similar.
Timing and Rate of Deformation
The Tertiary synorogenic prism is separated from
older basin fills and basement by angular unconformi-
ties. The earliest synorogenic deposits in the external part
of the foldbelt are dated as late Eocene on the basis of
Deseadense age mammals (Gorroño et al., 1979), about
39 Ma. Based on stratigraphic considerations, Uliana and
Dellapé (1981) and Legarreta and Gulisano (1989) have
suggested an early Eocene age, nearly 55 Ma, but there is
no paleontologic confirmation. This angular unconfor-
mity between the synorogenic prism and the Malargüe
Group, which is the youngest sedimentary unit of the
Riográndico cycle (Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989),
records the initiation of Malargüe deformation. Toward
the west, it is probable that older ages will be found.
The average shortening derived from balanced cross
sections is 38 km, suggesting an average rate of deforma-
tion of 0.7–0.9 mm/yr.
CONCLUSIONS
The Malargüe fold and thrust belt has been explored
for many years. Numerous hydrocarbon discoveries
have been made in deformed structures that had an
earlier history of subsidence along extensional fault
systems. This exploration database has been used to
reconstruct the history of basin subsidence and subse-
quent inversion. The principal results of this study are as
follows:
• Jurassic sedimentation initially occurred in half-
grabens that had regular along-strike changes in
polarity. Such changes in polarity, timing, and
structural styles imply offsetting accommodation
zones (see Gibbs, 1984; Lister et al., 1986).
• Subsidence is attributed to rift and postrift
processes, each with at least two episodes of
enhanced subsidence.
• The principal basin-forming faults of the half-
grabens, and even the secondary internal fabrics of
these basins, suffered varying degrees of reactiva-
tion and inversion during the Tertiary Andean
orogeny.
380 Manceda and Figueroa
Figure 14—Cross section E, Sierra de Palauco area. Coincident with the initial extensional geometry, compression has
resulted in a change in the sense of deformational vergence. Inversion of the Palauco half-graben toward the west is
observed. See Figure 4 for location.
• Basement involvement and the opposing directions
of vergence were controlled by the initial architec-
ture of the basin.
• Shortening derived from balanced cross sections
averaged 32%, suggesting a mean rate of deforma-
tion of 0.7–0.9 mm/yr.
Acknowledgments We wish to thank YPF S.A. for
allowing publication of this paper and our colleagues in the
Neuquén Exploration Area and Development Projects Area in
Buenos Aires for helpful discussions. V. A. Ramos, E.
Kozlowski, H. Welsink, and especially A. Tankard provided
careful review of this manuscript, and their comments served
to greatly improve it.
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382 Manceda and Figueroa

Authors’ Mailing Addresses

René Manceda
Area Exploración Neuquén, YPF S.A.
Plaza Huincul, Neuquén
Argentina

Daniel Figueroa
Proyectos Exploratorios, YPF S.A.
Av. R. Sáenz Peña 777
1364 Buenos Aires
Argentina
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the
Neuquén Basin, Argentina
G. D. Vergani A. J. Tankard
Perez Companc Tankard Enterprises
Neuquén, Argentina Calgary, Alberta, Canada

H. J. Belotti
H. J. Welsink
Perez Companc
Neuquén, Argentina

Abstract

T he tectonic evolution of the Neuquén basin spans about 220 m.y. of Mesozoic–Cenozoic subsidence.
Initial rifting in the Triassic was driven by extensional collapse of the Permian–Triassic orogen. This
period of extension was accommodated by inherited structural inhomogeneities and a southwest-oriented
extensional stress field. From the Aalenian onward, fault-controlled subsidence was replaced by regional subsi-
dence. Several episodes of structural inversion modified the shape of the depocenter and rejuvenated fringing
sedimentary source areas. The most significant inversion occurred in the late Oxfordian–earliest Kimmeridgian
when the Dorsal de Huincul was formed. This Late Jurassic diastrophism marks a fundamental reorganization
of extensional stress fields related to fragmentation of southwestern Gondwana and the Atlantic opening. Late
Jurassic–Cretaceous extension was northwest directed. This history of tectonic evolution is reflected in a
complex structural framework, at least two major hydrocarbon source rock intervals, and numerous reservoir
zones.

Resumen

L a evolución tectónica de la cuenca Neuquina, desarrollada a través del Mesozoico y Cenozoico, abarca
unos 220 m.a. El inicio del rift en el Triásico tardío fue provocado por un colapso extensional del
orógeno permo-triásico. Este período de extensión fue motivado por un campo de esfuerzo extensional de
orientación sudoeste-noreste, e influenciado por inhomogeneidades estructurales inherentes al sustrato. A
partir del Aaleniano la subsidencia controlada por fallas fue reemplazada por subsidencia de carácter regional.
Varios episodios de inversión tectónica modificaron la forma del depocentro y rejuvenecieron las áreas de
aporte sedimentario. La inversión mas significante ocurrió en el Oxfordiano tardío–Kimmeridgiano temprano.
cuando se formó la Dorsal de Huincul. Este diastrofismo del Jurásico tardío, marca una reorganización funda-
mental de los campos de esfuerzo extensionales, relacionados con la fragmentación del sudoeste del
Gondwana y la apertura atlántica. La extensión acaecida durante el Jurásico–Cretácico tuvo orientación
noroeste-sudeste. Esta historia de evolución tectónica se refleja en un marco estructural complejo con al menos
dos intervalos de roca generadora de hidrocarburos y numerosas rocas reservorio.

INTRODUCTION extensional subsidence resulted in several source rock

The Neuquén basin of west-central Argentina is
surrounded by the North Patagonian massif, the Sierra
Pintada, and the Andean cordillera (Figure 1). It is a
triangular-shaped basin covering more than 160,000 km2
that contains a Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedimentary succes-
sion (Figure 2) at least 7 km thick. A protracted period of
intervals and Jurassic and Cretaceous reservoirs. The
Neuquén accounted for about 44% of Argentinian oil
production in 1992 (Argentinian Petroleum Institute,
1993). More than 100,000 km of reflection seismic have
been acquired and over 1300 exploration wells drilled
since exploration began in 1904 (Uliana and Legarreta,
1993).

Vergani, G. D., A. J. Tankard, H. J. Belotti, and H. J. Welsink, 1995, Tectonic evolution and 383
paleogeography of the Neuquén basin, Argentina, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H.
J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 383–402.
384 Vergani et al.
Figure 1—Location of Neuquén basin in west-central
Argentina, showing its relationship to the Sierra Pintada,
North Patagonian massif, and the younger Andean
Cordillera to the west.
The tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of the
Neuquén basin began during the Late Triassic and Early
Jurassic as a result of extensional collapse of the
Permian–Triassic orogenic belt (see Dewey, 1988).
However, the basin has an even longer ancestry (Tankard
et al., 1995). The Mesozoic Neuquén basin has a complex
structural framework that was affected first by northeast-
oriented extension in the Triassic and Early Jurassic and
then by northwest-directed extension related to Late
Jurassic–Cretaceous fragmentation of western Gondwana
and the Atlantic opening. The most conspicuous structure
is the Huincul dorsal, or arch. It is attributed to Kimmerid-
gian inversion of an earlier rift depoaxis; this deformation
is known as the Araucanian event. The importance of the
Huincul inversion is that it marked the reorganization of
the Mesozoic stress fields and coincided with the initia-
tion of rifting along the eastern seaboard of Argentina
and the conjugate margin of South Africa.
Numerous studies have addressed the stratigraphic
evolution of the Neuquén basin (e.g., Marchese, 1971;
Digregorio and Uliana, 1980; Gulisano et al., 1984a,b;
Mitchum and Uliana, 1985; Legarreta and Gulisano,
1989; Legarreta and Uliana, 1991; Uliana and Legarreta,
1993). Recent studies have compared the Jurassic–Creta-
ceous succession to global sea level charts (compare
Legarreta and Uliana, 1991, with Haq et al., 1987). The
aim of the present paper is to address the structural
framework of the Neuquén basin and the way its
evolution affected sedimentation.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
Patagonia preserves a long history of Phanerozoic
basin formation. In Late Permian–Early Triassic time, the
Paleozoic basins were subjected to an episode of wide-
spread compressive inversion that was relatively
selective. Conspicuous deformation belts include the
Sierras Australes, Sierra Grande, Precordillera, Sierra
Pintada, and South Patagonia (see Cobbold et al., 1986).
This period of mountain building was a precursor to
intermediate and acid magmatism of Permian–Triassic
age (Rapela and Kay, 1988; Kay et al., 1989; Uliana et al.,
1989). The Choiyoi Group (Figure 2) is a rhyolite-
ignimbrite suite of enormous proportions that is closely
associated with extensional tectonics and molasse depo-
sition. Uliana and Legarreta (1993) attribute these associ-
ations to extensional collapse.
The Neuquén basin records at least 220 m.y. of basin
subsidence. The preserved basin fill consists of an Upper
Triassic–Cenozoic succession that is at least 7000 m thick.
It is punctuated by several unconformities that reflect
intermittent subsidence, as well as several episodes of
structural inversion (Figure 2). The most conspicuous
inversion structure is the Huincul dorsal, or arch, of early
Kimmeridgian age. Structural inversion was an
important component of hydrocarbon trap formation.
There are six principal stages of basin evolution. (1)
Norian–Sinemurian extension was accompanied by
molasse deposition. (2) Renewed extension in the Pliens-
bachian–Toarcian involved extensional faults that parti-
tioned the basin into several fault-controlled depocen-
ters. This was also the time of Los Molles source rock
deposition. (3) Aalenian–Oxfordian postrift regional
subsidence resulted in amalgamation of the previous rift
depocenters. (4) The latest Oxfordian and early
Kimmeridgian Araucanian diastrophism and inversion
marks a fundamental reorganization of extensional stress
fields. (5) Renewed subsidence in the Late Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous was initiated by extensional processes.
Several unconformities record intermittent subsidence of
an epeiric basin. The Vaca Muerta is a prolific source
rock interval. (6) In the Late Cretaceous–Tertiary, the
Neuquén basin was subjected to progressive growth of
the Andean fold and thrust belt and reactivation of older
extensional faults in a reverse sense.
The principal tectonic elements comprising the
Neuquén basin are summarized in Figure 3. The
essential ingredients that form this tectonic architecture
include Triassic–Jurassic extensional processes, multiple
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 385

Figure 2—Tectonostratigraphic column for the Neuquén basin showing major basin-forming stages. The unconformity-
bounded stratigraphy is based on seismic stratigraphy, well control, proprietary exploration reports, and literature. Los
Molles and Vaca Muerta are the principal source rock intervals. The relative sea level curve is based on Haq et al. (1987) and
adjusted to the DNAG (Decade of North American Geology) time scale. A–G, seismic markers.
386 Vergani et al.
Figure 3—Maps showing (A) principal tectonic framework of the Neuquén basin and (B) associated oil and gas fields and
locations of seismic lines and cross sections.
episodes of Mesozoic and Cenozoic inversion, and devel-
opment of the Andean fold and thrust belt and late
Tertiary foreland basin. This structural framework
controls the distribution of oil and gas fields.
TRIASSIC–JURASSIC SUBSIDENCE
Early Rifting
The earliest episode of rifting is of Late Triassic–Sine-
murian age (Figure 2). It is characterized by basement-
involved normal extensional faults that bound a suite of
discrete half-grabens (Figures 4A, B). These basins
contain thick accumulations of coarse-grained sediments
that were deposited in continental environments,
volcanics, and volcaniclastic materials. In the southwest,
these rocks crop out in the Chacaico and Sañico ranges
and in the Piedra del Aguila region (Digregorio and
Uliana, 1980; Gulisano and Pando, 1981). Their broader
distribution (Figure 4B) is shown by reflection seismic
data and exploration wells. Although a variety of formal
names have been assigned to these rocks, the less formal
grouping as pre-Cuyo distinguishes these continental
deposits from the succeeding marine deposits of the
Cuyo Group (Figure 2). These pre-Cuyo strata underlie
some of the deepest parts of the Neuquén basin. For this
reason they are the least studied and generally of
unknown thickness.
Structural Styles
A series of superimposed structural styles affected the
Neuquén basin throughout its evolution (Uliana and
Legarreta, 1993). The principal fault trends are north-
south, ENE-WSW, and northwest-southeast (Figure 4A).
From the Late Triassic through Early Jurassic, a system of
extensional faults developed that formed the initial
Neuquén basin. Outcrop and well data suggest that
during this time an extensional system was active and
controlled accumulation of the pre-Cuyo and lower
Cuyo Group sediments (Figures 4B, C).
In the southern part of the basin, northeast-southwest
and ENE-WSW extensional faults are subparallel to the
Limay River. The various depocenters are believed to
have been linked by a transfer fault system (Figures 4A,
B, C). In the Dorsal de Huincul area and toward the
southern margin of the basin, various fault blocks plunge
northward along a normal fault system that is intersected
by en echelon transfer faults. This is observed in the El
Sauce, Barda Colorada–Plaza Huincul, and Challacó
areas (Figure 4A). In the eastern half of the basin, subsi-
dence was controlled by a northwest-southeast oriented
extensional fault system; examples include the Bajada
Vidal, Entre Lomas, Gobernador Ayala, and Rio
Colorado faults (Figure 4A). This fault system marks the
break between the platform and inner basin.
These main regional features are shown in seismic
sections of Bajada Vidal and Entre Lomas (Figures 5, 6).
The Bajada Vidal fault dips westward toward the basin
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 387

Figure 4—Structural and paleogeographic framework of early Neuquén basin. (A) Extensional architecture of Late
Triassic–Early Jurassic rift phase. Abbreviations: A, Añelo; BC, Barda Colorada; BV, Bajada Vidal; CC, Cara Cura range;
Ch, Chacaico; CL, Catan Lil; CSN, Chihuido de la Sierra Negra; Co, Challacó; CV, Cordillera del Viento; DCh, Dorsal de los
Chihuidos; EL, Entre Lomas; ES, El Sauce; EV, Estancia Vieja; GA, Gobernador Ayala; Ha, Huantraico; PA, Piedra del
Aguila; PH, Plaza Huincul; RC, Río Colorado; RN, Rio Negro; Sa, Sañico; SR, Reyes range; TCh, Tres Chorros; VM, Vaca
Muerta. (B) Early rift paleogeographic reconstruction. (C) Lower Cuyo Group late rift paleogeography showing isolated rift
depocenters. (D) Upper Cuyo Group postrift phase in which previous fault-controlled depocenters were amalgamated in a
broad downwarp.
388 Vergani et al.
Figure 5—Seismic section showing Bajada Vidal trough and boundary fault, as well as the transition from rift subsidence to
the postrift cover sequence. Vertical exaggeration is 4.2:1 at 1.4 sec (two-way time). See Figure 3 (line D) for location.
and has generated a narrow half-graben along strike.
Well and seismic data suggest that over 1500 m of synrift
sediments of the pre-Cuyo and lower Cuyo groups accu-
mulated in the half-graben (Figures 4B, C). The Bajada
Vidal fault is about 70 km long and appears to connect
with the Estancia Vieja fault (Figure 4A). Toward the
north, the Entre Lomas fault is offset from the Bajada
Vidal fault and is of opposite polarity (Figures 4A, 6). As
a result, this fault has generated a narrow half-graben.
These narrow, deep fault-bounded Entre Lomas and
Bajada Vidal troughs suggest a component of transten-
sional subsidence.
The faults in the Gobernador Ayala and Río Colorado
areas merge westward with the north-south extensional
system (Figure 4A). The Chihuido de la Sierra Negra
faults belong to a basement high that limited the lower
Cuyo Group sediments to the north (Figures 4A, C).
Cuyo deposition was also constrained in the center of the
basin by a horst that coincides with the Dorsal de los
Chihuidos (Marchese, 1971).
In the western part of the basin, a north-south exten-
sional fault system controlled deposition of the Cuyo
Group sediments. An important structural lineament
marks a depositional axis, from the Cordillera del Viento
southward along Tres Chorros, Chacaico, Catan Lil, and
Sañico. To the north, this trend extends into the Mendoza
province (Manceda and Figueroa, 1993). From the Early
Jurassic onward, evolution of the Neuquén basin was
characterized by regional subsidence interrupted by
periodic inversion.
Lower Jurassic Rift Stratigraphy
Transition to the Cuyo Group is marked by a lower
Pliensbachian unconformity and deposits representative
of marine paleoenvironments. These lower Cuyo strata
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 389

Figure 6—Seismic section showing Entre Lomas fault-controlled trough and transition to postrift subsidence. The narrow,
deep trough suggests transtensional subsidence, possibly related to a Riedel shear. Vertical exaggeration is 3.2:1 at 1 sec
(two-way time). See Figure 3 (line E) for location.
390 Vergani et al.
Figure 7—Isopach distributions reflecting (A) northeast-oriented extensional regimes in the Early–Middle Jurassic and
(B) northwest-directed extension in the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. Isopachs are based on seismic and well control and
integrated proprietary reports. (Courtesy of YPF and Perez Companc.)
have been dated as Pliensbachian–Toarcian (Gulisano
and Pando, 1981; Hinterwimmer and Jauregui, 1984;
Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989), although deposition in
the Mendoza province started in the Hettangian
(Riccardi et al., 1990). The distribution and thickness of
these lower Cuyo rocks imitate the pre-Cuyo fault
system, suggesting that extensional faulting was an
important control of sedimentation during the Early
Jurassic. The thickest accumulations of marine strata are
confined to depocenters bounded by substantial struc-
tural relief and marginal horst blocks (Figure 4C). This
sequence is dominated by the argillaceous Los Molles
Formation, consisting of basinal shale, turbidites, and
lenticular sandstone (Gulisano et al., 1984b; Hinter-
wimmer and Jauregui, 1984; Carbone, 1988). Geochem-
ical characterization shows that the Los Molles was
deposited in a variety of depocenters spanning saline to
lacustrine settings (Zumberge, 1993). The Los Molles and
the coarse Lajas facies form an upward-coarsening depo-
sitional sequence. In the Entre Lomas area, there is
evidence that Punta Rosada (Lajas equivalent) sedimen-
tation was locally fault controlled.
Figure 4C shows that lower Cuyo deposition was
largely confined by structural depocenters of Late
Triassic–Early Jurassic origin. The structural framework
suggests that extension used northeast-oriented accom-
modation zones. This interpretation supports the recon-
struction of Uliana et al. (1989), which envisages a Basin
and Range type process of extension driven by orogenic
collapse.
Jurassic Postrift Stratigraphy
From late Toarcian time onward, fault-controlled
subsidence gradually decreased over most of the
Neuquén basin. Nevertheless, local structural trends
remained active even through Punta Rosada time, such
as the Entre Lomas structure along the northern edge of
the basin. The isolated rift depocenters of earlier Jurassic
time (Figure 4C) were gradually amalgamated into a
single, broad basin in which the previous interbasin
highs lost their identities (Figure 4D). Figure 7A shows
the isopach geometry of this postrift epeiric basin. A
depositional axis persisted along the Piedra del
Aguila–Barda Colorada–Chacaico trend (Figure 7A).
However, basement topography was still expressed in
the northwest-trending Dorsal de los Chihuidos. Deposi-
tional thickening also occurred along northwest-oriented
Entre Lomas and Bajada Vidal depocenters (Figures 4A,
7A). Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the seismic expression of
the rift-postrift transition along the northern ramp of the
basin. The Bajada Vidal trough formed a narrow but
deep rift, possibly reflecting transtensional processes.
The postrift Cuyo Group forms a basinward-thickening
cover sequence that was locally affected by fault activity.
These characteristics of basement geometry, including
northwest-trending basement topography shown on the
isopach map, is consistent with a northeast-oriented
extensional stress field (Figure 7A).
The Jurassic postrift basin was largely an underfilled
marine basin into which deltaic and fluvial depositional
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina
Figure 8—Paleogeographic reconstruction following Callovian inversion. (A) Basal continental and marine sedimentary
cover of the lower Lotena Group. (B) Upper Lotena deposition of evaporites and limestones in a structurally closed basin.
systems prograded. Despite this freshwater influx,
marine invertebrate assemblages indicate normal marine
salinities (Riccardi, 1983). In the western part of the basin
(e.g., Vaca Muerta range), Lajas Formation sedimentary
facies suggest high-energy shelf and mesotidal ranges
(Dean, 1987), implying a paleogeography that was
partially open to the west. The provenance for the deltaic
and fluvial sediments was toward the east and southeast
(Uliana and Legarreta, 1993). Seismic sections record the
offlapping progradational geometries, while exploration
wells demonstrate the lithologic associations. The postrift
sequence comprises the upper Cuyo Group and its
constituent Loma Negra, Lajas, Challaco, and Punta
Rosada formations (Figure 2). These grade into or
interfinger with Los Molles topset beds. By the end of
Cuyo deposition, the Neuquén basin was increasingly
silled and had a restricted circulation, as evidenced by
the Tábanos evaporites (Figure 4D). Figure 2 shows that
inversion was possibly initiated in the Callovian,
suggesting a depositional response (evaporites and lime-
stones) to inversion-assisted shallowing.
LATE JURASSIC–CRETACEOUS
SUBSIDENCE
An early Callovian unconformity marks a conspic-
uous change in the style of sedimentation to the
evaporite-limestone dominated Lotena Group (Figure 2).
391
It was also a precursor to more massive latest Oxfordian–
early Kimmeridgian inversion along the Huincul arch
and the start of a new phase of basin subsidence.
Late Jurassic Inversion Tectonics
General uplift and erosion affected much of the
Neuquén basin during the Callovian, especially the
Dorsal de Huincal area and the western and south-
western parts of the basin (Figure 8A). In the north-
western parts of the basin, inversion resulted in erosion
of upper Bajocian–lower Callovian strata (Dellapé et al.,
1979; Gulisano, 1981).
Inversion of rift-related fault blocks was particularly
conspicuous along the Dorsal de Huincul, but also
affected other extensional tracts. The continental deposits
in the basal part of the Lotena Formation were derived
from inverted fault blocks and deposited as synorogenic
molasse (Figure 8A). Partial erosion of upper Cuyo strata
occurred along the margins of the basin. These rocks are
absent in the Cordillera del Viento and in the Reyes and
Cara Cura ranges (Figure 4A) (Gulisano, 1981). In the
Dorsal de Huincul, it is difficult to estimate the amount
of Callovian erosion because younger erosional events
were even more substantial.
At the end of this period of inversion, marine to evap-
oritic facies were deposited in a widespread downwarp
that we attribute to relaxation of compressional stresses.
This initial sedimentary drape is reflected in the upper
Lotena Formation. These deposits shoal upward into
392 Vergani et al.
Figure 9—Late Jurassic Araucanian inversion which focused on the southern extensional tract. (A) Structural inversion and
partitioning by northwest-directed transfer faults. (B) Late Jurassic Tordillo paleogeography.
evaporitic rocks of the Loteniano-Chacayano sequence,
which includes La Manga, Barda Negra, and Auquilco
formations (Figures 2, 8B).
A second and even more intense period of inversion
occurred in the late Oxfordian and earliest Kimmerid-
gian. This deformation, known as the Araucanian event,
was focused on the old Piedra del Aguila–Barda
Colorada–Chacaico trough and extended eastward to
Estancia Vieja (Figures 4A, 9A). The inversion process
was typically selective, avoiding some extensional struc-
tures while reactivating others. Besides inversion of the
Dorsal de Huincul tract and the southern and south-
western parts of the basin, isolated structures were
uplifted in the Chacaico, Vaca Muerta, Reyes, and Cara
Cura ranges (Figure 4A) where Cuyo and Lotena succes-
sions were deeply eroded.
Figures 10 through 14 show the character and dimen-
sions of this Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian deformational
event. Over 2000 m of Choiyoi, pre-Cuyo, and Cuyo
Group sedimentary rocks were partially eroded in the
Plaza Huincul area (Ploszkiewicz et al., 1984). North-
northwest directed transfer faults divided this inverted
belt into three sectors (Figure 9A), each showing
decreasing deformation toward the east (compare
Figures 10, 13, 14). In the west, this phase affected the
Vaca Muerta, Chacaico, and Cara Cura ranges by trunca-
tion of the Cuyo and Lotena Group (Figure 11). In
Estancia Vieja (Figure 14), the northwest-oriented
inversion only affected the east-west fault trend
bordering the pre-Cuyo and Cuyo depocenters. The
Bajada Vidal extensional fault was not affected by the
inversion, nor was the extensional system to the south of
the inverted belt (El Sauce and Río Negro trend, Figure
4A). This selective deformation is characteristic of the
inversion that covers an area 300 km long and 50 km
wide (Figure 9A).
The transfer faults acted as structural boundaries
during inversion. In the Plaza Huincul area, tectonic
inversion was segmented by northwest-trending transfer
faults that differed from the southwest-directed
extension of the Early Jurassic (Figures 7A, 9A),
suggesting that this Late Jurassic inversion was a
response to fundamental reorganization of regional
stress fields. These Late Jurassic transfer faults offset and
separated some areas of inversion from others that were
unaffected by inversion. An example is the Barda
Colorada half-graben, which was intensely inverted
relative to the neighboring El Sauce half-graben (Figures
10, 12); the latter was not deformed. The change from
compression to extension within this area has been inter-
preted as the result of transpression and transtension
within a wrench fault system (Orchuela et al., 1981;
Ploszkiewicz et al., 1984). We suggest that an initial rift
phase was followed by repeated tectonic inversions.
Structural inversion significantly restricted the
Neuquén basin. Fluvial deposits at the base of the
Tordillo Formation are thickest in the west where they
are augmented by large volumes of pyroclastic material
(Gulisano, 1981). Thinner fluvial units are preserved
between uplifted fault blocks in the southwestern part of
the basin. Tectonic quiescence and a low-relief source
terrain resulted in stratigraphic onlap of the Tordillo
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 393

Figure 10—Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic section showing structural inversion of the western part of Dorsal de
Huincul in the Barda Colorada area. Vertical exaggeration is 2:1 at 1 sec (two-way time). See Figure 3 (line A) for location.

across basin margin ramps and intrabasin highs (Figure
9B). In the southeastern parts of the basin, the sediments
are typically finer grained and are attributed to lacustrine
and eolian paleogeographies (Arregui, 1993); they are
known as the Catriel and Sierras Blancas formations
(Figure 2) (Marchese, 1971).
The final phase of continental sedimentation during
the Tithonian coincided with regional subsidence which
we attribute to compressional relaxation (see Bally and
Snelson, 1980). Marine encroachment and expansion of
the basin is reflected in the Mendoza Group of the
Andico cycle (Figure 2) (Gulisano et al., 1984a). Mitchum
and Uliana (1985) describe the progradational strati-
graphy of this Mendoza sequence, including the prolific
Vaca Muerta source rocks (see their figures 5–16).
Early Cretaceous Subsidence
During the early Valanginian, a major change in the
pattern of basin subsidence resulted in interruption of the
marine sedimentation that characterized the previous
cycle. The western and southern parts of the basin were
394 Vergani et al.
Figure 11—Photograph of strata deformed during the Arau-
canian event, Vaca Muerta range. (Courtesy of F. Drysdale.)
again subjected to inversion and regional uplift. Inversion
of older extensional faults was intense in the Dorsal de
Huincul area and its extension toward the southwest.
Along the eastern margin of the basin, moderate uplift
resulted in minor stratigraphic truncation (Figures 5, 15).
Seismic data (Figure 13) show truncation of the lower
Mendoza Group beneath the Valanginian unconformity
along the northern flank of the Huincul arch. Mendoza
stratigraphy was also eroded along the eastern margin of
the basin (Figures 5, 6). The inverted areas contributed
sediments to the interior of the basin where they were
preserved to variable thicknesses. Westward, fluvial
sandstones and conglomerates graded laterally into their
distal equivalents in the basin center (Figure 15) (Gulisano
et al., 1984a). In the east, thin-bedded fluvial deposits of
calcareous sandstones and shales interfingered with
marine shales and carbonates toward the north. This
clastic succession forms the Mulichinco Formation
(Figure 2). Farther north, carbonates of the Chachao
Formation were deposited on a platform flanking the
passive eastern margin of the basin (Figure 2).
Tectonic quiescence characterized this basin from
Valanginian time onward and resulted in renewed
marine transgression and deposition of the platform
sediments of the Agrio Formation. These sediments
interfingered with prograding fluvial clastics of the
Centenario Formation along the margin (Figure 2). A
general shallowing of the basin was accompanied by
evaporitic and clastic sedimentation within a realm of
regional subsidence. This Rayoso Group represents the
culmination of the Andico cycle. The Lower Cretaceous
Mendoza-Rayoso succession is punctuated by several
unconformities that define the stacking of multiple trans-
gressive-regressive sequences, reflecting intermittent
subsidence and eustatic processes (Figure 2) (see
Mitchum and Uliana, 1985; Uliana and Legarreta, 1993).
Figure 7B illustrates the Upper Jurassic–Lower Creta-
ceous isopachs that record the style of basin subsidence
following post-Araucanian relaxation. Local northeast-
Figure 12—Interpretation of Dorsal de Huincul inversion of
earlier extensional basins. Inversion is a selective process,
and in this reconstruction, it has deformed the Barda
Colorada half-graben while the neighboring El Sauce half-
graben continued to subside. 1, Paleozoic basement; 2,
Pre-Cuyo early rift; 3, Lower Cuyo late rift; 4, Upper Cuyo
postrift; 5, Lotena Group. Not to scale.
oriented linear trends reflect reactivation of Triassic–
Early Jurassic transfer faults in a normal sense (Welsink
et al., 1995). These characteristics are consistent with the
northwest-directed transfer faults that dissect the Dorsal
de Huincul and mark a reorganization of stress fields.
Late Cretaceous Subsidence
Renewed tectonic activity and inversion during the
earliest Cenomanian was characterized by subtle erosion
and northward thinning of the Rayoso Group in the
western part of the basin (Figures 2, 16) (Uliana et al.,
1975). This event is recognized in outcrop along the
Dorsal de Huincul and is conspicuous in well and
seismic data (Figures 10, 12). Along the eastern margin of
the basin, seismic sections show moderate truncation of
the Rayoso Group and development of a slightly angular
unconformity (Figures 5, 6, 10, 13). Correlation of wells
and field sections shows that the unconformity is wide-
spread in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the
basin (Uliana et al., 1975; H. Sosa, 1994, personal commu-
nication).
This tectonic phase reactivated the provenance areas
that resulted in accumulation of continental deposits of
the Neuquén Group. This sedimentation persisted until
the end of the Cretaceous, at which time the continental
and marine deposits of the Malargüe Group marked the
culmination of the Riográndico cycle (Figure 2)
(Legarreta and Gulisano, 1989).
Figure 13—Seismic section showing inversion in the central part of Dorsal de Huincul in the Aguada Villanueva area. Vertical
exaggeration is 1.5:1 at 1 sec (two-way time). See Figure 3 (line B) for location.
396 Vergani et al.

Figure 14—Seismic section showing structural inversion in the eastern part of the Dorsal de Huincul in the Estancia Vieja
area. Note deformation decreasing toward the east. Vertical exaggeration is 2.3:1 at 1 sec (two-way time). See Figure 3
(line C) for location.
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 397

Figure 15—Paleogeography of Valanginian Mulichinco Figure 16—Paleogeography of Upper Cretaceous lower

Formation showing inversion-restricted depocenter and Neuquén Group dominated by terrestrial depositional
sediment influx. systems. Cenomanian growth along the Dorsal de Huincul
locally divided the basin.

TERTIARY COMPRESSION AND

SUB-ANDEAN FORELAND BASIN
In the Eocene, the Neuquén basin entered a new
phase of deformation and basin subsidence (Figure 17).
The north-trending Andean fold and thrust belt
encroached on the western margin of the basin,
deforming the Mesozoic prism in front of it (Figure 3).
Preexisting normal faults of the rift phase, as well as the
rock mechanics of the Mesozoic sequence, controlled the
deformation style in this belt. Thick-skinned deformation
involved the Paleozoic–Triassic basement (Figures 18,
19). Deformation is characterized by first-order folds that
were generated by inversion of variably dipping normal
faults (Manceda and Figueroa, 1993). An example is the
structural tract of the Cordillera del Viento and its
southward continuation where the basement and oldest
Jurassic sedimentary rocks outcrop. Structures of the
Reyes and Cara Cura ranges have Triassic basement in
their cores. Various rift faults were reactivated as back-
thrusts during the Tertiary (Figure 19).
South of the Vaca Muerta range, including the
Chacaico and several smaller ranges, basement was reac-
tivated during the various Jurassic–Cretaceous episodes
of inversion. The interference of the thrust belt with the
older inversion zone resulted in a complex pattern of
cross-cutting trends, folds with varying orientations, and
dog-leg types of faults.
The thin-skinned deformation was controlled by the
rock mechanics of the Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary Figure 17—Tertiary orogenesis and development of a
cover. Important detachment levels are present within foreland basin.
398 Vergani et al.
Figure 18—Cross section showing fold and thrust belt, frontal syncline, Dorsal de los Chihuidos, and basin margin.
No vertical exaggeration. See Figure 3 (line F) for location.
Figure 19—Cross section showing external fold and thrust belt, frontal syncline, and basin margin. No vertical exaggeration.
See Figure 3 (line G) for location.
the marine shales of the Cuyo and Mendoza groups in
which overpressured zones occur locally. Evaporites of
the Rayoso Group form a major upper detachment level
in the northern part of the basin. These detachment levels
control the deformation style in the foldbelt and its
eastern flank (Figures 18, 19). In this important hydro-
carbon province, the interpretation of a triangle zone is
based on seismic and well data (Ploszkiewicz, 1987;
Viñes, 1990). The thin-skinned structural style developed
from north of the basin to the Agrio River in the south. It
is characterized by en echelon box folds with different
vergences and local extent.
Thrust belt loading produced several internal
depocenters by fault reactivation and flexural subsidence
(Figure 17). In the west, thick volcanic suites known as
the Serie Andesitica are overlain by fluvial and lacustrine
sedimentary deposits that are intercalated with tuffs and
andesites of late Oligocene–early Miocene age (Uliana,
1978; Rapela and Kay, 1988). Miocene clastic and pyro-
clastic deposits of the Collón Cura Formation follow
unconformably (Figure 2). A Recent basaltic and
fluvioglacial succession covers much of this area.
Discontinuous fluvial and intercalated volcaniclastic
sediments are present at the foot of the external fold and
thrust belt. During the Eocene–early Oligocene, clastic
and pyroclastic sediments of the Carrere Formation were
deposited (Uliana, 1978). These are unconformably
overlain by Oligocene basalt flows of variable thickness.
In the southern part of the basin, continental deposits of
the Michihuao Formation, possibly of Oligocene–early
Miocene age, underlie the sandstones and tuffs of the
Collón Cura Formation. Finally, fluvial deposits uncon-
formably overlie the various Tertiary units. This succes-
sion is known as the Pliocene Tristeza Formation, which
is better developed toward the north. Late Tertiary
intrusive events (Huincan and Desfiladero Negro forma-
tions) occurred in both depositories and also affected the
Jurassic–Cretaceous stratigraphic column by intrusion of
intermediate and basic dikes and sills.
DISCUSSION
The tectonic evolution of the Neuquén basin involved
several episodes of extensional subsidence and structural
inversion as the Patagonian lithosphere adjusted to two
major reorganizations of regional stress fields. This basin,
together with other Mesozoic basins of Patagonia, is
tectonically linked to Paleozoic precursors. First, many of
these basins overlie Paleozoic depocenters, suggesting
that they developed by reactivation of preexisting struc-
tures (see Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard, 1995, their
figure 1). Second, Middle Triassic–Early Jurassic exten-
 Tectonic Evolution and Paleogeography of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina 399

Figure 20—(A) Northeast-directed transfer faults accommodated extension of the Triassic–Early Jurassic rift basins. (B) The
change to a northwest-directed σ3 reactivated these transfer faults in a normal sense, as shown by local northeast-oriented
isopach trends. In contrast, faults subparallel to the extension direction were reactivated as transfer faults.

sion is attributed to extensional collapse of the Permian–-
Triassic orogens (Tankard et al., 1995). Dewey (1988)
relates extensional orogenic collapse to overthickened
crust beneath orogenic belts and structural anisotropy.
Extension of these Triassic–Jurassic basins in southern
South America was accomplished by northeast-oriented
transfer faults (Welsink et al., 1995, their figure 17). These
faults were parallel to the extensional stress at that time
(Figure 20A). A Basin and Range type of extensional
mechanism (see Wernicke, 1985; Verrall, 1989) is inferred
for these early rifts.
The Early Jurassic Neuquén succession contains
diverse assemblages of invertebrate faunas that suggest
normal marine salinities and circulation. The volumi-
nous freshwater influx reflected in the alluvial Challaco
and Punta Rosada formations was insufficient to dilute
the basin, suggesting a direct westward connection to the
Pacific. This interpretation is supported by mesotidal
sedimentation of some Lajas facies (Dean, 1987). These
mesotidal ranges, marine affinities of the invertebrate
faunas, and volcanic materials in the Cuyo succession
together support a back-arc setting for the Neuquén
basin behind an irregular volcanic chain that permitted
periodic exhange of water.
The structural framework of the Neuquén basin is
complex because it has been repeatedly reactivated
through different phases of Mesozoic extension and
overprinted by several episodes of structural inversion.
Regional relationships provide a useful guide (Uliana et
al., 1989; Tankard et al., 1995; Welsink et al., 1995). Figure
4A shows a network of extensional faults that formed
Triassic–Early Jurassic rift basins. The northwest trends
(e.g., Entre Lomas and Bajada Vidal) and the north-south
structural trends (e.g., Catan Lil, Chihuidos, and Reyes)
imply a σ3 oriented toward the southwest. The pattern of
fault offsets, different scales of extensional tracts, variable
structural styles, and northeast-trending structural
boundaries or sidewalls suggest that the Triassic–Early
Jurassic period of rifting involved northeast-oriented
transfer faults. From Aalenian time onward, fault-
controlled subsidence gradually decreased and the
discrete rifts and their intervening basement highs were
yoked together in a broad postrift basin that subsided
uniformly. This Triassic–Jurassic history of rift and
postrift subsidence describes the first stage of basin
subsidence spanning about 50 m.y. and is typical of
extension.
From Callovian time on, the Neuquén basin was
subjected to periodic compressional reactivation of the
earlier extensional structures, locally creating massive
inversion structures. The largest of these, and the most
prominent structural element in the Neuquén basin, is
the Dorsal de Huincul, or Huincul arch. The Late Jurassic
inversion marks a fundamental reorganization of
regional stress fields and the start of a new phase of basin
subsidence. The principal diastrophism and inversion
along the Huincul trend dates to the late Oxfordian–
earliest Kimmeridgian. Seismic data show that variable
400 Vergani et al.
geometries of inversion along strike on the Huincul
structure were compartmented by regular northwest-
trending offsets that suggest transfer faults of that
orientation. Post-Kimmeridgian deepening of the
Neuquén basin was progressive toward the northwest
(Figure 20B). The coincidence of local northeast-
trending isopachs and Triassic–Jurassic transfer faults
suggest that this deepening was the result of the reacti-
vation of transfer faults in a normal sense. Although in
some cases faults cut as high as the Quintuco Formation,
most of the fault activity is concealed beneath the thick
blanket of postrift sediments. Broad anticlinal warping
and flexuring are evidence of deep-seated tectonic
activity.
This new structural framework precisely matches the
style of Late Jurassic–Cretaceous extension that preceded
fragmentation of southwestern Gondwana and the
opening of the South Atlantic. Extension along the
southern margin of South Africa and the eastern
seaboard of Argentina and Uruguay (e.g., Santa Lucia,
Punta del Este, Salado, Colorado, and Outeniqua basins)
started in about the Kimmeridgian (Tankard et al., 1995).
These extensional tracts were linked to a system of west-
northwest diverging wrench faults. Examples include the
Agulhas-Malvinas fracture zone and the Martin Garcia
trend, implying σ3 oriented toward the northwest in Late
Jurassic–Cretaceous time (Welsink et al., 1995). In this
sense, the Late Jurassic Dorsal de Huincul is directly
linked to the reorganization of stress fields that initiated
Atlantic extension. The Huincul inversion is a conspic-
uous focal point of this episode of extension.
Extensional fault-controlled subsidence was largely
restricted to the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic in the
Neuquén basin. Nevertheless, comparable rates of subsi-
dence were repeated in the Late Jurassic and earliest
Cretaceous when the Tordillo–Vaca Muerta sequence
accumulated. We attribute this to relaxation of in-plane
stresses (see Bally and Snelson, 1980). This structural
complexity resulted in at least two prolific source rock
intervals: the Los Molles and Vaca Muerta shales. The
early Neuquén basin was structurally compartmented,
suggesting that Los Molles source rocks may have accu-
mulated in a variety of rift depocenters, not all of which
were connected (Figure 4). Geochemical analysis suggests
marine as well as lacustrine affinities (Zumberge, 1993).
This study broadly agrees with the interpretation of
Uliana and Legarreta (1993) which ascribes the Neuquén
basin to Triassic–Early Jurassic extension followed by a
long period of Middle Jurassic–Paleogene subsidence.
Where we differ is in suggesting that regional subsidence
was more intermittent than uniform and was punctuated
by several episodes of structural inversion. There is a
broadscale agreement of the Neuquén sequence stratig-
raphy with the “global” sea level chart of Haq et al.
(1987) (Figure 2). However, in a dynamic tectonic setting,
we are unable to separate any eustatic overprint from
tectonic processes. Suffice it to say, eustasism may
indeed have been a secondary response to tectonism (see
Cloetingh et al., 1989).
The final innovation in basin formation involved Late
Cretaceous–Tertiary onset of Andean compressional
tectonics, with the climax of mountain building in the
Miocene and Pliocene. The importance of this Andean
orogeny was its influence on structural trap formation by
fault reactivation, especially in the northwestern part of
the basin, and the blanketing effect of the thick foreland
basin cover on source rock maturation.
There is obvious structural control on the distribution
of oil and gas fields (compare Figures 3B, 4A). The giant
Loma La Lata oil and gas field, for example, is controlled
by intersecting northeast- and northwest-oriented faults
along which an inversion anticline has formed. Else-
where, the structural relationships of inversion and
erosion are an important control of field distribution.
Most oil and gas fields have a structural component of
trapping. Purely stratigraphic traps are less significant.
Acknowledgments We thank R. Allen, C. Arregui, F.
Drysdale, D. Lehto, D. Loureiro, R. Manceda, H. Piana, L.
Rebori, H. Sosa, M. Uliana, and R. Viñes for helpful discus-
sions. Typing was done by K. Bojarski and drafting by R.
Colombres. Finally, we thank the management of Perez
Companc, especially R. Blocki and H. Marchese, for support
and permission to publish.
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402 Vergani et al.

Authors’ Mailing Addresses

G. D. Vergani
H. J. Belotti
H. J. Welsink
Perez Companc
J.J. Lastra Sud 6000
8300 Neuquén
Argentina

A. J. Tankard
Tankard Enterprises
P.O. Box 81002
Calgary, Alberta T2J 7C9
Canada
 Hydrocarbon Accumulation in an Inverted
Segment of the Andean Foreland :
San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia

G. O. Peroni G. Laffitte
A. G. Hegedus YPF S.A.
J. Cerdan Buenos Aires, Argentina

L. Legarreta
M. A. Uliana
ASTRA C.A.P.S.A.
Buenos Aires, Argentina

Abstract

T he San Bernardo (“Bernárdides”) structural province is a multiply deformed belt transecting the peri-
Andean segment of the Argentine Patagonia. It is distinctly separate from the fold and thrust belt along
the western South American continental plate. The structured zone encompasses a NNW-SSE trending band
about 600 km long and 100 km wide. The area includes faults and folds that involve Precambrian–middle
Paleozoic basement, upper Paleozoic–Jurassic terrestrial to marine sedimentary and volcanogenic wedges, and
Cretaceous nonmarine fill of the intracratonic San Jorge basin. The Cretaceous cover is dominated by discontin-
uous, narrow, box-shaped folds associated with east- and west-verging reverse faults. Oil finds are restricted to
the low-lying unbreached segment between the Senguerr and Deseado rivers where anticlinal structures
developed by contractional reactivation of preexisting normal and strike-slip faults.
Oil generation is attributed to amorphous, largely algal-derived organic matter (TOC, 1–3 wt. %) formed in
brackish to alkaline stratified lakes. Modeling suggests that oil generation occurred from 110 to 30 Ma. Low-
gravity oil (15–25˚ API) resulted from biodegradation and washing. The reservoir comprises alluvial, channel,
and meander belt facies and multistory sandstone sheets. Stacked pay intervals are separated by shales, which
limit interconnectedness in the fields. Porosity loss is due to authigenic zeolites and devitrified glass by-
products in a volcaniclastic grain framework. Traps were formed in the Miocene by compression and inversion
of Jurassic half-grabens, expressed in local pop-ups, folds, and weakly inverted structures. Local uplift has
resulted in erosional removal and breaching of some traps. Hydrocarbon migration was facilitated by a
normally charged system and vertical drainage during the first phase of migration. The sandstone and tuffa-
ceous shale generally impeded migration. Late inversion processes favored hydrocarbon scattering.

Resumen

L a provincia estructural de San Bernardo (“Bernárdides”) es un cinturón polideformado que atraviesa el

sector peri-andino de la Patagonia argentina. Se presenta físicamente separado de la faja plegada y
corrida que bordea el márgen occidental de la placa Sudamericana. La región estructurada comprende una
banda de orientación NNW-SSE que se extiende con un largo superior a los 600 km y un ancho casi siempre
inferior a los 100 km. El área considerada presenta fallas y pliegues que involucran al basamento Precámbrico-
mesopaleozoico, a cuñas sedimentarias terrígenas y volcaniclásticas del Paleozoico Superior y Jurásico, y al
relleno no-marino de la cuenca intracratónica del Golfo San Jorge. La cobertura cretácica presenta un estilo
estructural dominado por pliegues discontínuos de tipo “cajón”, asociados con fallas inversas vergentes al este
y al oeste. Los descubrimientos de petróleo se encuentran confinados al sector deprimido y protegido de la

Peroni, G. O., A. G. Hegedus, J. Cerdan, L. Legarreta, M. A. Uliana, and G. Laffitte, 1995, 403
Hydrocarbon accumulation in an inverted segment of the Andean foreland: San
Bernardo belt, central Patagonia, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink,
Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 403–419.
404 Peroni et al.

erosión entre los rios Senguerr y Deseado, donde las estructuras anticlinales se desarrollaron como conse-
cuencia de la reactivación compresiva de fallas de rumbo y normales preexistentes.
La Generación de Petróleo es atribuída a materia orgánic amorfa, mayormente derivada de algas (TOC
1–3%), formada en lagos estratificados de tipo salobre y alcalino. El modelado geoquímico sugiere que la
generación de petróleo comenzó alrededor de los 110 Ma y continuó hasta los 13 Ma. Petróleos densos (15-25º
API) son el resultado de biodegradación y lavado. El Reservorio comprende facies aluviales, de canales y fajas
meandrosas, y cuerpos arenosos laminares de tipo multiepisódico. Es común la presencia de reservorios
apilados, separados por lutitas que limitan la interconexión de capas dentro de los campos. Las limitaciones en
la porosidad se relacionan con ceolitas autigénicas y otros minerales relacionados a la devitrificación de trizas
volcánicas. Las Trampas consisten en pliegues anticlinales, “pop-ups” localizados y estructuras débilmente
invertidas, que se formaron en el Mioceno como consecuencia de compresión regional e inversión de los hemi-
grábenes jurásicos. Algunos alzamientos localizados provocaron remoción erosiva y desventramiento de
algunas de las trampas. La Migración de los hidrocarburos se relaciona con un sistema de carga normal y con
drenaje vertical durante la primera fase de movilización. Las areniscas de tipo discontínuo y las pelitas tobáceas
dificultaron la migración, y el carácter tardío de la inversión estructural favoreció la redistribución dispersiva de
los hidrocarburos.

INTRODUCTION
This paper describes the geology and hydrocarbon
habitat of the San Bernardo belt, a structured segment of
the central Patagonian foreland that forms the western
edge of the Cretaceous San Jorge Basin (Figure 1) (Lesta,
1968; Lesta and Ferello, 1972; Fitzgerald et al., 1990). The
oil generation-migration system and trapping style
depart markedly from classic sub-Andean patterns in
which hydrocarbons are associated with marine source
rocks and subtle structural traps superimposed on a
mildly sloping foreland ramp. In contrast, the larger
fields in the buried part of the San Bernardo deformed
belt appear to be linked to lacustrine source rocks and to
high relief structures shaped by Neogene compressional
inversion of pre-Cretaceous extensional fault systems.
The study area in the Chubut and Santa Cruz
provinces dominates the meseta landscape of central
Patagonia. This area is known as the Patagonides (Keidel,
1925) or the San Bernardo foldbelt. The San Bernardo is
characterized by a NNW-SSE striking band of compres-
sional structures more than 600 km long and about 100
km wide (Figure 1). From the western margin of the
Somuncura massif, it extends southward, crosses the
western margin of the San Jorge basin, and finally reaches
the central part of the Deseado massif. Its eastward distri-
bution is restricted by the little-deformed crust under-
lying the South American Atlantic margin (Urien and
Zambrano, 1973). Toward the west, the structural belt is
confined and separated from the Andes by a 150–250 km
wide tract of little-deformed foreland. The most
depressed and least eroded part of the Bernardides belt
occurs between the Senguerr and Deseado river valleys
(Figure 2), where commercial oil pools have been found.
From a hydrocarbon perspective, the study area is Figure 1—Regional map of southern Argentina and Chile
adjacent to and has much in common with the most showing the location of the San Bernardo belt, principal
sedimentary basins (gray), and mountain ranges (shown
prolific of the Argentine oil provinces, the Cretaceous San by crystalline rock symbol). Hachures show location of the
Jorge basin. Production in the San Jorge began in 1907. San Bernardo belt. The rectangle outlines the area shown
Since then, over 50 medium to large fields and many in Figure 2.
smaller fields have been developed. Cumulative oil
production is greater than 350 million m3 (2.2 billion bbl).
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia
Figure 2—Schematic map showing main structural
features and oil fields in the central San Bernardo belt. See
Figure 1 for location.
405
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
Economic Basement
Igneous and sedimentary rocks in central Patagonia of
pre-Middle Triassic age are generally assigned to the
“basement” by the oil industry. These rock assemblages
include a variety of deformed metamorphic units
reflecting early–middle Paleozoic sedimentation at the
Pacific margin of Gondwana. They have been affected by
the subsequent orogenic evolution of the Patagonia
region (Miller, 1976; Hervé et al., 1981; Hervé, 1988;
Hervé and Mpodozis, 1990; Gonzalez Bonorino, 1991),
late Paleozoic intrusive events (Lesta et al., 1980) with
magmatic arc affinities (Forsythe, 1982), and Carbonif-
erous–Permian marine and nonmarine deposits attrib-
uted to fore-arc and back-arc settings (Ramos, 1983; Gust
et al., 1985) (Figure 3).
Lower–Middle Jurassic
A suite of terrigenous clastic and volcanic rocks as
thick as 2500 m is confined to north-northwest oriented
hanging wall extensional troughs, referred to as Lias and
Tobífera or Lonco Trapial (Ugarte, 1966; Lesta and Ferello,
1972). These sedimentary wedges rest on deformed
basement or on the upper Paleozoic succession. The
depocenters are commonly located adjacent to fold-
related thrusts. Substantial facies and thickness changes
are observed in outcrop (Cortiñas, 1984) near bounding
faults. The seismic geometries of these unconformity-
bounded tilted block wedges (Fitzgerald et al., 1990)
suggest that they postdate the onset of extension. The
facies vary widely between subaerial and normal marine
conditions (Musacchio, 1981; Cortiñas, 1984). Several
stratigraphic intervals, especially the upper members,
include volcaniclastic components (e.g., De Giusto et al.,
1980; Cortés, 1990) that were deposited as lahars and
alluvial fans constructed by debris flows; these were fed
into lacustrine systems and restricted marine seaways.
Coarse detritus from basement rocks were shed across
exposed fault scarps.
Upper Jurassic–Neocomian
The 2000–3000-m-thick Upper Jurassic–Lower Creta-
ceous Las Heras Group records the transition from
restricted sedimentation within multiple depocenters to
amalgamation into a more widespread interior basin
system (Fitzgerald et al., 1990). Persistent subaqueous
depositional environments and limited clastic supply are
reflected in the transgressive internal geometry
(Fitzgerald et al., 1990), the predominantly low
sandstone to shale ratio, and the pervasive black
mudstone and carbonate facies (Lesta and Ferello, 1972;
Barcat et al., 1989). A Classopollis-dominated pollen flora,
ostracod faunas, and widespread zeolites indicate the
existence of large and persistent saline to alkaline lakes
and a semiarid climate (Van Niewenhuise and Ormiston,
1989). Occasional foraminifera in some wells (Laffitte and
Villar, 1982) record an episodic connection with the
Pacific realm.
406 Peroni et al.
Figure 3—Chronostratigraphic summary of San Jorge basin. Numbers on the left are ages (Ma) attributed to the principal
sequence boundaries (SB). (Modified after Fitzgerald et al., 1990.)
Middle–Upper Cretaceous
The Upper Cretaceous Chubut Group consists of a
500–2000-m-thick succession of monotonously alternating
mudstones and sandstones with high pyroclastic influx
(Teruggi and Rosetto, 1963). Lateral facies and thickness
changes are gradual (Brown et al., 1982; Fitzgerald et al.,
1990). Proximal members contain numerous paleosols,
while their more distal equivalents incorporate mudstone
and cross-bedded sandstone lenses and sheets (Roll, 1938;
Sciutto, 1981). These depositional systems are attributed to
anastomosing and meandering river channels, broad
alluvial plains, and shallow ephemeral lakes and flood-
plain swamps (Teruggi and Rosetto, 1963; Sciutto, 1981).
Open marine influence is only encountered toward the
top of the succession in the Salamanqueano beds (Feruglio,
1948, 1949, 1950). In the Colhue Huapi–Musters lake
district (Figure 2), the Cretaceous tuffaceous sandstones
and mudstones provide a coherent beam that produced
broad buckles and box folds.
Cenozoic
The Tertiary record is represented by a 500–700-m-
thick column of pyroclastic-bearing clays and tuffs with
occasional sandstone interbeds (Simpson, 1940; Feruglio,
1948, 1949, 1950). A stacked succession of alternating
loess (Spalletti and Mazzoni, 1979) and tongues of
shallow marine deposits suggests a low-relief setting that
was episodically flooded by Atlantic waters during
periods of eustatic highstand (Legarreta et al., 1990).
Although previous authors have postulated a Cretaceous
folding event (Keidel, 1925) and multiple episodes of
Andean compression (e.g., Feruglio, 1929), the persis-
tently parallel seismic reflection patterns argue against
the occurrence of separate deformation phases. North of
Las Heras (Figure 2), the lower–middle Miocene strata of
the Superpatagoniano succession are involved in the
Bernardides compressional folding, suggesting that
contractional deformation of the foreland began no
earlier than the end of the middle Miocene (10–15 Ma).
STRUCTURAL STYLES
The San Bernardo mobile belt displays considerable
along-strike variation in tectonic style, a pattern that
resulted from vertical changes in the nature of prevalent
deformation and variable levels of erosional exposure.
The central part of the belt, from central Chubut to north-
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia
Figure 4—(a) Regional east-west seismic section I and (b) interpreted geologic cross section, showing location of the San
Bernardo belt isolated within a noninverted segment of the Patagonian slab. See Figures 1 and 2 for location.
ernmost Santa Cruz, is conspicuous because of its broad
structural features that involve the Cretaceous–lower
Cenozoic sequences. The areas north and south of this
middle segment that span the central Deseado and
western Somoncura massifs expose deeper horizons and
show the structural attitude at the level of the earlier
Mesozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic
successions. The following discussion focuses on the
central part of the Bernardides where long and arcuate
anticlines, broad synclines, and a variety of associated
faults provide opportunities for hydrocarbon exploration
(Figure 4).
The best exposures of the fold trend occur in the
Musters–Colhue Huapi lake region in central Chubut
(Figure 2), where the Bernardides form a distinct group
of anticlinal mountains separated by broad synclinal
valleys. South of the Senguerr River “elbow,” the folds
plunge beneath the level of the Patagonian meseta
(Figure 5), but industrial seismic imaging demonstrates
their continuity as far south as the Deseado River valley.
South of that latitude, the northward-oriented folds crop
out again over the northern fringe of the Deseado massif.
Along the western side of the belt, transition to the
nonfolded adjacent domain is abrupt and defined by a
sharp increase in the structural relief (Fitzgerald et al.,
1990) along steep fold limbs or reverse faults. The eastern
margin of the folded zone displays a more gradual loss
of structural relief across a zone where the folds interfere
with east-west oriented normal fault blocks. The internal
407
configuration of the fold tract shows limited along-strike
persistence of the main structural elements. The overall
structure forms a series of blocks characterized by linear
elements with slightly different prevailing orientations.
Smaller folds and faults with oblique orientations
provide a link between these main segments.
Many of the anticlines are sinuous to subparallel. In
detail, they are discontinuous and irregularly spaced,
and they locally relate to one another in en echelon or
relay patterns (Feruglio, 1929). Their cross sections show
relatively short wavelengths and medium to high ampli-
tudes. Large folds are usually narrow to box shaped with
intact cores, and in most cases, at least one of their flanks
is cut by reverse faults. The surface anticlines have asym-
metric profiles, but they lack a consistent vergence
direction. Backward and forward vergences alternate
along and across the Bernardides belt (Feruglio, 1929;
Sciutto, 1981), and several of the larger anticlines display
along-strike changes in facing direction.
Seismic control demonstrates that steep to slightly
overturned limbs generally evolved into longitudinal
thrusts. Changes in vergence appear to be associated
with relay transfers between thrusts located along each
of the flanks. In consequence, sections across fold culmi-
nations show the core zones as bivergent thrust slices or
downward-pointing “pop-up” wedges (Figures 6, 7).
The southern plunge of the Castillo anticline illustrates
the nature of along-strike changes in shortening style
(Figure 8). A series of right-lateral tear faults accommo-
408 Peroni et al.

Figure 5—Aerial photograph

showing outcrop pattern and
the southern plunge of the
Codo del Senguerr anticline.
See Figure 2 for location.

date the transfer from an asymmetric buckle into a

westward-dipping thrust fault. Galeazzi (1989) has
reported about the same amount of shortening north and
south of the transfer zone.
Previous studies of the area (Barcat et al., 1984;
Galeazzi, 1989; Meconi, 1989) found that the large anti-
clines display internal complexities related to strike-slip
faults. The long and arcuate Chenque-Challao anticline
(Figure 9) (Barcat et al., 1989), for example, shows consid-
erable internal segmentation due to differential displace-
ment along variably oriented tear faults that we interpret
as Riedel shears. These lower hierarchy fault surfaces
have not been detected in seismic sections, presumably
because of their limited extent and small vertical offset. It
is not known whether these tear zones involve basement
rocks. Working at a regional scale, Barcat et al. (1984)
noticed the existence of en echelon fold patterns and
deduced the presence of northwest-oriented strike-slip
faults trending at an angle to the Bernardides master
alignment. These left-lateral oblique shears do not
obviously cut the Cretaceous succession but are recog-
nized as a result of basement activity along preexisting
faults.

Figure 6—(a) Seismic line II and (b) interpreted geologic

cross section, showing inverted half-graben near Alto Río
Senguerr–Barranca Yankowsky. Numbers in (b) refer to
sequence boundary ages (Ma). See Figure 2 for location.
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia 409

Figure 7—Geologic cross section based on seismic line IV showing structural styles that form the anticlines exposed near
Rio Deseado–Cerro Bayo. See Figure 2 for location.

Several authors have attempted to define the amount

and mode of basement participation in the Bernardides
folds (Ferello and Scocco, 1952, in Lesta and Ferello, 1972;
Barcat et al., 1984; Fitzgerald et al., 1990). The existence of
considerable basement relief is demonstrated by drilling
in the region (Ferello and Lesta, 1973), but a more
complete answer will have to await studies of structural
styles in the Deseado and north-central Chubut where
roots of the system come to the surface.
The reflection seismic and well data coverage between
the Senguerr and Deseado valleys provides some clues
to the juxtaposition of contrasting deep and shallow
structures at the level of the basement and the Creta-
ceous cover (Figures 4, 6, 7). Considerable evidence
suggests that the preexisting fault pattern, shaped by
Mesozoic tensional vectors, strongly influenced the
present Bernardides compressional fabrics. Clastic
Figure 8—Schematic map of Castillo anticline. See Figure 2
wedges that formed after Jurassic basin inception
for location. (Simplified after Galeazzi, 1989.)
became contracted and were subjected to incipient to
moderate amounts of tectonic inversion. Most of the
reactivated normal faults show reverse offsets only at and transfer zones) produce a mosaic of blocks and slices
intermediate levels and retain a dominant normal sepa- having slightly different structural attitudes (Cerdán et
ration at depth. Thus, in spite of the impressive upper al., 1990).
level folds and buckles, the amount of total shortening is
thought to be modest.
In striking contrast, the dominant structural style in GEODYNAMIC INTERPRETATION
the noncontracted eastern San Jorge basin is that of a
normal fault block assemblage. The basic architecture The structural geology and development of the oil
consists of 15–25-km-wide structural panels bounded by systems in central Patagonia are best understood in
east-west oriented basement-involved and listric normal terms of the tectonic events that occurred in the final
faults. The activity of these basement fault blocks on a stages of the late Paleozoic Pangea, its Mesozoic breakup,
regional scale is believed to have controlled the deforma- the Cretaceous drift of South America away from Africa,
tion of the Cretaceous–Cenozoic succession. The rupture and finally, the change in boundary conditions that
pattern of the sedimentary cover is one of open to dense induced Cenozoic Andean orogenesis.
upward-branching planar faults rooted in a single The earliest evidence of structural activity along the
basement-penetrating fold (Figure 10). The areal configu- San Bernardo trend was related to the depocenters that
ration of the smaller accommodation faulting is complex, controlled accumulation of the thick upper Paleozoic
particularly at shallow levels. Frequent fault trace discon- successions (Ugarte, 1966; Lesta et al., 1980). Evolution of
tinuities (presumably related to relays, dog-leg offsets, these basins was linked to the tectonic history along the
410 Peroni et al.
Figure 9—Schematic map of Chenque-Challao anticline.
See Figure 2 for location. (Modified after Barcat et al.,
1984.)
Pacific margin of Patagonia (Forsythe, 1982; Hervé, 1988;
Gonzalez Bonorino, 1991). The presence of transtensional
troughs developed along NNW-SSE oriented mega-
shears might explain the thick Carboniferous and
Permian sequences that are confined to linear and
restricted depositional sites. A similar interpretation has
been proposed for the proximal side of the Paleozoic
foreland of north-central Argentina. Fernández-Seveso
et al. (1993) and Fernández-Seveso and Tankard (1995)
envision several early Paganzo subsiding troughs as a
distant response to oblique subduction along the South
American margin.
Control of early Mesozoic subsidence (Lesta and
Ferello, 1972; De Giusto et al., 1980) was dominantly
extensional (Table 1) and related to volcanic activity and
emplacement of granitoid stocks (Gust et al., 1985). This
Triassic–Jurassic history fits a framework of supracrustal
gravity collapse (e.g., Dewey, 1988) at the core of a
thermally weakened Paleozoic orogenic welt. Extension
and related volcanic activity became widespread during
the Middle–Late Jurassic, influencing areas well beyond
the San Bernardo belt (Uliana et al., 1985, 1989). Most
authors admit that the Mesozoic Tobífera (Chon Aike,
Lonco Trapial) episode heralded the Africa–South
America decoupling, while crustal extension developed
through a Basin and Range style multicomponent rift
system. Variations in the amount of regional stretching
were accommodated by intracontinental shear zones
aligned with future traces of the mid-Atlantic transform
faults (Windhausen, 1924; Uliana et al., 1989; Rapela,
1990).
By earliest Cretaceous time, the southern South
Atlantic Ocean began to open and fault-driven subsi-
dence started to die out in many Argentine basins
(Uliana et al., 1989). During the Cretaceous and
Paleogene, while South America drifted westward,
intraplate deposits accumulated in a broadening interior
sag. Detailed section balancing (Cerdán et al., 1990)
reveals that gentle extensional faulting, linked to
basement fault systems, segmented the Cretaceous sedi-
mentary cover. As a consequence, the reservoir-prone
Chubutiano suite was dissected by an accommodation
fault network that provided a crucial migration and
trapping element.
Late in the Cenozoic, the extensional stress field was
replaced by compressional conditions leading to
Bernardides folding and inversion, at which time the
structural belt began to emerge as a positive physio-
graphic element. Roughly coeval development and uplift
of the North Patagonian Cordillera (Skarmeta, 1976)
suggests that inversion of the San Bernardo was
promoted by a horizontal stress field generated by differ-
ential interaction at the Nazca–South America plate
boundary. Considering the distance between the
inverted belt and the subduction zone, the notion of
orogenic float (Ziegler, 1987; Oldow et al., 1990; Shaw et
al., 1991) provides a possible mechanism to explain the
transfer of motion into a spatially segregated transpres-
sional system that was active behind the late Cenozoic
magmatic arc and the Cordilleran thrust front.
The lack of a well-defined fold vergence suggests that
the San Bernardo belt was not deformed as a result of a
unidirectional deformational wave (“bulldozer” mode).
Instead, the structural styles and stratigraphic relation-
ships within the Tertiary series point toward deforma-
tion by regional collapse (“accordion” mode). This
involved more or less simultaneous reactivation of older
Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 411
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia
Table 1—Summary of Structural and Depositional Evolution Controlling the Oil System in the San Bernardo Belt
basement faults distributed throughout the contractional
zone. The displacement of the focus and the magnitude
of contractional structuring across the Bernardides were
probably accommodated by strike-slip displacement
along former graben-bounding and transfer faults.
HYDROCARBON HABITAT
Source Rocks
Several authors have recognized the hydrocarbon-
generating potential of the black shale and mudstone in
the Aguada Bandera, Guadal, D 129, and equivalent
intervals (Laffitte and Villar, 1982; Rodrigo Gainza et al.,
1984; Yllañez et al., 1989; Van Niewenhuise and
Ormiston, 1989). These Upper Jurassic–Neocomian
deposits preserve total organic carbon (TOC) and soluble
organic matter (SOM) levels well above the source
threshold. TOC content ranges between 1 and 2% and
locally above 3%; SOM is locally above 1000 ppm, and
total thicknesses may exceed several hundred meters in
places. Thickest developments are known at Cerro
Guadal, Aguada Bandera, Meseta Senguerr, Paso Río
Mayo, Mata Magallanes, and Aguada del León. Visual
413
observations and wide dispersal of points on Van
Krevelen plots reveal a mixture of terrestrial and aquatic
vegetable remains and the presence of type I, II, and III
kerogens, similar to those found in nonmarine basins in
China (Talbot, 1988).
Observations under transmitted light microscopy,
however, demonstrate the dominance of amorphous
organic matter. Organic matter counts show that the
presence of Celiphus rallus-like nonmarine algae (Figure
11) coincides with the prevalence of amorphous matter
(Figure 12). Where the algae are scarce or absent, the
samples record an increased proportion of terrestrial
matter (woody and coaly). The association of algae and
low terrigenous levels suggests that the presence of high-
yield organic matter resulted from peaks in lake produc-
tivity, attributed to highstand conditions. Several oils in
the San Jorge basin have been correlated with source
rocks dominated by amorphous matter and identified as
type II or III kerogens (Yllañez et al., 1989).
On the basis of the deep to shallow water interpreta-
tion of the San Jorge lacustrine depositional systems
(Fitzgerald et al., 1990) and the apparent vertical changes
in organic matter type and richness (G. Laffitte, personal
communication), we suggest a secular change in the
productivity and preservation regime. Uppermost
Jurassic–lower Neocomian organic-rich accumulations
414 Peroni et al.

Figure 11—Photomicrographs of oil-prone organic matter.

(a) (a) Prevalent amorphous organic matter. (b) Elongate form
is a Celiphus rallus-like freshwater algae. (c) Close-up of
the freshwater algae.

(b) (c)

appear to have developed following deeper anoxic and

mildly brackish conditions and in humid climates with
little seasonal contrast. Less prolific upper Neocomian
organic facies appear to represent shallower lakes with
ooidal benches, containing brackish to saline (alkaline)
waters promoted by semiarid climates.

Reservoirs
Hydrocarbon-bearing zones consist of tuffaceous
sandstone strata in the Aptian–Campanian Castillo and
Bajo Barreal formations (Sciutto, 1981). The reservoir
interval thickness spans 1000–2000 m in which the indi-
vidual productive members typically show limited
lateral continuity.
Studies of outcrops adjacent to some of the fields
(Sciutto, 1981; Galeazzi, 1989; Meconi, 1989; Figari et al.,
1990) demonstrate that most of the reservoirs consist of
sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone filling fluvial
paleochannels of various types. Distinctive sandstone
facies include sheet-type accumulations above mobile
channel belts, ribbon deposits linked to fixed channels,
and nonchannelized depositional lobes attributed to
crevasse splaying. They mostly represent multistory Figure 12—Geochemical profile of the organic-rich interval
complexes showing a high degree of internal hetero- in well A. See Figure 2 for location.
geneity. Paleocurrent measurements by Meconi (1989) of
outcrops at the Senguerr River elbow indicate a south- In most fields, the average pay thickness varies
eastward flow direction that shifts to an eastward flow between 7 and 12 m and is usually distributed in three or
toward the younger part of the sequences. These changes four zones. Reservoir quality is mediocre and generally
in flow direction reflect variations in discharge. Earlier inferior to most San Jorge basin reservoirs, a hydro-
conditions of braided patterns and bed load dominance carbon province not noted for performance of its indi-
were replaced by facies attributed to high-sinousity vidual producing zones (Eussler, 1970). Petrographic
rivers and mixed load sedimentation (Galeazzi, 1989). studies by Teruggi and Rosetto (1963) recognize a
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia 415

Figure 13—Temperature–burial modeling based on data

from well B. See Figure 2 for location.

mineral assemblage derived from andecite-dacite

materials and the frequent presence of glass shards,
suggesting deposition modified by volcanic activity.
These authors emphasize the presence of apparently
contrasting petrographic characteristics. These
encompass a mixture of angular quartz and plagioclase
clasts, with rounded rock fragments and interstitial
material composed of fragments of different origins and
sizes, that together resemble a graywacke texture. These
textural patterns are overprinted by interstitial analcime
and glass shard montmorillonitization, resulting in low-
performance reservoirs susceptible to formation damage.

Maturation and Migration

Figure 13 shows an attempt to model the time–
temperature evolution of a well located near the center of
the inversion tract. These calculations are in broad
agreement with assessments of present thermal condi-
tions based on vitrinite reflectance measurements. The
results were used to interpret the thermal and migration
histories in the region. The study implies that the
kerogen-rich interval, the oldest of the units with oil-
generating potential, remained in the oil generative zone
for about 80 Ma (Albian–Oligocene). An early entrance
into the oil window (Table 1) implies that, like other
parts of the San Jorge basin, the oil had ample opportu-
nity to migrate vertically along faults and to become
hosted in pre-Miocene extension-related traps. The
modeling also suggests that late deformation forming the
present closures postdates the main generating phase
and may even have formed after the oil had invaded the
porous Chubutiano strata. Consequently, we speculate
that the main effect of structural inversion processes was
to promote reaccommodation and cause possible
substantial loss of previously trapped hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon Traps
Most of the commercial hydrocarbon occurrences are
controlled by elongate anticlinal closures that follow an
irregular to locally clustered areal distribution of fields
Figure 14—Structural geometry contour map showing oil-
bearing anticlinal cluster near Cerro Guadal–Loma del Cuy.
See Figure 2 for location.
(Figure 14). Closures tend to be best defined at shallow
levels and are less common down section. Seismic
control shows that at greater depths the superficial
folding is replaced by faulted structures (Figures 4, 6, 7).
Several fields have faulted flanks that have been
subjected to variable amounts of structural inversion,
suggesting the presence of a whole family of prospects
that are largely underexplored.
Hydrocarbon distribution patterns within the closures
are irregular. Closure sizes are often larger than the oil-
bearing outlines, and hydrocarbon distribution appears
to be discontinuous within them. These anomalies are
attributed to stratigraphic heterogeneity and local leak
zones related to faults having throws below seismic reso-
416 Peroni et al.

lution. Other nonproductive closed structures, such as

the Aguada Bandera anticline, might reflect unfavorable
locations relative to forced relocation of hydrocarbons at
the time of Miocene structural events. As a result of
structural inversion and regional uplift, many folds
located near the northern and southern ends of the
productive tract were eroded down to levels below the
Chubutiano, thus losing their trapping effectiveness.
Although precise figures for cumulative production
and reserve size are not available, we estimate a recovery
level (primary) near 25–30 million m3 for the established
fields. On the basis of these estimates and of the density
of traps expected in inverted belts and an assessment of
the present levels of exploration and delineation in the
region, we suggest an undiscovered potential in the
15–30 million m3 range (Figure 2).

Hydrocarbon Occurrence Figure 15—Cross section based on seismic line III,

Commercial oil fields in the San Bernardo belt occur at
depths of 400–1300 m (Figure 15). Pools consist of
“black” oil, with gravities between 0.840 and 0.880 g/cm3
and low sulfur content. Gas to oil ratios are usually low,
near 200–700 m3/m3, but some fields have associated
free gas accumulations as well. Volume factors are close
to 1, and bubble points are lower than the original hydro-
static pressures. Reservoirs with significant hydraulic
drive are unknown, and most wells are produced by
pumping units. Under these circumstances, recovery
factors are low, from 8 to 18%. Common field sizes vary
from 1 to 2.5 million m3; individual well cumulative
production varies irregularly from 8000 to 25,000 m3.
CONCLUSIONS
The geologic nature and petroleum habitat of the San
Bernardo inversion belt are different from the typical
sub-Andean petroleum province. Prolific segments of the
South American foreland oil and gas trend, such as the
Colombian Los Llanos basin, the Eastern Venezuela
basin (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991), and the
Argentine–Chilean Austral (Magallanes) basin (Pittion
and Goudain, 1991), are characterized by laterally
drained petroleum systems that reached the generative
stage relatively late during the Cenozoic. Oil and gas
fields in these basins are located near the base of the
largely marine Cretaceous–Tertiary wedge that parallels
the Andean orogenic belt, in which hydrocarbons are
trapped by low-relief structures located updip from the
thermally mature source rocks. In contrast, the Bernard-
ides belt is characterized by a predominantly Mesozoic
succession in which both the organic-rich and reservoir
units were deposited in nonmarine settings.
From a source rock and reservoir rock perspective, the
Patagonian succession resembles the depositional styles
developed at intraplate hydrocarbon provinces, such as
the eastern China basins (Zaiyi, 1990; Fajing and Shulin,
1991) and some African basins such as the Sudan (Schull,
1988). The Bernardides are very different in that their
showing structural relief and hydrocarbon stratigraphic
distribution at Los Monos–Huetel. See Figure 2 for
location.
structural style is characterized by high-relief structures
resembling the deformation patterns typical of some
compressional belts and intraplate zones of inversion.
Similarities with the Syrian Palmyrides (Lovelock, 1984;
Best et al., 1990) and the northern African Atlas-Rif
Mountains (Mattauer et al., 1977; Wildi, 1983) are
apparent. The Sumatra back-arc system is a prolific oil
province developed in a comparable tectonic setting on
the foreland side of a late Cenozoic orogenic belt that is
linked to a noncollisional convergent plate junction
(Hamilton, 1979; Barber, 1985). Positive structures such
as the “Sunda” type folds of Eubank and Makki (1981)
and Letouzey (1990) form traps related to transpressional
inversion. These have many similarities with our central
Patagonian interpretation.
Exploration activity in Chubut and Santa Cruz
suggests that, despite favorable factors such as genera-
tion potential and structural traps with substantial
retention capacity, it is unlikely that the Bernardides will
contain fields larger than those already discovered. The
absence of large oil pools is possibly explained by the
lack of adequate time between structural inversion and
the principal episode of migration (Table 1). Available
evidence suggests that late inversion resulted in disper-
sive reaccommodation of hydrocarbons and partial
degradation of petroleum that was previously trapped
by extensional faulting such as the large fault block oil
fields in the prolific San Jorge play belt.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank ASTRA
C.A.P.S.A Exploration and Production for encouragement and
for permission to publish this paper. Editorial and technical
comments by Tony Tankard and an anonymous reviewer are
greatly appreciated. Our appreciation is extended to Raúl
Genovesi for drafting preparation and to Maria Cristina
Bardelli for typing the manuscript.
 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia
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 Hydrocarbons in Inverted Segment of Andean Foreland: San Bernardo Belt, Central Patagonia 419

Authors’ Mailing Addresses

G. O. Peroni
A. G. Hegedus
J. Cerdan
L. Legarreta
M. A. Uliana
Astra C.A.P.S.A.
Exploración y Producción
Tucuman 744, Piso 7
1049 Buenos Aires
Argentina

G. Laffitte
Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales S.A.
Roque Sáenz Peña 777
1049 Buenos Aires
Argentina
Andean Basins

ILLIMANI of the Cordillera Real, viewed across Lake Titicaca, Bolivia, at

4200 m altitude, the highest navigable lake in the world. Illimani (6402 m)
consists of lower Paleozoic strata in discordant contact with a middle Tertiary
granitic batholith and is elevated along a west-vergent thrust sheet.

Edgar Ortiz, 1994, watercolor, 30 x 23 cm

 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru

Jeremy M. P. Mathalone Manuel Montoya R.

PetroSantander Inc. CIA Consultora de Petroleo S.A.
Houston, Texas, U.S.A. Lima, Peru

Abstract

S ub-Andean Peru comprises the Marañon, Ucayali, and Madre de Dios basins which, together with three
subsidiary basins, cover an area of 370,000 km2. These basins extend considerable distances northward
into Ecuador and Colombia and southeastward into Bolivia. More than 5 billion bbl of recoverable oil have
been discovered in these basins, of which over 1 billion bbl of oil and almost 7 tcf of gas are in Peru.
The Tertiary foreland basins in front of the Eastern Cordillera are filled with up to 4 km of Tertiary molasse
sedimentary rocks. The basins are mainly of Miocene age and overlie older Paleozoic and Mesozoic depocen-
ters. Three major compressional episodes are recognized: a Middle Triassic event, an Early Cretaceous event
associated with major unconformities in some areas, and a regionally pervasive late Miocene–Pliocene
(Quechua III) event expressed in thrusting and compressional folding over most of sub-Andean Peru.
Two families of oils are differentiated in the Marañon basin, related to Permian and Cretaceous source
rocks. Three groups of oils in the Ucayali basin derive from Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic
sources. Oil samples in the Madre de Dios basin correlate to Devonian and Carboniferous shales. A variety of
trap types have been identified. The foreland can be divided into areas where preexisting faults have been
reversed by late Tertiary compression and flexural uplift, and areas unaffected by this deformation where
older, more subtle traps are important. To the west, the sub-Andean belt comprises regions where basement-
involved thrusts predominate and other areas characterized by thin-skinned thrusting. The Oriente-Marañon-
Ucayali basin complex has at least one large hydrocarbon accumulation in each trap type. The level of explor-
ation is low, and many areas are virtually unexplored.

Resumen

L a zona sub andina del Perú incluye las cuencas de antepaís de Marañón, Ucayali y Madre de Dios asi
como las cuencas de Santiago, Huallaga y Ene en el piedemonte. Conjuntamente estas cuencas cubren
unos 370 000 km2. Las cuencas se extienden hacia el norte en Ecuador y Colombia y hacia el sur en Bolivia. Mas
de 5 billones de barriles han sido descubiertos en estas cuencas, de los cuales un poco más de un billon de
barriles de aceite y casi 7 TCP de gas en Perú.
En frente de la Cordillera Oriental las cuencas de antepaís están rellenas por hasta 4 km de sedimentos
molásicos Terciarios. Estas cuencas de antepaís son principalmente de edad Miocena y cubren cuencas Pale-
ozóicas y Mesozóicas. Se reconocen tres episodios principales de deformaciones compresionales: un evento en
el Trias medio, un evento en el Cretáceo inferior asociado con una discordancia regional en ciertas áreas y un
evento de edad Mioceno tardio-Plioceno (Quechua III) expresado por pliegues y cabalgamientos los cuales se
observan regionalmente en el sub andino Peruano.
Se distinguen dos familias de aceites en la cuenca de Marañón que provienen respectivamente de rocas
fuentes Pérmicas y Cretácicas. En la cuenca Ucayali se reconocen tres tipos de aceites que derivan respectiva-
mente del Devónico, Carbonífero, Pérmico y Triásico. Unas muestras de petróleo de la cuenca Madre de Dios
corelacionan con unas arcillas del Devónico y del Carbonífero. Se identificaron varios tipos de trampas. La
zona de antepaís se puede dividir en dos; con un área donde unas fallas antiguas fueron invertidas durante la
compresión del Terciario superior con levantamiento de las estructuras y flexura de los sedimentos, y un área
que no ha sido afectado por esta ultima deformación y donde unas trampas más antiguas y más sútiles son
importantes. Hacia el oeste el cinturón del piedemonte incluye zonas donde los cabalgamientos involucran el
basamento y otras zonas donde los cabalgamientos no involucran el basamento y se horizontalizan en la
cobertura sedimentaria. La cuenca Marañón-Oriente tiene por lo menos una acumulación de hidrocarburos
importante en cada tipo de trampa. El nivel de exploración es bajo y varias áreas están virtualmente inexplo-
radas.

Mathalone, J. M. P., and Montoya R., M., 1995, Petroleum geology of the sub-Andean 423
basins of Peru, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of
South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 423–444.
424 Mathalone and Montoya

Putumayo Brazilian
Shield 80
Basin

70
Oriente COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
Basin
60

Maranon 50
BRAZILIAN

Number of Fields
Basin
A' SHIELD
Iquitos
40
4°
PERU
Cushabatay
Santiago High BRAZIL
A Basin
30
2 km Base
Cretaceous Contour
Contaya 20
Bagua High Oil Field
Basin Gas Field
10
Basins 2
Huallaga Lines of 1
Basin section on Fig. 3 0
8° Pucallpa
Eastern B' Regional seismic 0 10 30 100 300 1000 3000
Cordillera line Fig. 4 Field Size (Million BBLS Oil)
E. Ucayali
Andes B Well location
Mountains Shira Basin for Fig. 10
High KEY AREA TOTAL NUMBER OF NUMBER OF SUCCESS
RESERVES WILDCAT DISCOVERIES RATE (%)
W. Ucayali Fitzcarrald (MMBBLS) WELLS
Basin High Putumayo 400 MM 67 22 33%
C'Madre (Colombia)
De Dios Maranon/Ucayali 1,350 MM* 113 29 26%
Basin BOLIVIA (Peru)

12° Lima Ene D' Oriente 3,300 MM 165 47 28%

Basin
Pacific Urubamba C (Ecuador)
5,050 MM 345 98 29%
High Eastern
Ocean Cordillera
0 100 200

km
75°
Figure 1—Foreland basins of Peru showing tectonic
framework and distribution of oil and gas fields. Locations
of Figures 3, 4, and 10 are shown.
INTRODUCTION
The sub-Andean foreland basins span the length of
the Andes from Venezuela in the north to the southern-
most tip of South America. All the major basins and
many of the smaller basins are hydrocarbon bearing, and
all have been substantially deformed relatively recently.
The Marañon, Ucayali, and Madre de Dios are the
principal foreland basins. Each has subsidiary basins,
such as the Ene, Huallaga, and Santiago basins, where
they have been deformed and partitioned in the foothills
of the Andean fold and thrust belt (Figure 1).
Despite the drilling of the first well (the Agua Caliente
field discovery) in 1938, exploration of the sub-Andean
basins of Peru has mainly taken place from 10 to 25 years
ago. During this time, most of the 122 wildcat wells were
drilled and seismic coverage was extended to much but
not all of the prospective basinal areas. The results of this
exploration effort and the large volume of geologic work
in the area, particularly by Petroperu and Occidental
who discovered most of the oil during this phase,
indicate that a complex petroleum system exists, with
multiple hydrocarbon sources from lower Paleozoic to
Cretaceous.
On the strength of these oil discoveries, a trans-
Andean pipeline was completed in 1977 for an annual
production in excess of 100,000 bbl of oil per day
D
71°
Figure 2—Field size distribution and discovery rates for
Ucayali-Marañon-Oriente-Putumayo basin complex. The
reserve total for the Marañon and Ucayali basins (1350
million bbl) includes 600 million bbl proven and probable
condensates estimated for the Camisea area.
(BOPD). Exploration, in contrast, decreased in the late
1970s as other operators were unable to emulate the
success of Petroperu and Occidental. In the middle 1970s,
Cities Service and Andes Petroleum recorded over 2000
km of seismic data in the Madre de Dios basin and
drilled five dry holes; these are the only wells drilled in
the Peruvian Madre de Dios. In 1979–1980, Shell signed
blocks 38 and 42 in the southernmost Ucayali basin.
Some seismic acquisition followed the drilling of the
Sepa well, which recovered only a small amount of
Carboniferous oil. The San Martin well, spudded in 1983,
flowed 41 million cubic feet of gas per day (MMCFGD)
and 1626 bbl of condensate per day (BCD) from Creta-
ceous sandstones. The Cashiriari wildcat well drilled in
1986 flowed at similar rates mainly from the same reser-
voirs. Present proven reserve estimates are about 6.5 tcf
gas and 400 million bbl of condensate. Mipaya 1X,
however, encountered modest amounts of gas in
Permian reservoirs, indicating that not all the major
surface anticlines in this area were charged with large
gas-condensate accumulations. Failing to reach an
agreement to develop this resource, Shell ceased all
exploration activities in 1988 and also relinquished the
Madre de Dios basin foothills acreage where they had
recorded 500 km of seismic data.
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 425

W E
A CAPIRONA PAVAYACU A'
0 SANTIAGO MARANON BASIN
BASIN
Depth - km

10

15
SW AGUA NE
B AGUAYTIA B'
CALIENTE
0 W. UCAYALI UCAYALI BASIN
Depth - km

5 Tertiary-Recent

10 Cretaceous

15 U - Trias - Jurassic
S N
C CASHIRIARI SAN MARTIN C'
Triassic Salt
0 S. UCAYALI BASIN
Depth - km

5 Upper Paleozoic

10 Lower Paleozoic

15 Pre - Ordovician
Basement
S N
D PARIAMANU D'
0 MADRE DE DIOS BASIN
Depth - km

10
0 50 100 km
15

Figure 3—Geologic cross sections through the foreland basins of Peru showing the composite form of pre-Cretaceous
extensional basins that have been modified by younger encroachment of the Cordilleran fold and thrust belt. The climax of
Andean deformation and foreland basin subsidence occurred in the late Cenozoic. See Figure 1 for locations (A–A' through
D–D'). (Modified in part from Petroperu, 1989.)

By the end of the 1980s, there was little exploration of
the sub-Andean basins in Peru, with only Petroperu and
Occidental being active. Mobil Exploration signed blocks
covering most of the Huallaga basin in 1989, recording
seismic data prior to drilling a dry well. Production from
the Peruvian sub-Andean fields also dropped, from
128,000 BOPD in 1980 to 77,000 BOPD in 1992, reflecting
the lack of new discoveries. During the 1990s, however,
in response to more favorable contract terms, a number
of companies have negotiated contracts and exploration
activity is again increasing. Figure 2 summarizes the field
size distribution for the Oriente, Marañon, and Ucayali
basins.
This paper presents a simple, integrated review of the
petroleum geology of the sub-Andean basins of Peru.
Some data from the Oriente basin of Ecuador are included
because it is completely contiguous with, although
surprisingly different from, the Peruvian Marañon basin.
BASIN SETTING
The Peruvian margin of South America preserves a
long history of deformation and basin formation. The
basement fabric was established by accretion of conti-
nental fragments or terranes to the edge of the Brazilian
shield. At the end of the Precambrian and beginning of
the Cambrian, the Brasiliano tectonic event created the
structural framework that has been repeatedly reacti-
vated throughout the Phanerozoic (Sempere, 1995). Early
Paleozoic sediments were deposited on a fault-controlled
passive margin adjacent to a collision zone (Figure 3).
Subduction-related granitoids were emplaced in
southern Peru in Late Ordovician–Early Devonian time
(Mukasa and Henry, 1990). Late Devonian–Early
Carboniferous deformation is reflected in a regional
unconformity resulting from the Chanic orogeny of
northwestern Argentina (equivalent to the Caledonian).
Tertiary orogenesis built the Andean fold and thrust belt
as well as the flexural foreland basins. Compressive reac-
tivation and inversion of the older basement-involved
fault system dissected and partitioned the foreland basin
into several depocenters (Figure 3).
The Marañon basin is part of a much larger structural
basin that includes the Oriente basin of Ecuador and the
Putumayo basin of southern Colombia (Figure 1). The
whole province is a typically asymmetric foreland basin
covering 320,000 km2. The western margin of the basin
426 Mathalone and Montoya
SW
SECS
TWT
1.0
Top Cretaceous
2.0
Base Cret.
3.0
Base Pucara Fm
4.0
?
0 25 50 km
Figure 4—Regional seismic cross section, Marañon basin, showing Paleozoic extensional fault and half-graben, westward-
thickening Mesozoic succession, basement-involved thrusting to the southwest, and a thick Tertiary foreland basin succes-
sion. Tertiary compression has reactivated the Paleozoic normal faults in the reverse sense and created local forced folds.
See Figure 1 for location.
consists of the 50–200-km-wide sub-Andean belt of
thrusted Mesozoic sedimentary rocks that abut the large
Santiago, Huallaga, and Ene basins (Figures 1, 3). The
Marañon and its subsidiary basins contain up to 4000 m
of Tertiary molasse deposits that were shed from the
Cordillera rising to the west. The extreme western part of
the basin is dominated by a series of back-thrusts that
isolated the Santiago basin (Rodriguez, 1982). Under-
lying the Tertiary molasse fill is a westward-thickening
Cretaceous clastic section that contains much of the
source and most of the proven oil reserves as well as an
older Triassic–Jurassic wedge. A suite of Paleozoic rift
basins have suffered minor inversion in the eastern
foreland. The geometry of this basin fill and the local
inversion are shown in the seismic profile of Figure 4.
In contrast to the broad simplicity of the Marañon
basin, the Ucayali basin is formed into a series of west-
dipping asymmetric lows by massive basement-involved
east-verging thrusts (Figure 1). There are two principal
depocenters, the West Ucayali basin (or Pachitea basin)
and the East Ucayali basin (Figure 3), which coalesce to
the north. The Ucayali basin is bounded on the north by
the Contaya and Cushabatay uplifts, on the west by the
overthrusted Andean range, and on the south by the
Fitzcarrald high that constricts the basin. This high is
associated with a northeast-trending normal fault system
of Paleozoic origin and with an abrupt change in the
trend of the Andean Cordillera and associated faults.
The sedimentary fill of the Ucayali basin is similar to
the Marañon basin, comprising up to 3000 m of Tertiary
continental molasse clastics overlying westward-thick-
ening marine-dominated wedges of Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous age. Unlike the basins farther north, the
Paleozoic section in the Ucayali basin is marked by
conspicuous thickening of the Devonian Cabanillas
Formation to over 800 m in the Camisea area. The
dominant structural form of the Ucayali basin is major
basement-involved thrusting, but in the extreme south,
there is a zone of thin-skinned thrusting and folding that
is expressed in the anticlines that form the giant
YANAYACU OILFIELD
NE
Top Carb.
Basement
Cashiriari and San Martin gas fields. The Ucayali basin is
separated from the adjacent Ene basin of the foothills by
the reactivated Shira high (Figures 1, 3).
The Madre de Dios basin, covering 120,000 km2, is a
southward-dipping foreland basin bounded on the south
by a 40–70-km-wide zone of detached thrusts that form
the sub-Andean foothills. More than half of the basin lies
in Bolivia where it is bounded on the east by the Madidi
high (Figure 1). The Madre de Dios basin is notable in
that the foreland monocline appears to be virtually un-
deformed, although there are large gaps in seismic
coverage. The succession consists of Devonian–Permian
marine shales and carbonates, thin Cretaceous conti-
nental strata, and the ubiquitous Tertiary cover sequence.
The thin Devonian–Cretaceous argillaceous section
exceeds 1500 m in the depocenter near the Bolivian
border. A major unconformity separates the Devonian
and Carboniferous rocks. Only eight wells have been
drilled in this remote basin (including three in Bolivia),
where exploration focuses on Paleozoic intervals in
contrast to the basins farther north where the Mesozoic
section is the major target.
STRATIGRAPHY
Paleozoic
The sedimentary section of sub-Andean Peru ranges
from Ordovician to Recent in age (Figure 5). Although
the present geometry of the basin reflects late Tertiary
deformation, most of the succession is of significance to
hydrocarbon exploration (Figure 6). Economic basement
for the petroleum industry in eastern Peru comprises
upper Precambrian metamorphic formations with a
dominant northwest-southeast grain above the lower
Proterozoic cratonic rocks of the Arequipa massif, under
the present Eastern Cordillera and sub-Andean basins to
the west and the Brazilian shield to the east. The earliest
Paleozoic rocks deposited over this basement are the
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 427

MARANON UCAYALI MADRE DE MAJOR

BASIN BASIN DIOS BASIN TECTONIC Brazilian
EVENTS Shield
PLIO CORRIENTES/MARANON
QUECHUA III
Maranon/Oriente
Basin
TERTIARY

MIO
IPURURO PEBAS QUECHUA II
QUECHUA I
CHAMBIRA COLOMBIA
OLIG
POZO ECUADOR
EOC INCAIC
PAL
YAHUARANGO BRAZIL
PERU
SCU/HU/CASABLANCA PERUVIAN
UPPER

VIVIAN VIVIAN Iquitos

U. Jurassic
CRETACEOUS

CHONTA CHONTA 4° L. Jurassic

AGUA CALIENTE U. Triassic
LOWER

RAYA (ESPERANZA) ORIENTE L. Triassic

GROUP U. Permian
CUSHABATAY
NEVADAN L. Permian
SARAYAQUILLO GROUP Carboniferous
JURASSIC
Devonian
to Ordovician
PUCARA GROUP
Basement
TRIASSIC
TRIASSIC
MITU GROUP EVENT
PERMIAN ENE LATE 8° Huallaga Pucallpa
COPACABANA HERCYNIAN
TARMA Basin Ucayali
CARBONI-
FEROUS AMBO Basin
CHANIC
DEVONIAN CABANILLAS
Andes
SILURIAN ANANEA/SAN GABAN TACONIAN Mountains
ORDOVICIAN CONTAYA UPLIFT
CAMBRIAN
PRECAMB
BASEMENT

Significant Hydrocarbon Significant Madre BOLIVIA

Occurrence Source Rock De Dios
Lima
12° Basin
Ene
Pacific Basin
Ocean
Figure 5—Comparative stratigraphic column for composite 0 100 200
Marañon, Ucayali, and Madre de Dios basins. Quechua III
km
was a major diastrophism. Peruvian tectonism is only 75° 71°
recorded in Cordillera outcrops. Equivalent Cretaceous
formation names in Ecuador are noted in Figure 10. Figure 6—Cretaceous subcrop map.

organic-rich shales and arenites of the Ordovician marine
Contaya Group. Less than 1000 m are preserved,
although considerably greater thicknesses are thought to
have been originally deposited in southern Peru. The
Ordovician thins eastward onto the Brazilian shield and
is absent over some regional highs such as the Contaya
and Shira platforms, indicating the antiquity of these
structural elements.
Little Silurian deposition or erosion is thought to have
occurred; fine-grained marine clastics of the Devonian
Cabanillas Formation overlie the Ordovician with only
minor disconformity. Glacial sedimentary rocks in
Bolivia indicate possible eustatic sea level fall at this time.
The Devonian Cabanillas Formation is thickest (over
1500 m) beneath the Madre De Dios basin near the
Bolivian border. This formation is mainly shale prone
with local development of coarse-grained clastics in
small coarsening-upward deltaic sequences. Deforma-
tion during the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous
is expressed in local low-grade metamorphism and a
stratigraphic hiatus in the Marañon and Ucayali basins
(Figure 5).
Carboniferous–Lower Permian sediments were
deposited in a basin with a northwest-oriented depo-axis
broadly following the trend now occupied by the Eastern
Cordillera. The lowest Carboniferous rocks are the
fluvial clastics of the Dinantian Ambo Group,
comprising conglomerates, sandstones, shales, coals, and
subordinate tuffs. After a period of nondeposition in the
Namurian, the Westphalian was marked by transgres-
sion and deposition of the Tarma Formation, a thin cover
of sandstones, carbonates, and local tuffs. The lack of
coarse clastics reflects a low-relief source area. These
terrigenous strata are generally followed unconformably
by the thicker carbonate Copacabana Group of West-
phalian–Early Permian age. These are typically fossilif-
erous platform carbonates that grade laterally into evap-
oritic facies. The Copacabana limestones covered most of
sub-Andean Peru, except over the Contaya arch (Figure
1) where the Cretaceous erosively overlies lower
Paleozoic rocks (Eduardo, 1991).
The Copacabana Group is succeeded conformably by
the Ene Formation, comprising up to 600 m of black
organic-rich shales and dolomites with minor sandstones
(Figure 7). This is a regressive hypersaline sequence that
originally covered most of the area prior to Triassic
erosion. All of these formations onlap the western and
southern flanks of the Contaya high, which is believed to
have been emergent throughout the late Paleozoic.
Toward the end of the Permian and earliest Triassic, the
entire area was uplifted and continental clastics and
volcaniclastics of the Mitu Formation were deposited in
small, fault-bounded extensional basins. The Mitu
Formation is one of the few pre-Andean units that clearly
shows thickening into faults, implying syndepositional
faulting.
428 Mathalone and Montoya
Maranon/Oriente
Basin
ECUADOR
Iquitos
4°
8° Pucallpa
Ucayali
Andes Basin
Mountains
12° Lima
Ene
Basin
Pacific
Ocean
0 100 200
km
75°
Figure 7—Permian Ene formation distribution showing oil
to source correlation.
Mesozoic
Early Triassic uplift and erosion were contempora-
neous with Mitu deposition and were associated with
voluminous igneous activity in the area of the present
Cordillera. The Triassic event, colloquially referred to as
the Jurua orogeny, was one of the most significant
erosional events in the geologic history of sub-Andean
Peru. Throughout much of the Marañon and Ucayali
basins, major faulting and erosion alternately preserved
and eroded thick Paleozoic sections (Figure 8A). The pre-
Andean terrane of the Marañon and Ucayali basins thus
comprises a suite of Paleozoic rifts and interbasin highs
without cover deposits (Figure 8A). This event marks the
transition to the Andean orogeny. Little faulting or
erosion is apparent in the Madre de Dios basin, where
relatively uneroded pre-Andean sedimentary rocks are
conformably overlain by the Cretaceous succession. An
exception is the Cenozoic foreland basin, where Creta-
ceous sediments unconformably overlie progressively
older units down to the Devonian in a southward
direction. However, it is believed that this erosion is of
Early Cretaceous age (Figures 3, 8A).
Subsidence and marine transgression continued in the
Late Triassic with deposition of the Upper Triassic–
Lower Jurassic Pucara Group. This succession was
deposited in a widespread low covering the western
Brazilian Marañon and Ucayali basins. The depocenter appears to
Shield
have been west of the present basins, the preserved
Pucara section forming a spatially restricted westward-
COLOMBIA
thickening wedge of sediments (Figures 6, 8B).
Deposition in this Late Triassic basin started with
BRAZIL
restricted halites and anhydrites of the basal Pucara
Group, a locally thick and mobile layer that accommo-
dated later thin-skinned detachment. These evaporites
are succeeded by widespread platform limestones,
PERU
argillaceous limestones, and shales that are over 1000 m
thick in outcrops in the Cordillera and suggest a paleo-
Good Oil Correlation bathymetry that shallowed toward the east. The typical
with Ene Source
organic richness of these sedimentary rocks testifies to
Partial Oil Correlation
with Ene Source the restricted nature of the basin at that time.
Early movement of the Pucara halites together with
Outcrop sample
TOC >2.5% regional uplift along the western margin of the basin
Outcrop sample
affected deposition of the regressive Upper Jurassic
TOC <2.5% Sarayaquillo Formation. This suite of continental sand-
stones, conglomerates, and red beds blanketed the
Pucara Group but, unlike the underlying marine
deposits, they thin westward. The boundary between the
Sarayaquillo and the underlying Pucara Group is
Madre
De Dios generally unconformable, reflecting onset of earliest
Basin BOLIVIA Cretaceous (Nevadan) tectonism and indicating early salt
movement. The close of the Jurassic, like many basins
worldwide, is marked by a regional Nevadan unconfor-
mity, commonly the only unconformity visible on
seismic data (Figure 4). A hiatus of about 20 m.y. is
inferred between the top of the Upper Jurassic Saraya-
71°
quillo Formation and the overlying Cretaceous succes-
sion.
The Cretaceous comprises a westward-thickening
wedge of fluvial and marginal marine clastics that occur
in five formations (Figures 5, 9, 10): two shale-prone units
sandwiched between three sandstone sequences. Deposi-
tion is attributed to tectonic as well as eustatic processes
as suggested by the persistence of the stratigraphy for at
least 1500 km (Figure 10). The Cushabatay Formation
represents the initial marine transgressive sandstones of
the Cretaceous. They are thickly bedded, medium- to
coarse-grained cross-bedded quartz arenites that are
interbedded with subordinate shales containing
abundant plant detritus. These sandstones were
deposited in a delta plain to marginal marine setting;
they form good hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Overlying the Cushabatay sandstones is the Albian
Raya Formation (Figure 5), consisting of up to 300 m of
organic-rich marine shales interbedded with minor silt-
stones, fine-grained sandstones, and subordinate sandy
limestones. To the west, the shales are rich in organic
material and were deposited in a shallow restricted
marine environment. Toward the Cretaceous deposi-
tional edge in the east, the Raya Formation grades into
less organic-rich littoral shales. The Raya Formation
wedges out toward the south (Figure 10), where conti-
nental conditions prevailed over much of the Madre de
Dios basin throughout the Cretaceous.
The middle Cretaceous Agua Caliente Formation
(Figure 10) comprises coarse-grained, large-scale cross-
bedded sandstones. These are interbedded with fine-
grained sandstones, siltstones, and black shales with
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 429

Brazilian Brazilian
Shield Shield
Maranon/Oriente Maranon/Oriente
Basin Basin
COLOMBIA COLOMBIA
ECUADOR ECUADOR
BRAZIL

BRAZIL
PERU
Iquitos Iquitos
PERU

75
4° L. Triassic 4°

0
U. Permian Correlation of
L. Permian oil with Pucara

250
Carboniferous group source

500
Devonian Pucara Outcrop
to Ordovician
Outcrop sample
Basement TOC >2.5%

Thrusted Outcrop Sample

Outcrop TOC <2.5%
8° 8°
Pucallpa
Huallaga Ucayali 500 Pucallpa
C.I. = 250m Gross Thickness
Basin Basin Ucayali

250
Basin
Andes
Mountains Andes
Mountains Madre
De Dios
Basin
Madre
De Dios BOLIVIA
Basin BOLIVIA
Lima Ene Lima Ene
12° A Basin B Basin
12°

Pacific Pacific
Ocean Ocean
0 100 200 0 100 200

km km

75° 71° 75° 71°

Figure 8—Triassic basin. (A) Middle Triassic subcrop map. (B) Isopach of Triassic–Jurassic Pucara Group and total organic
carbon (TOC). (TOC largely after Touzett and Sanz, 1985.)

abundant plant remains. The sandstones are up to 350 m
thick and generally have favorable reservoir characteris-
tics. Like the rest of the Cretaceous stratigraphy, these
clastics were largely sourced from the Brazilian shield.
The uppermost Albian–lowermost Turonian Agua
Caliente Formation grades from fluvial in the southern
area to estuarine and marginal marine in the north. Bio-
stratigraphic evidence suggests a depositional hiatus
within this formation spanning much of the Cenomanian
(the so-called Mochica event).
The greatest Cretaceous transgression occurred
during the Coniacian and early Santonian when the
shale-prone Chonta Formation was deposited (Figure
11A). The lower part of the Chonta Formation is
commonly arenaceous with nearshore glauconitic sand-
stones, up to 3 m thick, interbedded with ripple cross-
laminated mudstones. These bar and shoal deposits
grade upward into dark organic-rich inner shelf shales.
Although present over most of sub-Andean Peru (Figure
10), the shales are best developed in the northern part of
the Marañon basin and its continuation in the Ecuado-
rian Oriente basin (Napo Formation), as shown by the
organic carbon distribution (Figure 11A). The formation
thins and becomes sandier toward the east and south
concomitant with shallowing. Farther south, in the South
Ucayali and Madre De Dios basins, the entire Cretaceous
section consists of terrestrial sedimentary rocks.
The Upper Cretaceous Vivian Formation is the most
important reservoir zone of the Peruvian sub-Andean
basins (Figure 11B). It is generally a single sandstone
body, but thickens into a series of sandstones as much as
150 m thick in the northeastern Marañon basin. In the
Oriente basin of Ecuador, its counterpart, the Napo M-1
sandstone, is widely eroded due to post-Cretaceous
uplift.
The depositional environment of the Vivian
Formation varies over the area. It is fluvial in the north-
eastern Marañon basin, the eastern part of the Ucayali
basin, and the entire Madre de Dios basin, but has
marginal marine affinities to the west. A large number of
wells were drilled by Occidental in the northern part of
the Marañon basin adjacent to the Ecuadorian border. In
this area, the lower Vivian sandstones are clean, cross
bedded, and were deposited as elongate bodies with
paleocurrents directed toward the southwest (Augusto et
al., 1990). The sparcity of carbonaceous detritus indicates
an arid alluvial plain. The upper sandstones locally form
marginal marine bar and channel sandstones. Overall,
the Campanian Vivian Formation was deposited during
a major regression following the Chonta highstand.
Most of the Maastrichtian interval was nondeposi-
tional in the Madre de Dios basin, but is represented in
430 Mathalone and Montoya

Brazilian 600 Brazilian

Shield Shield

-2.0
Maranon/Oriente Maranon/Oriente
ECUADOR Basin Basin
COLOMBIA COLOMBIA
-3.0

20
ECUADOR
-4.0

0
-5.0

400
-60

800
Iquitos Iquitos
4° PERU 4°
PERU
1200

16
BRAZIL BRAZIL

00
-5.0 Foothills
-4.0 basin with
complex thrusting C.I. = 200 m
and folding
Santiago
Basin C.I. = 1 Km
.0
-1
8° Pucallpa Pucallpa 8°
Huallaga
Basin Ucayali Basin Ucayali
-2.0

Basin
-1.0

Andes
Mountains Andes
Mountains
Madre
Sub-Andean De Dios
Thrust Belt -1.0 Basin

400
Madre BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA
De Dios
-2.0 Basin
12° A Lima Ene
Basin -3.0 B Lima Ene 12°
Basin
Pacific -4.0
Pacific
Ocean Ocean
0 100 200
0 100 200

km
km
75° 71° 75° 71°
Figure 9—Cretaceous basin. (A) Depth to base of Cretaceous (partially after Salas, 1991). (B) Isopach of Cretaceous basin fill.

the Ucayali basin by three thin, terrigenous clastic units
with a combined thickness generally less than 250 m. The
lowest unit, the Cachiyacu Formation, represents a minor
marine transgression and deposition of littoral to
estuarine dark gray shales and interbedded, fine-grained
sandstones. These shales form a good seal. The marginal
marine Cachiyacu Formation grades upward into red
floodplain mudstones of the Huchpacayu Formation.
The Cretaceous sequence of the Ucayali basin is capped
with thin marginal marine sandstones and shales of the
Casablanca Formation. These Maastrichtian clastics are
not documented in most of the Marañon basin, where it
is believed that they were eroded prior to the Tertiary.
Tertiary
The foreland basins of Peru contain a molasse wedge
up to 4000 m thick that was deposited in front of the
encroaching Andean fold and thrust belt, mainly in late
Tertiary time. These deposits are of little commercial
interest, except for their sealing capabilities. The rapid
deposition of these molasse sediments and the formation
or modification of structural traps affects the generation,
migration, and entrapment of petroleum in earlier
deposits.
The Paleocene Yahuarango Formation, which
conformably overlies the Cretaceous succession,
comprises a westward-thickening wedge of red shales
and subordinate sandstones. The unit is up to 300 m
thick in the extreme west, but considerably thinner
elsewhere. The overlying Pozo Formation is a sandstone
and tuff interval that is covered with thin shales attrib-
uted to marine incursion. This upper Eocene–lower
Oligocene unit is ascribed to increased erosion of the
rising Cordillera and concomitant sag of the flexural
basin due to the applied orogenic load; this deformation
is referred to as the Incaic event.
The Oligocene–middle Miocene is represented by the
Chambira Formation composed of thick, red shales with
locally interbedded alluvial plain sandstones. Typical of
the other Tertiary molasse units, the Chambira thickens
westward into the Andean foreland basin. The upper
Miocene Pebas Formation comprises mainly red bed
shales with local evaporites, reflecting tectonic quies-
cence before the late Miocene–Pliocene Quechua phase
III deformation. The Pliocene is dominated by coarse-
grained clastics that were deposited in response to this
deformation.
TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
The processes that formed the sub-Andean basins of
Peru were related to evolution of the plate margin. An
Atlantic-type passive margin characterized the
Cambrian–Early Ordovician continent edge. In western

Figure 10—Cretaceous stratigraphic correlation. (The Ecuadorian example is after Canfield, 1991.)
Bolivia, the Puna trough accumulated over 10,000 m of
flysch deposits (Dalmayrac et al., 1980). The earliest
collision is dated as Middle Ordovician with magmatic
arc accretion, including the Puna eruptive belt of Mendez
et al. (1972). Subduction-related strike-slip deformation
and associated transtensional and transpressional condi-
tions controlled basin formation until the Triassic
(Sempere, 1995). The modern subduction system is dated
as Early Jurassic as the continental platform was
subjected to an episode of extension before the opening
of the Atlantic Ocean. Conspicuous tectonic events at the
beginning of the Cretaceous and late Miocene (Quechua
III) reflect changes in plate convergence and stress fields.
The compressional tectonism resulted in inversion of
previous depocenters and eastward encroachment of the
Andean fold and thrust belt. This late Tertiary deforma-
tion created many of the structural traps and led to
source rock maturation and hydrocarbon generation and
migration.
The earliest regionally identified deformational event
in sub-Andean Peru occurred during the Late Devonian
and earliest Carboniferous; this is referred to the Eoher-
cynian and is equivalent to the Chanic orogeny of Bolivia
and northern Argentina. Deformation was intraconti-
nental, resulting from contraction between the Arequipa
massif to the west and the Brazilian shield. Compres-
sional structures include northwest-oriented folds,
cleavage, and metamorphism (Mégard, 1978; Martinez,
1980). Over the thicker continental crust, there was little
deformation. However, the diastrophism is expressed in
Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 431
a depositional hiatus (Figure 5).
Extensional faulting occurred during the Carbonif-
erous and Early Permian and was followed by minor
middle Permian (late Hercynian) compression. These are
attributed to the transtension and transpression
described by Sempere (1995) and have been overprinted
by younger Andean deformation. The Paleozoic succes-
sion beneath most of the sub-Andean basins is largely
undeformed. The Late Permian and Early Triassic were
characterized by extensional faulting with extensive
magmatism in the present Andean region. A Middle
Triassic event is recorded in much of the Marañon and
Ucayali basins. The subcrop of the units below the
Pucara Formation (Figure 8A) shows the patchy preser-
vation of Paleozoic rocks often in half-grabens at this
unconformity.
The Triassic–Jurassic Pucara Formation was deposited
in a marine basin with a depocenter located where the
Eastern Cordillera is now. The growth of a regional high
during the Late Jurassic is suggested by the distribution
of the Sarayaquillo Formation, which is restricted mostly
to the Marañon and Ucayali basins. Earliest Cretaceous
tectonism is interpreted (Figure 4) on the basis of local
unconformities.
A Late Cretaceous compressional event is ascribed to
low-angle subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the
Peruvian margin. Compressional structuring occurred at
this time throughout the Andean region, including the
Altiplano (Sempere, 1995). However, the Marañon and
Ucayali basins went largely unscathed because they were
432 Mathalone and Montoya

Brazilian Brazilian
Maranon/Oriente Shield Shield
Basin Maranon/Oriente
ECUADOR Basin
COLOMBIA BRAZIL ECUADOR
3.0

Er COLOMBIA
os BRAZIL
io

20
40
na

0
2.0 FORESTAL-1 CORRIENTES 12 FORESTAL-1 lE
FORESTAL-1 dg
2.0
1.0

1.0

60
e

1 0
12 00
1.0

14 0
9000

0
VIVIAN FORMATION
CORRIENTES 12 CORRIENTES 12

Iquitos Iquitos
4° PERU

DEPTH (FT)
PERU 9000 4°

0
0.5

16
?
BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA

9500 100

CHONTA FORMATION
C.I. 20m
VIVIAN
0•2-1•5% SP ILD
9500 Ucayali THICKNESS
0•2-1•1% Basin
100

80
8° Pucallpa 8°
Pucallpa Huallaga
Basin
40 60
20
Andes Ucayali SP ILD
Andes
Mountains Basin Mountains Madre
DECREASING Madre 10 0 De Dios
MARINE
De Dios 2 0
INFLUENCE, INCREASING 4 0 Basin
COARSE GRAINED Basin 6 0
CONTENT 8
BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA 80

60
12° A Lima Ene
Basin B Lima Ene
Basin
12°
Pacific Pacific 40
Ocean Correlation C.I. 0.5% Ocean
of oil with AVERAGE
0 100 200 0 100 200
Cretaceous TOC
source
km km

75° 71° 75° 71°

Figure 11—(A) Upper Cretaceous Chonta Formation showing TOC distribution and oil to source correlation. (B) Isopach map
of the Upper Cretaceous Vivian Formation and comparison of lithostratigraphy between the Forestal-1 and Corrientes wells,
which reflects basin dynamics.

on the fringe of this depositional tract. This tectonism is more recent Cushabatay high to form the saddle
believed to have been the start of Andean deformation between the Ucayali and Marañon basins (Figure 1). This
and mountain building. Sempere (1995) dates this event thrusting is associated with a major sinustral wrench
as late Turonian or early Coniacian. zone that trends WNW-ESE (Vernet and Xavier, 1990).
The Incaic period of compressional deformation took The Ene foothills basin was further separated from the
place in the early–middle Eocene and is thought to have Ucayali basin by thrust reactivation of the preexisting
been responsible for much of the shortening in the Shira high. All the foothills basins (Santiago, Huallaga,
central Andes. Like the previous Peruvian phase, and Ene) continued to develop as piggy-back basins and
however, there was no marked deformation in the sub- were intensely deformed along with the western margins
Andean basins. Instead there was regional flexural of the principal foreland basins.
tilting, onlap, and renewed structural growth. The Marañon basin was generally less deformed by
During the Miocene, three compressional events Quechua III movements than the Ucayali basin; the latter
ascribed to Quechua tectonism built the Andes into the is surrounded by major basement-involved thrusting
modern mountain belt (Mégard, 1984; Sempere, 1995). and inversion structures. The eastern foreland of the
There is no evidence in the sub-Andean basins (e.g., Marañon basin was reactivated by this deformation.
intra-Tertiary angular unconformities or onlap onto the Many listric normal extensional faults were inverted. The
flanks of folds) for the first two phases, but halotectonic western edge of the Marañon basin, although well
and halokinetic structuring may have been a response. faulted in the Paleozoic, did not suffer pronounced
The late Miocene Quechua III event, however, pro- inversion or structural telescoping, except for subtle
foundly affected most of sub-Andean Peru, as evidenced folding and forced folding above older structures.
by the present form of the foreland basins. A large set of Quechua III deformation persisted locally through the
salt-facilitated thrusts and back-thrusts (Figure 3) Pliocene.
separated the Santiago and Huallaga basins from the This late Tertiary or Quechua tectonism was respon-
main Marañon basin (Rodriguez, 1982). Farther south, sible for formation of hydrocarbon traps, including
the Contaya high was reactivated and thrust with the thrust anticlines, inverted normal fault structures, subtle

folding, forced folds, and structural enhancement of
stratigraphic reservoirs and seals. Figure 12 shows the
seismic expression of these types of structures and the
way they have contributed to a variety of oil and gas
fields.
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Oil and gas seeps occur along the eastern edge of the
Andes from Ecuador to northwestern Argentina. Oil
seeps in the Ucayali basin led to the early discovery of
the Maquia and Agua Caliente oil fields. Many oil seeps
from Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks occur in
the Santiago basin, reflecting compressional and
transtensional tectonism as well as the sand-prone
Tertiary basin fill. A suite of surface seeps between the
Huallaga and Marañon basins are associated with salt
diapirs.
There have been 122 wildcat wells drilled in the sub-
Andean basins of Peru, mainly in the last 25 years. These
have resulted in the discovery of 740 million bbl of recov-
erable oil in the Marañon basin and about 400 million bbl
of recoverable condensate liquids (7 tcf of gas) in the
Ucayali basin. Potential reserves (resource endowment)
are considerably greater, including condensates from the
Shell Cashiriari and San Martin discoveries in the
Ucayali basin.
Oil in the Marañon basin is reservoired principally in
terrigenous clastics of Cretaceous age, with a subordinate
amount in Tertiary reservoirs. These oils are usually
undersaturated with respect to gas, have formation
volume factors typically less than 1.1, and a range of
gravities from 10˚ to 42˚ API (see Appendix Tables A1
and A2). More than half of this crude oil (450 million bbl)
is reservoired in the Upper Cretaceous Vivian Formation.
Nearly all of the remaining 290 million bbl is reservoired
in the Cretaceous Chonta Formation immediately below
the Vivian Formation (Figure 5).
The distribution of hydrocarbons in the Ucayali basin
is different from that of the Marañon, being dominated
by gas. The giant Cashiriari and San Martin discoveries
made by Shell in the mid-1980s comprise over 7 tcf of gas
and 400 million bbl of condensate; probable reserves are
believed to be much larger. These fields, as well as the
smaller Mipaya field, are located in the southern part of
the Ucayali basin.
The small Aquaytia gas-condensate field (250 bcf) was
discovered in the western Ucayali basin. Some small oil
accumulations have also been discovered in the Ucayali,
such as the Maquia light oil field, in a tract of oil-bearing
compressional structures adjacent to the Contaya high
(Figure 1). The first oil discovery in the sub-Andean
foreland basin was Agua Caliente (14.7 million bbl of 44˚
API crude), on a down-plunge culmination on the
northward-plunging anticline that separates the east and
west Ucayali basins (Figure 3).
Like the Marañon basin, most of the petroleum
discovered in the Ucayali basin is reservoired in Creta-
ceous clastics. There are, however, some important
exceptions. The Mipaya and Cashiriari gas fields have
Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 433
minor reserves in sandstones of the Permian Ene
Formation. The Sepa-1X well in the southern part of the
Ucayali basin recovered a few gallons of 33˚ API oil from
the Upper Carboniferous Copacabana limestone. Farther
north in the eastern Ucayali basin, oil shows have been
reported from the La Colpa well. At the other end of the
basin, oil seeps between the northernmost Ucayali basin
and Huallaga basin are believed to be sourced from the
Triassic Pucara or older rocks.
Oil and gas seeps have been reported from the
Andean foothills adjacent to the Madre de Dios basin,
and a small oil accumulation apparently occurs in
Devonian sandstones in the Bolivian part of this basin.
The Pariamanu well recovered a small amount of 44–53º
API oil from Carboniferous sandstones, while the Puerto
Primo well recovered a few barrels of 42˚ API oil from
Devonian sandstone. Like the southern Ucayali basin,
the occurrence of oil and gas indicates a Paleozoic origin
for hydrocarbons in the Madre de Dios basin.
Reservoir and Seal
Almost all of the producible hydrocarbons discovered
in the sub-Andean foreland basin are reservoired in
Cretaceous clastics. Small amounts of oil have leaked
into basal Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Marañon
basin, and gas is trapped in sandstones of the Permian
Ene Formation in the southern Ucayali basin. However,
the Cretaceous succession remains the focus of
petroleum exploration in the Marañon and Ucayali
basins.
Devonian sandstones of the Cabanillas Formation are
enveloped in potential source rocks in the Madre de Dios
basin. A small discovery of oil reservoired in these
clastics has been made in the Bolivian Madre de Dios
basin. Most of these sandstones are discontinuous and
generally of poor reservoir quality. Carboniferous sand-
stones in the basal Tarma and upper Ambo formations
also have an irregular distribution in the Ucayali and
Marañon basins. They are fine-grained to conglomeratic
sandstones with electric log porosity values exceeding
15%. These reservoirs are overlain by Carboniferous–
Lower Permian Copacabana limestones. These platform
carbonates are generally impermeable, but are suscep-
tible to compressional fracturing and are believed to
have doubtful seal integrity.
The Copacabana carbonates are overlain by shales of
the Permian Ene Formation, which has effective sealing
properties. A shallow marine sandstone unit up to 50 m
thick occurs in this formation over much of the Ucayali
and Ene basins. Significant amounts of gas are trapped in
this sandstone unit in the Mipaya and Cashiriari fields.
Although reservoir quality is poor to moderate, this
intraformational sandstone is an attractive secondary
objective in the Ucayali basin.
Cretaceous sandstones sealed by overlying Creta-
ceous or Tertiary shales are present in each of the sub-
Andean basins. They are thin in the Madre de Dios basin,
but thick and more continuous in the Ucayali and
Marañon basins (Figures 9B, 10). The Aptian transgres-
sive Cushabatay sandstones have a variable thickness
434 Mathalone and Montoya

SW YANAYACU 27X (PROJ.)

NE CHAMBIRA 123X (PROJ.)
SW NE
(SEC.) (SEC.)
0.0 0.5

1.0

1.0

2.0
2.0
Near Top Cretaceous
Near Top Cretaceous
Base Chonta Fm
Base Cretaceous 3.0
Base Chonta Fm

Base Cretaceous 3.0

4.0

0 1 2 km
0 1 2 km

4.0

AGUAYTIA 1X CORRIENTES 1X
W E SW NE
(SEC.) (SEC.)
0.0 1.0
0 1 2km

ceous
p Creta
Near To 1.0 1.5

ta Fm
Chon
Base

taceous
Base Cre 2.0 Near Top Cretaceous 2.0

ic Salt
Triass

Base Chonta Fm
3.0 2.5

Base Cretaceous

0 1 2 km

3.0

PARIAMANU 47-23-1X
SW NE
TAMBO SUR 4X (PROJ.) (SEC.)
SW NE
(SEC.)

Near Top Cretaceous 2.0 1.0

Base Chonta Fm Near Top Cretaceous

Base Cretaceous 3.0 2.0

Top Permian

Top Devonian

4.0 3.0

0 1 2 km 0 1 2 km

Figure 12—Seismic expression of the main structural styles of proven hydrocarbon traps. See Figure 16 for locations.
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 435

HUASAGA 1X
W CAPAHUARI S-1X (PROJ.)
E
(SEC.) SW NE
(SEC.)
0.0
0.0

1.0

1.0
Near Top Cretaceous
Near Top Cretaceous 2.0

Base Chonta Fm

Base Cretaceous 3.0

Base Chonta Fm
Mid-Triassic 2.0

Base Cretaceous
4.0
m ent
Base
Top

0 1 2 km
0 1 2 km
5.0

3.0
MIPAYA
SW NE (SEC.)
AGUA CALIENTE 1X (PROJ.)
0.0
W E
(SEC.)
0.0
s
eou
etac
To p Cr
1.0 Near
ta Fm
Chon
Base 1.0
us
ta ceo
e Cre
Bas
Near Top Cretaceous
2.0 an
oni 2.0
e Dev
Bas
Base Chonta Fm
Base Cretaceous

3.0 3.0

0 1 2 km Base Devonian 0 1 2 km

Figure 12 (continued)

distribution but exceed 500 m in outcrop in the Cusha-
batay hills. Porosity generally varies between 10 and 22%
and permeability is moderate to good. The Cushabatay
Formation has tested gas at 18 MMCFGD from the
Cashiriari-1X well in the southern Ucayali basin and oil
at 2000 BOPD, where horizontal permeability is higher
than 700 millidarcys (md) in the Agua Caliente field
(Touzett, 1975). The equivalent Hollin Formation in the
Ecuadorian Oriente basin contains major oil reserves.
The Cushabatay shales of the overlying Raya Formation,
although locally interbedded with siltstones and sand-
stones, are effective seals. For example, although the
Cushabatay is relatively sand-prone in the southern
Ucayali basin, it is still capable of sealing large gas
columns in highly deformed structures such as the
Cashiriari field.
The Agua Caliente Formation is commonly thickly
bedded, texturally and mineralogically mature, and has
porosities up to 25%. Permeabilities are variable, ranging
from negligible to 1000 md. The Agua Caliente sand-
stones are sealed by shales of the lower Chonta
Formation. However, intraformational sandstones of the
Chonta Formation locally vary up to 300 m in thickness
and form important reservoirs in the Marañon and
Ucayali basins. These shallow marine sandstones are
sealed by overlying intraformational shales that are also
capable of sealing large gas columns. Most of the
reserves in the Corrientes field are reservoired in the
Chonta Formation (Cetico and Pona members), where
the porosities are about 21–23%. Horizontal permeability
in this field (often over 1000 md) is controlled by deposi-
tional environment, such as marine barrier bars and
fluvial channels. Reservoir continuity and connectedness
is good in the fluvial sandstones, but surprisingly poor in
the shorezone deposits. Figure 11 shows the stratigraphic
variation between the Forestal-1 and Corrientes 12 wells.
436 Mathalone and Montoya
The Campanian Vivian Formation is the most wide-
spread reservoir interval and varies between 20 and 160
m in thickness (Figure 11B). The Vivian is attributed to
sedimentation in shorezone and fluvial depositional
environments. It contains more than half of the oil in the
Marañon and Ucayali basins, mainly because of its strati-
graphic position as the highest sealed reservoir in the
Cretaceous succession. It is erosionally truncated over
most of the Ecuadorian Oriente basin (where it is termed
the M-1 sandstone), and in the northeastern part of the
Marañon basin. This sandstone is generally homoge-
neous, forming a continuous aquifer over most of the
basinal areas, although significant isolated units have
been described in the Shiviyacu field (Augusto et al.,
1990). Reservoir parameters are generally excellent, and
permeabilities are commonly over 1000 md; even sand-
stones with porosities less than 10% have acceptable
permeabilities. The Vivian sandstone, sealed by Creta-
ceous or Tertiary shales, is thus an excellent reservoir
interval where strong water drive typically results in
recoveries well over 40% of the original oil in place.
Clastic reservoirs occur throughout the Cretaceous
succession. Even below 4000 m depth, reservoir quality is
favorable; the 1 md equivalent porosity cut off for the
Vivian Formation is deeper than this depth. Very porous
Maastrichtian sandstones produce from the Maquia field
in the Ucayali basin, and basal Tertiary and Paleozoic
sandstones are believed to have reservoir potential in the
Marañon basin. Generally, however, Cretaceous clastics
are the primary focus for exploration in the Marañon and
Ucayali basins, with upper Paleozoic rocks of secondary
importance. In contrast, the Paleozoic section is more
important than the Cretaceous in the Madre de Dios
basin due to better development of reservoir sandstones
in proximity to mature oil source rocks.
Source Rocks
Potential oil and gas source rocks occur in the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic succession (Figure 5). Organic-
rich shale deposits occur in the Ordovician Contaya
Formation and in Silurian deposits. These units,
however, are always overmature and unlikely to
contribute substantially to the hydrocarbon system ( Soto
and Vargas, 1985). More promising are the Devonian
shales of the Cabanillas Formation, which are thin and
preserved as small remnants in the Marañon and North
Ucayali basins (Figure 8A). In the South Ucayali and
Madre de Dios basins, the Devonian section can exceed
1500 m in thickness, with abundant but surprisingly
variable distribution of gas and liquid sources. (The
Devonian Los Monos and related shales are believed to
be the source of the gas and liquids in the Bolivian Chaco
basin.) The Cabanillas shales in the overthrust belt have a
total organic carbon (TOC) content that locally exceeds
3 wt. % and consists of structured and unstructured type
II kerogens. Some sections, however, have little source
potential; the distribution of these low potential sections
is not clearly understood, but might be related to
intraformational erosion.
The Lower Carboniferous deltaic and marine clastics
of the Ambo Formation are best preserved in the basins
of southern Peru (Figure 8A). Several organic-rich and
coaly intervals with over 5% carbon are reported from
the Madre de Dios and South Ucayali basins where the
Ambo Formation is a fairly ubiquitous gas and light oil
source. Like the Devonian source rocks, its distribution is
patchy and maturity is high, usually over 2% Ro (Soto
and Vargas, 1985), in the North Ucayali and southern
Marañon basins. The Upper Carboniferous and
lowermost Permian stratigraphy generally has lower
source rock potential. The Copacabana Formation
(Figure 5) consists mainly of lean platform carbonates,
with local interbedding of dark algal-rich shales in which
the TOC content in the overthrust belt of the western
Madre de Dios basin may exceed 4 wt. %. The Copaca-
bana may therefore be a possible source of oil in the
South Ucayali and Madre de Dios basins.
The Copacabana Formation is overlain by hypersaline
organic-rich marine shales of the middle Permian Ene
Formation. These shales are up to 300 m thick in outcrop
and have an average TOC of 2–3 wt. % (maximum of
7 wt. %). Kerogen types I and II predominate, indicating
a high oil-generating potential. The Ene Formation, like
the other pre-Triassic units, has a patchy distribution
(Figure 7), but it is one of the most important oil source
rocks in the foreland basins of Peru.
Overlying the prominent Middle Triassic unconfor-
mity is the widespread Upper Triassic–Lower Jurassic
Pucara Formation, a westward-thickening wedge in the
Marañon and Ucayali basins (Figure 8B). This formation
is absent from the eastern margin of the foreland basin,
including the South Ucayali and Madre de Dios basins.
The Pucara Formation comprises platform limestones,
organic-rich limestones, and some interbedded organic-
rich shales. Individual units of organic-rich shales and
shaley limestones thicker than 50 m are exposed in the
Cushabatay Mountains, where the formation exceeds
1000 m in thickness (Figure 8B). Data are limited, but in
some outcrops, TOC content in samples ranges up to
5 wt. % and samples are dominated by a sapropelic oil-
prone kerogen. It is believed that the Pucara Formation is
an important potential oil source rock in the western
Marañon and Ucayali basins.
Upper Cretaceous shales of the Raya and Chonta
formations (equivalent to the Napo Formation of
Ecuador) are part of the oil-prone shale blanket that
spans northwestern South America from Venezuela to
Peru. The principal oil-prone source rocks include the
Chonta Formation of the north Marañon basin and the
Napo Formation of the Oriente basin, where the average
TOC exceeds 3 wt. % (Figure 11A). There is also an
isolated but important source area in the northwestern
Marañon basin (Figure 11A). These formations were
deposited in a shelf setting that shoals southward in the
Marañon basin. Their counterparts in the South Ucayali
and Madre de Dios basins are coarse-grained terrestrial
deposits with little source rock potential. Minor source
potential may exist in the shales of the Tertiary Pozo
Formation, in which TOC content locally exceeds only
0.5 wt. %. A few oil shows have been recorded from this
unit.
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 437

Brazilian Brazilian
Shield 0.7 Shield
Maranon/Oriente Maranon
Basin Basin

COLOMBIA COLOMBIA

0.6
ECUADOR
ECUADOR
4.0
3.5
BRAZIL 1.1 BRAZIL
Iquitos Iquitos
4° PERU 4°
Ro (%)
3.

? IMMATURE
0

0. 0.6
6
1.0
OIL
0.8
2.
5

WINDOW
C.I. 0.5 °C/100m GAS
1.0
to a Nominal 0.8
3.5 20°C Surface C.I. = 0.1%Vitrinite Reflectance
Intercept
5
1. .0
1

0.8
Huallaga

0 .6
8° Huallaga
Pucallpa
Pucallpa 8°
Basin
Basin Ucayali Basin Ucayali Basin
Andes
3.
0

Mountains

0.6
Madre Madre
De Dios De Dios
Basin Andes Basin

0.8 1
Mountains
0.6

.0
BOLIVIA BOLIVIA

12° A Lima Ene

Basin 2.5 B Lima Ene
Basin
12°
2.

Pacific Pacific
0

Ocean Ocean
0 100 200 0 100 200

km km

75° 71° 75° 71°

Figure 13—(A) Geothermal gradient. (B) Geochemical maturity at the lowest Cretaceous interval, expressed as vitrinite
reflectance (% Ro).

Hydrocarbon Generation maturity of Cretaceous rocks exceeds vitrinite reflectance

Geochemical analysis indicates that the depth to the
top of the oil-generative zone in the Marañon and Ucayali
basins varies from 2000 to 3300 m. This variation is attrib-
uted partially to the pattern of connate water convection
from the depocenter in the west. The geothermal gradient
has a similar trend, with gradients as low as 2˚C/100 m
adjacent to the deformation front and increasing eastward
up the foreland ramp to 3.5˚–4.0˚C/100 m. Most of the
measurements of bottom hole temperature are from
within or just below the Cretaceous succession,
suggesting that these characteristics are partially due to
convection within the Lower Cretaceous section.
The map of present temperature at the base of the
Cretaceous succession (Figure 13A) indicates a large area
of the Marañon basin that is above 140˚C. Smaller areas
in the Ucayali and Madre de Dios basins are also at this
temperature. The distribution of geochemical maturity
(vitrinite reflectance) (Figure 13B) supports this trend,
indicating a large “kitchen” area of mature Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks near the Ecuadorian border in north-
western Marañon basin. Significant maturation of Creta-
ceous deposits is attained only in small areas in the
Ucayali basin and not at all in the Madre de Dios basin.
Part of the Huallaga basin (Figure 13B) appears to have
been deeply buried and recently uplifted, so that the
values of 1.2% Ro, well above oil-generating maturities,
over a significant part of the basin (Touzett and Sanz,
1985).
Cretaceous source rock shales have the quality,
maturity, and distribution to generate most of the
Marañon and Oriente oils. A large amount of geochem-
ical work and oil to source rock correlation have been
undertaken. Figure 14 shows that oils in the northern
part of the Marañon basin and the Oriente basin correlate
with the Cretaceous Chonta and Napo shales, respec-
tively. Another large family of crudes from the southern
part of the Marañon basin and the Ucayali basin were
probably derived from evaporitic shales in the Permian
Ene Formation. Figure 11A shows the locations of the
Cretaceous-derived crudes, while Figure 7 illustrates the
distribution of the Permian Ene Formation and the
location of the crude oils it is believed to have generated.
These include substantial fields such as the 150-million-
bbl Corrientes field, indicating significant oil generation
from this formation. A significant potential source for
which little data are available is the Triassic–Lower
Jurassic Pucara Formation. A tenuous Pucara outcrop to
Ucayali oil correlation can be made (Figure 8B), and
seeps along the northeastern margin of the Huallaga
basin suggest a pre-Cretaceous source. Finally, seeps and
oil shows in the Madre de Dios basin occur in Carbonif-
438 Mathalone and Montoya

STABLE CARBON ISOTOPE PLOT Brazilian

32 GROUP I Shield
Maranon/Oriente
PERMIAN Basin AREA OF MATURE OR
31 ENE FORMATION OVERMATURE SOURCE
SOURCE ROCKS ROCKS
TERRESTRIAL COLOMBIA Cretaceous
30 (Chonta/Raya/Napo)
Jurassic/Trias
(Pucara)
29 Permian
CRETACEOUS GROUP II (Ene)
C13 ALKANES

CHONTA (NAPO)
28 SOURCE ROCKS Iquitos Carboniferous
% PDB

DOMINANTLY 4° GROUP IIIA & Devonian

PERMIAN/JURASSIC? Ambo-Cabanillas
SOURCED OILS
27
Oil Group Source
I Cretaceous
26
II Permian
DOMINANTLY IIIA Jr./Tr./?Perm.
25 CRETACEOUS
SOURCED OILS IIIB Jr./Tr./?Perm.

BRAZIL
MARINE IV Perm./Carb./Dev.
Santiago
24 Basin
? V Carb./Dev.
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 8° Pucallpa
Aguaytia ?Perm./?Carb.
C13 AROMATICS % PDB Huallaga Condensate /?Dev.
Basin
Andes Ucayali Basin
Mountains
GROUP IIIB
UCAYALI BASIN MARANON BASIN CHONTA Madre
(TYPE III) JURASSIC TYPE I (CRETACEOUS De Dios
& PERMIAN SOURCE SOURCE) NW AREA GROUP IV Basin
MARANON BASIN VIVIAN TYPE I MARANON BASIN
(CRETACEOUS SOURCE) NW AREA TYPE II (PERMIAN
(ECUADOR BORDER) GROUP V BOLIVIA
SOURCE)
ECUADORIAN ORIENTE OILS SANTIAGO BASIN
OIL SEEPS (TYPE I) Lima
12° Ene
Basin
Pacific
Ocean
Figure 14—Oil to source correlation based on C13 stable 0 100 200

carbon isotope relationships. Other techniques have also km

been used in the Peruvian basins. (Ecuadorian data from
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990.)
erous and Devonian clastics and are related to intrafor-
mational source rocks.
Five groups of reservoired oils are recognized in sub-
Andean Peru (Figure 15). In the Marañon basin, large
areas of mature to overmature Permian Ene Formation,
Triassic–Jurassic Pucara Formation, and Cretaceous
shales occur in the western depocenters. Ene strata also
fill rift basins beneath the eastern parts of the foreland
basin. All the oils of the Ecuadorian Oriente basin and
the northernmost Marañon basin are believed to be
related to a single Cretaceous group of source rocks
(group I). A second group of oils in the southern
Marañon basin has strong Permian source rock affinities
(group II). Oils in the northern Ucayali basin show
Permian and possible Triassic Pucara Formation influ-
ences (groups IIIa and b). The large gas-condensate
reserves of the Cashiriari and San Martin fields appear to
be related to Permian and Carboniferous sources, with
some liquids possibly derived from the Permian Ene
Formation (group IV). Finally, oils in the Madre de Dios
basin appear to be derived from Devonian and Carbonif-
erous shales. Figure 15 summarizes these groups as well
as the distribution of the mature source rock intervals.
The Peruvian foreland basin has a multiple source
petroleum system that varies from basin to basin as well
as within individual basins. Evidence of variation in
crudes within the Cretaceous succession (group I)
indicates separate pulses of primary migration and
possibly remigration. A tilted residual oil–water contact
75° 71°
Figure 15—Oil generation, migration, and entrapment
domains.
in the Huayuri field (Flores, 1991) supports this interpre-
tation of remigration. Several authors (Sofer et al., 1985;
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990) suggest that much of the
oil discovered in the Marañon and Oriente basins was
generated from the western margins of the basins before
Miocene deformation of the Eastern Cordillera inter-
vened.
The oils of the Marañon and Oriente basins have a
broad range of API gravities (Figure 15), especially in the
Upper Cretaceous Vivian Formation. Only one of the
Chonta Formation oils (San Jacinto) is slightly biode-
graded, but many Vivian Formation oils are severely
altered by bacterial degradation. The base of biode-
graded oil is at about 2800 m, significantly deeper than
the 85ºC isotherm that is believed to exclude bacterial
activity. It is inferred that significant migration and
biodegradation predated the middle Miocene phase of
basin subsidence.
A family of very light, shallow oils in the Oriente and
Ucayali basins occur in young thrust anticlines. Sofer et
al. (1985) convincingly argue for two phases of oil
migration into the Vivian reservoirs of the northeastern
part of the Marañon basin. The salinity of formation
water is generally a guide to meteoric water penetration,
although not to its timing. There is a loose relationship
between decreasing API gravity due to biodegradation
and decreasing salinity of formation water.
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 439

Analysis of potentiometric gradients shows a weak Brazilian

Shield
basinward flow from the Brazilian shield. For the Vivian
Maranon
aquifer, a 150-m drop generally occurs in the potentio- Basin
metric surface from the edge of the Brazilian shield COLOMBIA
westward to the center of the Marañon basin. There is no ECUADOR
CAPAHUARI
evidence for basinward fluid flow eastward from the
BRAZIL
Andean foothills, with the exception of strong meteoric CORRIENTES
water influx northward from the Cushabatay and Iquitos Seismic Example
Contaya mountains that border the basin on the south. TAMBO Dominant Trap Type Fig.12
4°
Few data are available from the Ucayali basin, but it HUASAGA CHAMBIRA Inversion Traps
appears that Cretaceous, and in particular Vivian Drape/Compression Traps
Some Salt Effects
Formation, waters are mostly fresh. Water associated YANAYACU
Basement Involved
with the Maquia, Agua Caliente, and Aguaytia fields Thrust Traps
have NaCl concentrations less than 1000 ppm (Ciquero, Detached
1982). In the Ucayali basin, little biodegredation of Thrust Faulted/Folded
Traps
hydrocarbon liquids has occurred, although aquifers Structural
adjacent to these accumulations contain meteoric water 8°
Trend
Pucallpa
at most depths (e.g., Maquia 37º API). This contrasts with AGUAYTIA
Ucayali Basin
the Marañon basin, where there have been several
episodes of biodegradation of reservoired oils. Andes AGUA CALIENTE
Mountains
Madre
de Dios
Structural Trap Styles Basin
MIPAYA
BOLIVIA
Well over 1 billion bbl of crude oil and condensate
have been discovered in the composite foreland basin of 12° Lima Ene PARIAMANU
Basin
Peru. Hydrocarbons have been trapped in a variety of Pacific
structures, many of which are young and were created or Ocean
substantially modified by late Miocene–Pliocene 0 100 200

Quechua III tectonism. km

The Marañon basin is a westward-facing composite
foreland basin that was built on earlier extensional and
transtensional basins. The late Tertiary–Pleistocene fold
and thrust belt forms the foothills and isolates the Ene,
Huallaga, and Santiago basins (Figure 3). The dominant
structural style of the eastern ramp of the foreland basin
consists of reactivated and inverted normal faults of
Paleozoic age (Figure 16). Toward the west, these older
extensional structures were depressed directly by the
applied overthrust load without inversion (Figure 12).
The sub-Andean foothills can also be divided into two
structural domains. To the west, faulting is dominated by
thrusts that detach in Triassic salt in the north or
Devonian shale in the south. Toward the east, an uplifted
zone is dominated by basement-involved thrusting
(Figure 16).
The Ucayali basin is generally more deformed than
the Marañon basin. Detached thrusts continue
southward from the Marañon basin, but the Ucayali
basin is surrounded on all sides by basement-involved
thrusting (Figures 3, 16). The sub-Andean thrust belt
continues southward from the Huallaga basin to the
Camisea area at the southern end of the Ucayali basin
where it is separated from the Ene basin by the reacti-
vated Shira high. In contrast, the Madre de Dios basin
comprises a largely undeformed southward-dipping
foreland ramp in the north and a thin belt of foothills
thrust structures in the south.
Figure 12 shows the seismic expression of these struc-
tural styles. The Yanayacu and Chambira fields indicate
the youthfulness of inversion, which involved much of
the Tertiary section. The 150-million-bbl Corrientes field
75° 71°
Figure 16—Structural provinces, showing distribution of
trap types. Location of seismic field sections of Figure 12
are indicated.
has had a more complex history, possibly involving
Eocene Incaic compression before Miocene Quechua III
modification. The Aguaytia gas field in the Ucayali basin
illustrates the modifying effects of Triassic salt flow on an
otherwise simple compressional structure. Structures
such as South Tambo are subtle drape folds formed
above older structures. Many of these low-amplitude
folds are characterized by slight thinning of the Creta-
ceous section over their crests, suggesting the onset of
compression in the middle Cretaceous. The large 150-
million-bbl Capahuari field is an example of this struc-
tural type.
Late extensional movement and differential
compaction of the Paleozoic section in the western
foreland created forced folds in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary sections. This has resulted in low-amplitude
closures where forced folds are superimposed on a
regional dip. The Huasaga structure is an example
(Figure 12). Withjack (1989) has described the dynamics
of forced folding. The foreland of the Madre de Dios
basin is virtually unstructured as illustrated by the
seismic line through the Pariamanu structure in Figure
12. The thin Cretaceous section is little deformed except
for forced folds.
Thrust deformation includes basement-involved
structures such as the Agua Caliente field in which oil is
trapped in the basal Cretaceous Cushabatay Formation,
440 Mathalone and Montoya
and thin-skinned thrusting, which created a series of
closed anticlines such as the Camisea and Mipaya fields
(Figure 12). Figure 16 shows the regions of Peru where
each of the four main structural types predominate.
CONCLUSIONS
Slightly over 5 billion bbl of recoverable hydrocarbon
liquids have been discovered in the Ucayali-Marañon
basin complex, including the contiguous Oriente and
Putumayo basins of Ecuador and Colombia, respectively.
Over 1 billion bbl of these reserves have been found in
the Peruvian Marañon and Ucayali foreland basins by
113 wildcat wells. The success rate is about 25%. Few
wells have been drilled, and no substantial discoveries
have been made on the Peruvian side of the Madre de
Dios basin.
Hydrocarbon source rocks in the sub-Andean basins
of Peru range from Devonian to Late Cretaceous in age.
Most of the oil and gas discovered is in Cretaceous
terrigenous clastic reservoirs, although there are also
significant Paleozoic prospects. The petroleum is
contained in four principal trap types. Basement-
involved or thin-skinned thrusts dominate the western
basin tracts and the Andean foothills, respectively,
whereas the eastern foreland is characterized by reacti-
vated older faults and the central area by forced folds
and subtle anticlines.
In most of these structural provinces, trap formation
and modification is relatively young, being related
mainly to the late Miocene Quechua III tectonic episode.
An exception is the central-western Marañon basin of
Peru and the central-western part of the Ecuadorian
Oriente basin. This region is characterized by older
compressional anticlines and by forced folds that
generally predate the late Oligocene and may be as old
as middle Cretaceous in places. Many of the large
Ecuadorian fields such as Sacha ( 750 million bbl recover-
able) (Canfield, 1991) are of this structural type.
The other three structural provinces, although
comprising very young structures, each have examples
of large hydrocarbon accumulations. The Cashiriari and
San Martin gas fields of the southern Ucayali basin have
proven reserves of about 7 tcf of gas and 400 million bbl
of condensate trapped in young compressional anticlines
associated with detached thrusts. So far in Peru, only
small accumulations such as Maquia and Agua Caliente
have been found in anticlines associated with basement-
involved deformation. Farther north, however, anticlines
such as this trap giant oil accumulations in Ecuador and
the Putumayo basin of Colombia (e.g., the Orito field
with over 200 million bbl of oil). The eastern foreland of
the Marañon basin contains the Corrientes field with
some 150 million bbl of recoverable oil trapped in a rela-
tively young anticline associated with an older fault that
has been reactivated in a reverse sense (Figure 12).
Typical of the sub-Andean tract of foreland basins, the
foreland basins of Peru are comparatively youthful and
are attributed to the middle Miocene and Pliocene phase
of thrust belt loading (Quechua III tectonism). The result
of this deformation has been structural trap formation
and rapid burial maturation imposed by the thick
Tertiary molasse wedge. Due to the relative youth of
some of the petroleum systems, together with remigra-
tion of oils generated earlier, very young structures are
capable of trapping giant hydrocarbon accumulations.
The sub-Andean foreland basins of Peru cover an area
of more than 370,000 km2. With a density of only one
wildcat well per 3000 km2, a substantial amount of
exploration is required to realize Peru’s petroleum
potential.
Acknowledgments Most of the information presented in this
paper was provided by Petroperu, to whom the authors extend
their thanks. Permission to publish was also granted by
Eurocan Ventures, for whom some of the work had been done
on a proprietary basis. Thanks are extended to Antoine Fabre,
also of Eurocan Ventures, for his assistance. The authors would
also like to thank the reviewers, George Kronman, Robert
Meneley, and particularly Tony Tankard, for their constructive
help. Finally, the authors would like to express their gratitude
to Jo-Lynn Cole who created all the artwork in this paper.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Jeremy M. P. Mathalone
PetroSantander Inc.
5847 San Felipe, Suite 1650
Houston, Texas 77057
U.S.A.
Manuel Montoya R.
CIA Consultora de Petroleo S.A.
Mariano de los Santos 198
Of. 405, San Isidro
Lima 27
Peru
442 Mathalone and Montoya

Appendix
Figure A.1 shows the distribution of exploration wells in the (A) Marañon, (B) Ucayali, and (C)
Madre de Dios basins. This information is provided as a basic reference. Tables A.1 and A.2
summarize the oil and gas fields discovered in the Marañon and Ucayali basins, respectively,
including the producing stratigraphy, typical porosities, and API gravities.

Colombia
Sta. Lucia
Ecuador MARANON

seo
PANTOJA BASIN

Abi
MARANON

Rio
Sta. Clara-1 Rayo-1
BASIN 7°
Cunambo-3X
2°S Huaya-3X
San Cachiyacu-1
Jacinto Huaya-4X Maquia
Tangarana-4X Ponasillo
Forestal Ext 1X Inuya-1
SANTIAGO Carmen Amaquiria-32X Brazil
Shiviyacu Forestal HUALLAGA
BASIN Macusari Pilar-1 Bartra Pacaya
Cashiboya-1
Huayuri Jib Ext Tigre-22X BASIN Cashiboya-29X
Capahuari N. Jibaro Pisque-1 Tiruntan-1X
Jibarito
Capahuari Sur. Margarita Coninca-2 8°
Andoas-52X Martha
Maynas Tahuaya-1
Tambo Bolognesi-62X
Yanez-14X Sur Dorisa Plantayacu-83X Aguaytia-1

Rio
Huasaga-1X Ceci Valencia Nva. Esperanza
Tunchiplaya-95X
Otorongo Pucacuro-1 Aguaytia-3X Zorrillos PUCALLPA

Hu
Chapuli-1X Pavayacu Huangana Nanay-26X

all
Huitoyacu Capirona S. Juan Neshuya 5-1

ag
Intuto-23X Belen-4X Tamaya-2X

Rio
Sungachi-2X Copal-15X IQUITOS
Chambira-4X Aerico-18X Agua Caliente Platanal-1X

Uca
Corrientes 9°
Piuntza Chambira mazon Chonta-1
Rio A 4°S Sanuya-3X

yali
Tigrillo-3X Este-123X
a
astaz

La Colpa-1X
Dominguza Patoyacu-36X Nahuapa-24X
Ungumayo-1X Rio Caco-4X
Rio P

Mahuaca-3X Nucuray Maranon 10-1

Cuinico
Norte-4X Concordia-17X Runuya-1X UCAYALI
li

Cuinico Sur-1X BASIN

ya

Maranon 8-1
ca

HUANUCO Oxapampa 7-1

oU

Pauyacu-1X Maranon 22-1 10°

Rio Uca
Ri

Yanayacu-32X Oxapampa 19-1 Oxapampa 13-2

Bretana-1X Yarina-2X Oxapampa 7-1
AN Pastococha-6X Oxapampa 7-2 MADRE DE

yali
Yanayacu
A

DE Envidia-4X DIOS BASIN

N

AN Viracocha-7X Samiria
D

OXAPAMPA
EA B

BE MO Zapote-3X
Samiria Sur-3X ENE
N EL

LT UN
M T

TA Yurimaguas-1X BASIN
O
U

IN 11°
N

Loreto-1X Tapiche-2X
TA

YURIMAGUAS Tamanco-1X Palmera-4X 6°S Sepa-1x

IN

MOLLOBAMBA Palo Seco-1X Sta. Elena

Rio
Shanusi-2X CAMISEA
La Frontera-3X Mipaya-5X

En
LA OROYA San Martin-1X

e
Sta. Lucia
Oil well
A
TARAPOTO Oil well
Dry well B Ri
oM
Segakiato-2X
Dry well Brazil
HUALLAGA Sta. Clara-1 Rayo-1 Oil shows an Armihuari-4X 12°
Oil shows tar
BASIN Huaya-3X Gas Condensate well o Cashiriari-3X
Gas Condensate well
Huaya-4X 13°
76°W 74°W 76°W 75°W 74°W 73°W
0 20 40 60 80 100 km
Refinery Trans Andean 0 20 40 60 80 100 km
Pipeline Refinery

MARANON BASIN UCAYALI BASIN

73°W 72°W 71°W 70°W 69°W 68°W 67°W

Ur FITZCARRALD Brazil
ub ARCH
am
ba Bolivia
11° R. Peru
UCAYALI
BASIN MADRE DE
CAMISEA DIOS BASIN Pando
San Martin-1X
M Manuripi
Mipaya Segakiato-2X an Rio Cariyacu
uR
ive
12° r Puerto Primo
Cashiriari-3X
Los Amigos
Pariamanu
Armihuari-4X Madre
De Dio Bolivia
s River
er iv

C
Beni R

13°
Karene FORELAND
EASTERN
CORDILLERA

SU
14° CUZCO B- MADIDI
AN HIGH
DE
AN
TH
Oil well RU
Dry well 0 20 40 60 80 100 km ST
BE
Oil shows LT
15°
Gas Condensate well
Tuichi

MADRE DE DIOS BASIN

Figure A.1—Distribution of exploration wells in the (A) Marañon, (B) Ucayali, and (C) Madre de Dios basins.
 Petroleum Geology of the Sub-Andean Basins of Peru 443

Table A.1—Oil Fields of the Marañon Basin

Field Operator/ Main Porosity Gravity Estimated Original Oil

Year Discovered Reservoirs (%) (°API) Recovery (%) Reserves (MMbbl)
Bartra Occidental 1974 Vivian 21 11 11 ?
Chonta 14 20 10 ?
TOTAL 26.1
Bretana Amoco 1974 Vivian 22 13.7 25 23.0
Capahuari S. Occidental 1973 Vivian 16 38 50 141.4
Chonta 12 26 15 11.1
TOTAL 152.5
Capahuari N. Occidental 1972 Vivian 16 36 15 0.8
Capirona Petroperu 1972 Chonta 18 30 25 4.7
Carmen Petroperu 1974 Vivian 16 20 25 1.3
Ceci Petroperu 1981 Chonta 12 43 30 0.1
Chambira E Petroperu 1989 Chonta 17 27 25 15.4
Corrientes Petroperu 1971 Basal Tertiary 22 1.4
Vivian 21 24 30 1.5
Chonta 18 28 35 143.2
TOTAL 146.1
Dorissa Occidental 1978 Vivian 16 36 55 45.5
Chonta 15 42 49 6.2
TOTAL 51.7
Forestal Occidental 1973 Vivian 17 20 35 34.3
Chonta 17 38 40 12.7
TOTAL 47.0
Huayuri S. Occidental 1977 Vivian 16 33 24 13.9
Chonta 15 37 23 10.1
TOTAL 24.0
Jibarito Occidental 1981 Vivian 19 11 12 23.7
Jibaro Occidental 1974 Vivian 19 10 10 16.2
Pavayacu Petroperu 1972 Vivian 19 46 42 7.0
Chonta 17 29 26 16.4
TOTAL 23.4
Samiria S. Petroperu 1975 Vivian 22 20 30 19.0
San Jacinto Occidental 1978 Vivian 21 14 6 27.4
Chonta 20 32 26 22.4
TOTAL 49.8
Shiviyacu Occidental 1973 Vivian 17 19 29 81.0
Chonta 17 40 43 11.9
TOTAL 92.9
Tambo S. Occidental 1982 Cushabatay 12 45 25 4.2
Valencia Nva. Petroperu 1975/80 Vivian 22 46 35 4.6
Esperanza
Chonta 18 45 30 2.5
TOTAL 7.1
Yanayacu Petroperu 1974 Vivian 20 19 28 5.2
Chonta 16 19? 28 0.1
TOTAL 5.3
GRAND TOTAL 734.3
444 Mathalone and Montoya

Table A.2—Oil and Gas Fields of the Ucayali Basina

Field Operator/ Main Porosity Gravity Estimated Original Gas Original Oil
Year Discovered Reservoirs (%) (°API) Recovery (%) Reserves (tcf) Reserves (MMbbl)
Agua Ganso Azul Cushabatay 23 44 45 — 13.0
Caliente 1939
Raya 18 22 1.7
TOTAL 14.7
Aguaytia Mobil 1962 Cushabatay 18 68 55 0.25 20.0
Cashiriari Shell 1986 Vivian 18 64–66 65 (gas) 1.4 77.0
Chonta 19 64–66 65 (gas) 1.2 66.0
Agua Caliente 17 64–66 65 (gas) 1.9 105.0
Cushabatay/Ene 14 64–66 65 (gas) 0.3 17.0
TOTALS 4.8 265.0
Maquia Oriente 1957 Casablanca 30 37 33 5.0
Vivian 30 37 46 13.1
TOTAL 18.1
Mipaya Shell 1987 Ene 12 60 70 (gas) 0.1 4.0
Pacaya Petroperu 1982 Cachiyacu 16 31 35 0.4
San Martin Shell 1984 Agua Caliente 17 60–62 70 (gas) 1.0 88.0
Cushabatay 13 60–62 70 (gas) 0.6 53.0
TOTALS 1.6 141.0
GRAND TOTAL 6.75 463.2
aAll reserves quoted are proven. Probable and possible liquid reserves of the Cashiriari and San Martin Fields are in the order of the proven reserves.
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central
Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone

P. Baby R. Limachi
ORSTOM
Grenoble, France E. Mendez
YPFB
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
I. Moretti
IFP
Rueil Malmaison, France J. Oller
Petrolex
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
B. Guillier
ORSTOM
Quito, Ecuador M. Specht
Total
Paris-LaDefense, France

Abstract

A coupled study of the kinematics of thrusting and hydrocarbon maturation has been carried out in the
northern and central sub-Andean belt of Bolivia to define the petroleum potential of the area. In
addition to the classic Devonian source rock (Tomachi–Tequeje formations to the north and Iquiri–Limoncito
formations in the central area), two other source rock intervals are recognized: the Retama Formation (Upper
Devonian–Lower Carboniferous) and the Copacabana Formation (Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian).
These are the most prospective units in northern Bolivia and are of marine origin. The structural style varies
from north to south due to variations in the sedimentary column involved in the thrusts. The orogenic front
was guided by the northern boundary of a Paleozoic sedimentary wedge. In the Boomerang area, this
boundary is oriented obliquely to the regional shortening and controlled the development of a prominent
transfer zone. To the north, the thrusts are wider and the amount of shortening increases. The western part of
the northern sub-Andean zone is characterized by a very thick Tertiary piggyback basin fill.
Two phases of hydrocarbon maturation are recognized. The first began in Early Carboniferous and affected
mostly Devonian strata. Formation of structural traps during this period occurred rarely. The entire basin was
then deeply eroded in Permian–Jurassic time, causing any hydrocarbons that may have formed to be lost. The
second phase of maturation was contemporaneous with Andean deformation and with the resulting burial
under the Tertiary cover in the foreland basin and in piggyback basins on thrust structures. The hydrocarbon
expelled during this period may fill the Andean anticlines. The known source rocks are not proven to be gas
prone, but current discoveries indicate a high gas to oil ratio that may be due to secondary cracking in the
source rock. Because the initial potential of the source rocks is low, expulsion of heavy compounds is expected
to be weak.

Resumen

U n estudio combinado de la cinemática de los corrimientos y de la maduración de los hidrocarburos ha

sido realizado en el sub-Andino norte y centro de Bolivia a fin de definir el potencial petrolífero de la
zona. Además de las clásicas rocas madres devónicas (formaciones Tomachi–Tequeje en el norte y formaciones
Iquiri–Limoncito en el centro), dos otras han sido definidas: la Formación Retama (Devónico sup. a
Carbonífero inf.) y la Formación Copacabana (Carbonífero superior a Pérmico inferior) que presentan el mejor
potencial en el sub-Andino norte. Son de origen marino. El estilo estructural cambia de Norte a Sur, debido a
las variaciones de espesor y de litología en la columna sedimentaria implicada en los corrimientos. El frente
orogenico fue guiado por el borde norte de una cuña sedimentaria paleozoica. En la zona del Boomerang, este
borde esta orientado oblicuamente en relación con la dirección regional de acortamiento y controló el desar-
rollo de una prominente zona de transferencia. Hacia el norte, los corrimientos son mas anchos y el acor-

Baby, P., I. Moretti, B. Guillier, R. Limachi, E. Mendez, J. Oller, and M. Specht, 1995, 445
Petroleum system of the northern and central Bolivian sub-Andean zone, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 445–458.
446 Baby et al.

tamiento aumenta. La parte oriental del sub-Andino norte se caracteriza por un espeso relleno sedimentario
terciario contemporáneo de la deformación andina.
Dos fases de maduración de hidrocarburos han sido reconocidas. La primera empieza al principio del
Carbonífero donde la columna sedimentaria paleozoica es espesa; afecta principalmente al Devónico. Las
trampas estructurales de este período son muy raras. Entre el Pérmico y el Jurásico, la cuenca ha sido profunda-
mente erosionada, y los hidrocarburos generados probablemente han desaparecido. La segunda fase de madu-
ración es contemporánea de la deformación andina. Se debe a la fuerte subsidencia y sedimentación terciaria en
la cuenca de ante-país y en las cuencas transportadas por los corrimientos. Los hidrocarburos expulsados
durante este segundo período pueden haber rellenado anticlinales andinos. No se ha mostrado que las rocas
madres conocidas son propensas a generación de gas, pero los hidrocarburos descubiertos indican una alta
proporción gas-petroleo. Se interpreta como el resultado de un crácking secundario en la roca madre. El bajo
potencial inicial de las rocas madres hace que la expulsión de los componentes pesados debe ser reducida.

INTRODUCTION
As in many compressional areas, the petroleum
potential of the sub-Andean zone of Bolivia depends on
the relative timing between structuring and maturation.
All the known source rocks are Paleozoic in age.
Therefore, a study of the petroleum system requires a
study of the geology, the kinematics of thrust emplace-
ment, and the kinetics of the various source rock matura-
tions. The results of these studies are presented. Differ-
ences in the sedimentary columns and structural styles
from north to south are emphasized, and the potential
source rocks are defined and their maturation docu-
mented. In some cases, we address the maximum
amount of burial before the Andean deformation; there is
considerable uncertainty because of the amount of
erosion.

REGIONAL SETTING
The sub-Andean zone of Bolivia is a complex foreland
fold and thrust belt (Roeder, 1988; Sheffels, 1988, 1990;
Baby et al., 1989, 1992, 1993) that forms the eastern edge
of the central Andes mountains (Figure 1). It is bounded
along the edge of the Cordillera Oriental by the Main
Frontal thrust (CFP), whereas the orogenic front extends
below the Beni and Chaco plains to the east. Deformation
started in the late Oligocene and is continuing today
(Sempere et al., 1990). The material involved in sub-
Andean thrusting in Bolivia consists of an Ordo-
vician–Cretaceous series and an upper Oligocene–Recent
continental foredeep fill. The preorogenic sedimentary
series show lateral variations in facies and thickness that
play an important role in controlling the structural
geometry (Baby et al., in press). In its central part
(16°–17° S lat), this fold and thrust belt forms a bend
(Santa Cruz bend) characterized by a prominent transfer
zone. From north to south, the structural geometry
displays variations in the amount and direction of short-
ening (Figures 1, 2).
Three structural zones are recognized: (1) the northern
sub-Andean zone (13°–17° S lat), which is oriented
northwest-southeast; (2) the central sub-Andean zone
(17°–18° S lat), which changes from a northwest-
southeast to a north-south orientation; and (3) the
Figure 1—Simplified tectonic map of Bolivia showing the
location of the sub-Andean zone, a complex fold and thrust
belt, and the studied cross sections. In its central part, the
Bolivian sub-Andean zone forms a bend (Santa Cruz bend)
characterized by the prominent Boomerang-Chapare
transfer zone. In the northern and central part, the propaga-
tion of the orogenic front was guided by the northern
boundary of the Paleozoic sedimentary wedge. SC, Santa
Cruz; CFP, Main Frontal thrust; BCTZ, Boomerang-Chapare
transfer zone.
southern sub-Andean zone (18°–22° S lat), which is
oriented north-south. This southern sub-Andean zone is
not discussed in this paper.
Northern Sub-Andean Zone
The Paleozoic succession (Figure 3) is nearly complete
for the Ordovician–Permian and is unconformably
overlain by a Mesozoic sandstone cover up to 800 m
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone 447

Figure 2—Cross sections constructed and balanced from field studies and subsurface data. The structural geometry shows
important variations from north to south. The preorogenic sedimentary succession shows lateral variations of facies and
thickness that are important in controlling the structural geometry. C.F.P., main frontal thrust. See Figure 1 for locations.

thick. Toward the northeast, the thickness of the Ordovi-
cian decreases, the Silurian series disappears, and the
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian successions
progressively wedge out. At the top of the preorogenic
stratigraphic column, the continental foreland deposits
are up to 5000 m thick.
The thrusts are wide, with their wavelengths always
being more than 10 km (Figure 2A, B). The western part
of the northern sub-Andean zone is characterized by a
very thick (6500–7000 m) Tertiary piggyback basin fill
(Alto Beni syncline). The main décollement level is at the
base of the Paleozoic column (Ordovician shales). The
other décollement levels are shallower and are located in
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian shales. The
foredeep basement slopes at 4°. The maximum amount
of shortening is 135 km.
448 Baby et al.
Figure 3—Generalized stratigraphic column for the
northern sub-Andean zone of Bolivia. Two main erosional
unconformities are present in the Triassic (about 205 Ma)
and upper Oligocene (27 Ma) sections. The latter resulted
from the beginning of Andean deformation. The Middle
Triassic erosion probably occurred during an episode of
extension related to the initiation of Gondwana fragmenta-
tion. Two prominent nondepositional unconformities are
present in the Cretaceous (144–68 Ma) and Paleocene
(53–27 Ma) sections.
Central Sub-Andean Zone
The preorogenic stratigraphic column is characterized
by a Paleozoic sedimentary wedge (Figure 4). It is a
continuous succession, ranging from Ordovician to
Carboniferous in age and thinning northward onto the
Precambrian–Cambrian Brazilian shield. It is uncon-
formably overlain by 500 m of Mesozoic rocks and more
than 1600 m of upper Oligocene–Recent deposits.
The orogenic front (Figures 1, 2C) is characterized by
the Boomerang-Chapare transfer zone, which is inter-
preted as an oblique ramp. The propagation of the
orogenic front was guided by the northern boundary of
the Paleozoic sedimentary wedge, which is oriented
obliquely to the regional shortening direction (Baby et al.,
in press). The major décollement is located at the base of
the Paleozoic sedimentary wedge which slopes at 10°.
The maximum amount of shortening is 60 km.
SOURCE ROCKS
Due to facies variations, a large number of formation
names have been introduced into the literature. Never-
theless, the stratigraphic column has been recently
rearranged and published by YPFB-ORSTOM (Sempere,
1990; Oller, 1992). We use this stratigraphic framework to
date the source rock formations.
To describe the various source rocks fully, the
Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB)
database has been used and augmented with new data
collected by sampling outcrops and wells. The classic
source rock of the Bolivian sub-Andean zone is the
Devonian and probably the Silurian, but two other
Paleozoic formations are believed to have some
potential. Locally, an Upper Cretaceous source rock
(Flora Formation) with limited potential is known in the
northern sub-Andean zone.
Silurian
The Silurian source rock, of Wenlockian–Prodolian
age (430–410 Ma), reflects siliciclastic deposition on a
marine platform. The Upper Silurian is known in the
southern sub-Andean zone and foreland, in the central
part, and in a small part of the northern sub-Andean
zone, as shown in Figure 5A. Its thickness increases from
north to south, where it is up to 1500 m thick. The few
samples available to us do not permit a detailed evalua-
tion or even a confirmation of the original petroleum
potential of this interval. Nevertheless, marine type II
source rock characteristics are used for the modeling
procedure to quantify the maturity of a hypothetical
Silurian source rock.
Devonian
The Devonian succession is Lochkovian–Famenian in
age (410–360 Ma). Its depositional setting was essentially
the same as during the Late Silurian (marine platform
deposition). Its thickness increases toward the south,
where it is 1500 m thick south of the Boomerang. Its
regional distribution is shown in Figure 5B. The basin
extends northward into Peru and southward into
Argentina and Paraguay. The Devonian has been eroded
to the northeast; the age of erosion is discussed later.
Source rocks include the Tomachi and Tequeje forma-
tions in the north and the Iquiri and Limoncito forma-
tions in the central part of the basin.
We have not found immature Devonian samples and,
consequently, have not determined the kinetic parame-
ters. Since the depositional environments of the Tomachi
and Iquiri formations are the same as the Retama
Formation of Carboniferous age, the type Retama section
described below is used to model the Upper Devonian
source rocks. The Tequeje and Limoncito formations
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone 449

Figure 4—Sedimentary wedge of the Boomerang area, in the central sub-Andean zone. The two main erosional unconformi-
ties (Triassic and upper Oligocene) and the two prominent nondepositional unconformities (Cretaceous and Paleocene) are
also present in this region. See Figure 1 for location.

(Middle–Lower Devonian) correspond to more distal
deposits, therefore classic marine type II kerogen charac-
teristics have been chosen for the modeling.
Retama Formation
The shaly beds of the lower Retama Formation of
Carboniferous age, also called Toregua Formation, show
reasonably good potential. Deposition started in the late
Famenian (360 Ma) and may have continued to the
Visean (327 Ma). The Toregua Formation, corresponding
to siliciclastic deposits of a marine platform, is an alterna-
tion of shaly and sandy beds which form the potential
reservoirs. This formation is present in the Madre de
Dios basin and in the northern sub-Andean belt (Figure
5C). It is about 500 m thick.
Retama source rock potential has been proven in the
Pando-X1 well (Madre de Dios basin). The total organic
carbon (TOC) content exceeds 2 wt. % over a 100-m
interval, with a hydrogen index (HI) of more than 600
mg HC/g. All of the shaly beds have some potential
(TOC > 1 wt. %).
Kinetic parameters have been determined on a sample
from the Pando-X1 well (HI = 660 mg HC/g and Tmax =
445˚C) using OPTKIN software (Espitalié et al., 1985).
This Tmax value is relatively high, and the maturity level
of this sample is not certain. Nevertheless, Rock-Eval
pyrolysis of old source rocks, such as Devonian source
rocks in Algeria, commonly show high Tmax values on
immature samples (C. Ducreux, 1993, personal commu-
nication). Optical data show a vitrinite reflectance value
of 0.5%, which confirms the immaturity of this sample.
On this basis, we use the computed kinetic parameters
for the modeling.
Copacabana Formation
The Copacabana Formation of Permian age is a
marine platform succession formed by an alternation of
shallow water (50-m) limestone, shale, and sandstone.
Deposition began in the Stephanian (307 Ma) and
continued to the Early Permian (270 Ma). It is present in
the Madre de Dios basin, in the northern sub-Andean
belt, and to a lesser extent in the central zone (Figure 5D).
Where it has not been eroded, it is up to 800 m thick.
Rock-Eval pyrolysis confirms the petroleum potential
of this formation. Recorded TOC values vary from 1 to 9
wt. %, and the maximum HI is about 440 mg HC/g.
Unfortunately, we have insufficient data to define the
true thickness of the active source rock interval.
450 Baby et al.
MODELING
Because all the source rocks are older than the Andean
orogen, the key factor for exploration is the relative timing
between maturation-migration and the formation of struc-
tures. Any early migration of hydrocarbons would
exclude the young structures as drillable prospects.
Kinematic and Geometric Hypotheses
The structures have been studied on the basis of three
balanced cross sections constructed from field studies
and subsurface data (Figure 2). Original data and discus-
sion of these sections are presented elsewhere (Baby et
al., 1989, 1992, 1993, in press). Nondepositional unconfor-
mities and erosion surfaces recognized in the field and
from seismic data have been dated as part of the YPFB-
ORSTOM program (Sempere, 1990; Oller, 1992). The two
main erosional unconformities are in the Triassic and the
upper Oligocene (Figures 3, 4). The latter is due to the
beginning of Andean deformation dated at 27 Ma
(Sempere et al., 1990). The age of the earlier erosion is not
well defined, but it is believed to have occurred during
Figure 5—Geographic distrib-
ution of source rocks in the
Bolivian sub-Andean basins.
(A) Silurian, (B) Devonian,
(C) Toregua Formation
(Upper Devonian–Lower
Carboniferous), and (D)
Copacabana Formation
(Upper Carboniferous–Lower
Permian). Shading indicates
source rock distribution in
sub-Andean basin. SC, Santa
Cruz.
an episode of Middle Triassic extension that is known in
the southern part of Bolivia and is related to the initiation
of Gondwana fragmentation (Oller and Sempere, 1990;
Soler and Sempere, 1993). An age of 235 Ma is used in
our modeling.
Two prominent nondepositional unconformities
occur in the Cretaceous (144–68 Ma) and Paleocene
(53–27 Ma) stratigraphic sections (Figures 3, 4).
Method
A one-dimensional model (GENEX software) has
been used to determine maturity level in real and ficti-
tious wells. GENEX permits computation of the burial
history, the compaction based on porosity-depth rela-
tionships, the temperature history, and the maturation
and expulsion history.
Thrusting is not directly modeled by GENEX, so we
used a fast rate of sedimentation to simulate thrust
emplacement. This approach adequately describes the
burial and compaction history, but it also results in a
misleading thermal profile for a stratigraphic section
spanning a few million years. The temperature of the
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone
Figure 6—Oil and gas windows in the Lliquimuni balanced cross section. (A) Present day and (B) pre-Andean deformation.
deposited sediment is assumed to be constant during the
sedimentation process, in contrast to the overthrust
sediments, which were already heated. There are two
ways to overcome this problem. One can either impose a
steady-state solution or artificially increase the surface
temperature to simulate a temperature closer to that of
the overthrust sediments.
When a steady-state solution is imposed, the relax-
ation time is zero. The error resulting from active
thrusting is mainly a function of the thrust thickness and
the rate of thrusting. The relationship of this error to the
rate of thrusting has been calculated (Endignoux and
Wolf, 1990), showing that the error is negligible for
normal rates of horizontal displacement. In this study,
the uncertainties about the timing of thrust emplacement
are so large (a few million years) that it would be inap-
propriate to use a more sophisticated approach.
Because thermal data are scare, an average heat flow
of 55 mW/m2 has been used for the modeling. No rifting
phase has been included. Neither do we have enough
data to describe heat flow variations through time. A
constant value for the basal heat flow is thus used. There
are also uncertainties regarding the amount of Triassic
erosion as well as the burial history. These constraints,
especially for Silurian and Early Devonian maturation,
limit us to a qualitative interpretation.
Maturation has been calculated using kinetic para-
meters derived from the Pando well (type Retama) for
the Toregua Formation and the Upper Devonian section
451
and default marine type II characteristics for the Lower–
Middle Devonian and Silurian. The maturation of this
kerogen is slower than a classic type II kerogen (e.g.,
Toarcian of the Paris basin in GENEX), resulting in an
estimated oil window 800 m deeper than the default
value for a gradient of about 25°C/km.
With GENEX software, the expelled quantities are
calculated as a function of the saturation in the source
rock. An expulsion threshold is defined by the user
(Forbes et al., 1991). When the saturation is less than this
value, there is no expulsion. An arbitrary value of 15%
has been used in this study.
RESULTS
Northern Sub-Andean Zone: Lliquimuni
Cross Section
Geometry
The northern part of the sub-Andean zone is underex-
plored, with only four wells having been drilled. One of
these (LQM-X1) is included on the balanced cross section
(Figure 6) and another is located on the Boya trend, 50
km south of the section. The 235-Ma erosional event
appears to have stripped up to 800 m of section. Late
Oligocene erosion (27 Ma) was more limited; 100 m of
erosion is inferred for the missing section.
452 Baby et al.

Figure 7—Maturity in the Pelado structure, based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis and the subsidence history of a fictitious well,
Pelado-2 (see Figure 6 for location). (A) Subsidence history and hydrocarbon windows. (B) Calculated and measured
hydrogen index. (C) Calculated and measured Tmax values. (D) Transformation ratio of the various source rocks.

Subsidence and deposition of the deep Tertiary
piggyback basin of the Alto Beni syncline (Figure 2A)
was controlled by Andean deformation. Seismic data
show two unconformities within this basin fill. On the
eastern and western flanks of the Lliquimuni anticline,
the sedimentary cover is up to 6000 m thick (Figure 6).
The unconformities within the Miocene have not been
dated, but they are known to be related to the thrusting
phases of the Lliquimuni and Pelado structures. For
modeling purposes, we have used the ages of the
Tertiary formations and intra-Miocene unconformities of
the southern sub-Andean zone (Marshall and Sempere,
1991; Gubbels et al., 1993), which we have correlated to
the northern sub-Andean area. Ages of 11 and 6 Ma are
inferred for the Miocene unconformities (Figure 3). The
geometry of the thrust structures shows a later phase of
deformation. We attribute this out-of-sequence propaga-
tion phase to a 2.5-Ma event, which corresponds approxi-
mately to the age of deposition of the conglomeratic
Tutumo Formation. Farther east, deformation was
younger, from 6 Ma to the present.
Petroleum System
The Silurian stratigraphy in our cross section is
known only west of the CFP (Figure 2A) and was not
modeled. The other three source rocks (Devonian
Tomachi and Tequeje formations, Toregua Formation,
and Copacabana Formation) are present to the west (see
Figure 5); eastward the Permian and Carboniferous
sections are missing.
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone
Figure 8—Maturity in the foreland of the Lliquimuni cross section, based on the subsidence history of a fictitious well, Eva-
Eva 1 (see Figure 6 for location). (A) Subsidence history and hydrocarbon windows. (B) Transformation ratio of the various
source rocks.
Calibration was undertaken on the Pelado structure
for which geochemical data (Tmax and HI) are available
(Figure 7). The maturation index, especially for the
Paleozoic source rocks, remains low along the western
anticlines. On the Pelado structure, Rock-Eval pyrolysis
has shown that the Copacabana Formation is immature
(Figures 7B, C), suggesting that it never was buried
under Tertiary sediments. Farther east, seismic data
record a Tertiary section that is uniform in thickness as
well as facies. These data suggest that the Pelado
structure developed as an early thrust that formed the
orogenic front and carried the Alto Beni piggyback basin.
Subsequently, the orogenic front migrated toward the
east where the Miocene cover occurs in new structures
such as the Sierra Chine, Fatima, and Eva-Eva (Figure 6).
Figure 7A shows that in the Pelado structure, the two
Devonian source rocks matured during the Permian.
Triassic erosion was not substantial and maturation
persisted to the present. The Copacabana and Toregua
formations are still immature. In the piggyback basin
westward of the structure, these two source rocks
matured during Andean deformation due to the thick
synorogenic deposits.
For comparison, Figure 8 shows the maturity in a ficti-
tious well (Eva Eva-1) located on the foreland where only
the Lower and Middle Devonian source rocks are
present. The maturity appears to have occurred in the
Neogene and is attributed to foreland infilling. The oil
window was reached during Charqui deposition (6 Ma).
The transformation ratio of the Tequeje Formation is now
about 70% (Figure 8B).
The complete balanced cross section with the present
oil windows is shown in Figure 6. There were two
phases of hydrocarbon generation. The first preceded
Andean deformation and began during the Carbonif-
erous and affected the thick Devonian sections. Only the
453
Devonian source rock matured during this period. The
second phase of hydrocarbon generation was initiated by
Andean thrusting during the late Oligocene and affected
all the source rocks. Burial maturation is attributed to
thick accumulations in the Alto Beni piggyback basin
and in the sub-Andean foreland basin during the
Neogene.
Up to 4500 m of Neogene sediments were deposited
prior to deformation in the eastern region. The rate of
sedimentation during the Neogene was very high. The
thermal transient effects resulted in deep oil windows
(about 5.4 km depth) and late maturation.
Northern Sub-Andean Zone:
Isiboro Cross Section
Geometry
The only petroleum play in this section is the Isiboro
frontal anticline. Other structures were deeply eroded
due to the large amount of shortening (58%) that
occurred in this area. Two wells have been drilled in the
Isiboro anticline, and one (SSA-X1) is included in the
balanced cross section (Figure 9). Compared to the major
Triassic erosion, the late Oligocene unconformity was
relatively insignificant. The amount of Triassic erosion
increased from southwest to northeast, where up to 700
m of section were removed.
Petroleum System
The Copacabana, Retama, and Devonian Tomachi
and Tequeje source rocks are believed to have the same
characteristics as their northern counterparts. The
Silurian with marine affinities is included as a potential
source rock interval (see Figure 5). Eastward, the
Permian and Carboniferous intervals are missing.
454 Baby et al.
Figure 9—Oil and gas window in the Isoboro balanced cross section. (A) Present day and (B) pre-Andean deformation.
Figure 10 shows a comparison between the maturity
along the edge of the external part of the preorogenic
basin (well IS. 1) and along its internal part where the
Devonian section is thick (well IS. 3).
Two phases of hydrocarbon generation occurred.
Figure 9 shows the source rocks that were matured
before and during Andean deformation. Maturation of
the Silurian and Devonian sections started during the
Devonian in the internal part where the Paleozoic is very
thick (up to 4000 m). Toward the east, burial resulted
from foreland deposition that was contemporaneous
with Andean deformation. As in the Lliquimuni cross
section, the oil window is relatively deep (up to 5 km)
due to the large amount of sedimentation.
Central Sub-Andean Zone: Boomerang
Cross Section
Geometry
This cross section spans the principal hydrocarbon
province of Bolivia. It is well constrained by subsurface
seismic data and by the Santa Rosa X2 and San Juan X2
wells (Figure 11). The Boomerang zone is formed by the
deformed border of the Paleozoic sedimentary wedge.
Well data permit quantification of late Oligocene erosion;
the Upper Cretaceous section was thinned to about 300
m. Triassic erosion was substantial and removed at least
2 km of Paleozoic deposits.
Petroleum System
The Copacabana and Toregua formations are missing
(Figure 5). We used two source rocks in our model: the
Devonian (Limoncito and Iquiri formations) and the
Silurian. Rock-Eval data from the Santa Rosa X2 well
record a Tmax of about 440°C in the Limoncito Formation,
which corresponds to the beginning of the oil window for
this type of organic matter (Retama kinetic parameters).
The subsidence and maturity measured and calculated on
the San Juan X2 well are shown in Figure 12.
Figure 11 summarizes these maturation results on the
balanced cross section, showing present-day and pre-
Andean oil windows. Even before Andean deformation,
the Silurian and Lower–Middle Devonian source rocks
were mature. Maturation started at the beginning of the
Carboniferous and expulsion was completed by the end
of the Carboniferous. No structural traps are known for
this period, thus limiting exploration opportunities to
stratigraphic plays. These source rocks are now in the gas
window. During the Andean deformation, only the
Upper Devonian section entered the oil window.
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone 455

Figure 10—Maturity in the Isoboro cross section, comparing (A) fictitious well IS. 1 in the foreland with a thin Paleozoic
section to (B) fictitious well IS. 3 in the hinterland with a thick Paleozoic section. See Figure 9 for locations of wells.
456 Baby et al.
Figure 11—Oil and gas windows in the Boomerang balanced cross section. (A) Present day and (B) pre-Andean deformation.
FINAL GAS TO OIL RATIO
The present proven reserves show that the sub-
Andean zone, and especially the Boomerang area, are
mainly gas prone. All the major fields (Carasco, Katari,
Palometa, Santa Rosa, Sirari, Vivora, and Yapacani)
produce gas and condensate. Nevertheless, the source
rocks are of marine origin and not gas prone. We
attribute this to the very low initial potential of the source
rock. Any oil generated has not yet been expelled but
rather remains in the source rock where burial and matu-
ration continue. Lighter compounds are formed and
migrate into the Andean structures.
CONCLUSIONS
In the northern and central sub-Andean zone of
Bolivia, the propagation of the orogenic front was guided
by the northern boundary of the Paleozoic sedimentary
wedge. In the Boomerang area, this boundary is oriented
obliquely to the regional shortening and it controlled the
development of a prominent transfer zone. To the north,
the thrusts are wider and the amount of shortening
increases. The western part of the northern sub-Andean
zone is characterized by a thick Tertiary piggyback basin
fill.
Geochemical analysis documents four source rocks in
the Paleozoic sedimentary wedge: the Retama Formation
(Upper Devonian–Lower Carboniferous), the Copaca-
bana Formation (Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian),
the Devonian deposits (410–360 Ma), and probably the
Silurian section (430–410 Ma). Specific kinetic parameters
for the Retama Formation show a later maturation
compared to other marine type II source rocks.
Our modeling emphasizes two phases of hydrocarbon
generation. The first occurred from the Devonian to
Carboniferous due to deepening of the Paleozoic basin.
Hydrocarbons expelled before the Triassic are believed
to have filled stratigraphic traps. Because of the absence
of structures and widespread erosion, most of these
hydrocarbons have probably been lost. The second phase
of maturation is attributed to burial by Tertiary deposi-
tion in the foreland and piggyback basins.
 Petroleum System of the Northern and Central Bolivian Sub-Andean Zone 457

Figure 12—Subsidence and maturity in the San Juan X2 well (see Figure 11 for location). (A) Burial history and hydrocarbon
windows. (B) Hydrogen index versus depth.
458 Baby et al.

Acknowledgments This study resulted from a research Sempere, T., G. Hérail, J. Oller, and M. G. Bonhomme, 1990,
convention between YPFB, ORSTOM, and IFP. We thank C. Late Oligocene–early Miocene major tectonic crisis and
Ducreux (BEICIP) for the Rock-Eval analyses and kinetic related basins in Bolivia: Geology, v. 18, p. 946–949.
parameters and J. L. Pittion (Total) for the geochemical results Sheffels, B., 1988, Structural constraints on crustal shortening
in the Bolivian Andes: Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts
interpretation. GENEX is an IFP commercial product
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 170 p.
marketed by BEICIP. We thank Jim Maloney, Mike Perkins, Sheffels, B., 1990, Lower bound on the amount of crustal
and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on an earlier shortening in the central Bolivian Andes: Geology, v. 18,
version of this manuscript. p. 812–815.
Soler, P., and T. Sempere, 1993, Stratigraphie, géochimie et
signification paléotectonique des roches volcaniques
basiques mésozoïques des Andes Boliviennes: Comptes
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expulsion: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, p. 873–893. R. Limachi
Gubbels, T. L., B. L. Isacks, and E. Farrar, 1993, High-level E. Mendez
surfaces, plateau uplift, and foreland development,
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 Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence in the
Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt
of Northern Argentina

H. J. Belotti

L. L. Saccavino

G. A. Schachner
Perez Companc
Neuquén, Argentina

Abstract

T he sub-Andean fold and thrust belt of northern Argentina is characterized by a set of north-northeast
and south-southwest oriented structural trends. Major oil and gas accumulations occur in the eastern
sub-Andean ranges, including the Ramos, Aguaragüe, Campo Duran, and Madrejones fields. Thin-skinned
deformation involves a tectonic wedge that generated triangle zones bounded by a lower detachment in the
Silurian Kirusillas Formation and by an upper detachment at the base of the Upper Devonian Los Monos
Formation. In the Ramos and Aguaragüe structures, this configuration creates a distinct disharmony between
the tectonic wedge and its passive roof. The shortening is accommodated by major tectonic thickening of the
Los Monos Formation, while the overlying Carboniferous and Tertiary units are deformed into box folds. In
the Aguaragüe structure, these overlying units are cut by imbricate thrusts that offset the box fold crest
eastward with respect to the anticlinal axis of the underlying tectonic wedge. The Campo Duran structure
represents an early stage of this process without active folding of its passive roof. In contrast, the Madrejones
structure transferred shortening to the foreland, forming the Ipaguazu structure. Balanced cross sections were
used in the interpretation of structural styles and hydrocarbon traps to resolve the structures and reduce the
exploration risk.

Resumen

L a faja plegada y fallada subandina del norte de Argentina está caracterizada por un conjunto de estruc-
turas orientadas norte-noreste a sur-suroeste. Los principales yacimientos de hidrocarburos descubiertos
se ubican en su sector oriental, incluyendo los yacimientos de Ramos, Aguaragüe, Campo Duran y
Madrejones. La deformación de lámina delgada involucra una cuña tectónica que generó zonas triangulares,
con despegue inferior en la Formación Kirusillas (Silúrico) y despegue superior en la base de la Formación Los
Monos (Devónico Superior). En las estructuras de Ramos y Aguaragüe esta configuración genera una marcada
disarmonía entre la cuña tectónica y su techo pasivo. El acortamiento es resuelto por un fuerte espesamiento de
la Formación Los Monos, mientras que las unidades suprayacentes carboníferas y terciarias, son deformadas
en pliegues tipo cajón. En la estructura de Aguaragüe, estas últimas unidades son afectadas por corrimientos
imbricados que desplazan hacia el este la cresta del pliegue somero con respecto al eje anticlinal de la cuña
tectónica infrayacente. La estructura de Campo Duran representa una etapa temprana en el proceso de este
modelo, sin plegamiento activo de su techo pasivo. En contraste, la estructura de Madrejones transfiere su
acortamiento hacia el antepaís, formando la estructura de Ipaguazu. Secciones estructurales balanceadas
fueron usadas en la interpretación del estilo tectónico, y entrampamiento de hidrocarburos, como así también
resolución de estructuras y reducción de riesgos exploratorios.

Belotti, H. J., L. L. Saccavino, and G. A. Schachner, 1995, Structural styles and petroleum 545
occurrence in the sub-Andean fold and thrust belt of northern Argentina, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 545–555.
546 Belotti et al.

INTRODUCTION
The sub-Andean fold and thrust belt is a deformed
belt that continues from the border between Peru and
Ecuador into northern Argentina in a northwest-
southeast to NNE-SSW direction (Figure 1). In northern
Argentina, it covers an area of nearly 11,000 km2 and is
characterized by thin-skinned deformation that extends
from the Eastern Cordillera in the west to the Chaco
plain in the east (Figure 2).
The Eastern Cordillera formed in response to
compressive stress from the west that also involved the
crystalline basement (Mingramm et al., 1979) in a thick-
skinned fashion (see Vann et al., 1986). Part of the short-
ening was transmitted toward the sub-Andean fold and
thrust belt along a detachment level located at the base of
the Silurian Kirusillas Formation, and part was accom-
modated by back-thrusts at the front of the Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 3).
The Chaco plain (Russo et al., 1979) is located to the
east of the sub-Andean ranges. It represents the foreland
that was not affected by the Andean deformation.
The fold and thrust belt in Argentina is divided into
two sectors according to structural and petroleum char-
acteristics. The western sub-Andean ranges are more Figure 1—Location map of the sub-Andean ranges in
structurally complex and in an early stage of hydro- South America and their relationship to other major
tectonic elements.
carbon exploration. Only minor hydrocarbon reserves
have been discovered in Carboniferous and Tertiary
units in the Baja de Oran range (Figure 2). The eastern
sub-Andean ranges are less complex and in a slightly
more advanced stage of exploration. The main hydro- lithologic contrast determines the conspicuous sub-
carbon discoveries have occurred in Devonian, Carbonif- Andean structural style (Aramayo Flores, 1989). The
erous, and Tertiary reservoir rocks. diversity of names for the Devonian units has been
During the 1950–1970 period, Yacimientos Petrolíferos summarized by Acevedo (1986) who correlated seismic
Fiscales (YPF), the Argentinian national oil company, and well data between northern Argentina and southern
discovered significant hydrocarbon accumulations in Bolivia.
each trend. Many of these fields are large in size. The aim The Carboniferous and Triassic units are separated by
of this study is to describe the structural style and mode strong erosional unconformities and include mainly
of hydrocarbon entrapment of the principal fields in the continental and proximal shelf deposits (Stark et al.,
eastern sub-Andean ranges. Well and seismic data and 1992b; Stark, 1995). These units do not have pronounced
surface geology were used to construct balanced cross mechanical contrasts and consequently behaved
sections, some subsequently verified through seismic passively during folding.
modeling. In the Cretaceous, all of these units were affected by
regional uplift and erosion related to the formation of the
Lomas de Olmedo rift basin (Moreno, 1970; Bianucci et
GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK al., 1981; Gómez-Omil et al., 1989; Di Persia et al., 1991;
Comínguez and Ramos, 1995). Figure 5 shows that
The stratigraphic succession in the sub-Andean ranges Paleozoic units were eroded progressively deeper
comprises Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary marine and toward the south and east. As a result, Tertiary sedimen-
continental sedimentary rocks. The total sedimentary tary beds (Tranquitas and Chaco formations) overlie
column is about 10,000 m thick. The basal Ordovician Triassic rocks of the Cuevo Group at the Bolivian border
units were not involved in the Andean deformation and Silurian rocks of the Kirusillas Formation at the
(Figure 4). The lowest deformed Paleozoic rocks are southern end of the sub-Andean ranges (Figures 6, 7).
Silurian–Devonian units comprising alternating sand- Erosion of the Paleozoic sequence limited the southward
stones and shales. Basal proximal sandstones and development of the thin-skinned sub-Andean ranges as
conglomerates attributed to storm-dominated processes the lower detachment level within the Kirusillas
in a shallow marine basin are overlain by a pelitic shelf Formation became eroded and compressional stresses
succession. The base and the top of the sequence are inverted the basement-seated extensional faults of the
formed by angular to regional unconformities (Bottcher northwestern Argentinian rift system (Bianucci et al.,
et al., 1983; Stark et al., 1992a; Stark, 1995). This distinct 1982; Grier, 1990).
 Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence, Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt, Northern Argentina 547

Figure 2—Principal features

of the Argentinian sub-
Andean ranges. They are
divided into a western and an
eastern belt on the basis of
structural style and
petroleum characteristics.
Cross section A–A' is shown
in Figure 3.

Figure 3—Cross section

A–A' showing how the
eastward-verging Eastern
Cordillera transferred the
major part of its shortening
to the sub-Andean fold and
thrust belt. Some shortening
was accommodated as a
frontal back-thrust. See
Figure 2 for location.
(Modified after Aramayo
Flores, 1989.)

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY major hydrocarbon fields discovered in this area are

Source Rock
The Los Monos Formation, composed of a succession
of dark gray shales and siltstones, constitutes the
principal generating source rock of the sub-Andean area
(Mombru and Aramayo Flores, 1986; Aramayo Flores,
1989). Approximately 1000 m thick, it contains two zones
of high fluid pressure that controlled hydrocarbon
migration: the lower zone is in the lower third of the Los
Monos Formation and the upper zone is close to its top.
The lower zone caused migration of gas and condensate
toward the underlying Huamampampa Formation,
while the upper zone caused the migration of oil or gas
and condensate toward the Carboniferous and Tertiary
units.
The areal distribution of the Los Monos Formation in
the eastern sub-Andean ranges is shown in Figure 8. The
closely related to the presence of the Los Monos
Formation. This same relationship exists in the western
sub-Andean ranges (Figure 2) where oil seeps and minor
hydrocarbon fields occur wherever this formation is
present.
Reservoirs and Seals
Main reservoirs in the sub-Andean fold and thrust
belt occur in the Devonian Huamampampa Formation
and the Carboniferous Tupambi Formation (Figure 4).
The large Ramos and Aguaragüe fields produce gas and
condensate from silica-cemented quartz arenites of the
Huamampampa Formation, with matrix porosities of
about 5% and permeabilities of 0.2 md (millidarcy)
(Mombru and Aramayo Flores, 1986). Major hydro-
carbon productions are related to fractures that link
matrix porosities along the structures. Fluvial and deltaic
548 Belotti et al.

Figure 4—Lithologic column

showing stratigraphic units,
petroleum occurrences, and
detachment zones. Tertiary
section is not completely
represented.

Figure 5—Subcrop map at

the Cretaceous unconfor-
mity, showing progressive
southward erosion of the
Paleozoic succession.
Thrust faults: 1. San
Antonio, 2. Aguaragüe, 3.
Campo Duran–Madrejones,
4. Ipaguazu. Cross section
Y–Y' is shown in Figure 6,
and X–X' in Figure 7.
(Modified after Di Persia et
al., 1991.)

sandstones of the Tupambi Formation produce gas and
condensate in the Campo Duran and Madrejones fields.
Porosities average 13% and permeabilities 17 md. This
formation thins and becomes tight southward of these
fields. Secondary sandstone reservoirs of the Tarija, Las
Peñas, and Tranquitas formations produce oil in the
Tranquitas, Lomitas, and Lomitas Bloque Bajo fields. The
silica-cemented quartz arenites of the Santa Rosa
Formation produce gas and condensate in the Ramos
field.
Seal rocks include shales of the Los Monos Formation,
shales and diamictites of the Tarija Formation, and shales
in the Las Peñas and Tranquitas formations (Figure 4).
Traps and Timing
Traps are predominantly structural. Hydrocarbon
accumulations are related to relative positions within the
thrust sheet, such as anticlinal crests, faulted anticlines,
 Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence, Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt, Northern Argentina
Figure 7—Tracing of a seismic section east of the fold and thrust belt, showing major unconformities (solid lines) bounding
six Paleozoic–Tertiary sequences. See Figure 5 for location.
and faulted vertical fold limbs. However, combined
stratigraphic and structural traps are possible in Tertiary
and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks related to fluvial
sandstone deposits.
Based on the Tertiary stratigraphic record, the devel-
opment of the fold and thrust belt began in the late
Miocene or early Pliocene (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960;
Mingramm et al., 1979; Martínez, 1980; Jordan and
Alonso, 1987). New 40Ar-39Ar dates demonstrate signifi-
cant upper crustal shortening within the Eastern
Cordillera after 10 Ma. In the adjacent sub-Andean
ranges, the deformation also occurred after 10 Ma
(Gubbels et al., 1993), confirming a link between both
morphostructural units (Figure 3). During Andean defor-
mation, hydrocarbons migrated toward the structures.
549
Figure 6—Schematic cross
section Y–Y' beneath basal
Miocene unconformity. See
Figure 5 for location.
STRUCTURAL STYLES OF THE EASTERN
SUB-ANDEAN RANGES
The eastern sub-Andean ranges comprise a set of
elongated structures that trend NNE-SSW, forming the
San Antonio, Aguaragüe, Campo Duran–Madrejones,
and Ipaguazu ranges (Figure 8). The principal hydro-
carbon reserves are located in the Ramos, Aguaragüe,
Campo Duran, and Madrejones fields. Smaller fields
include the San Pedrito, Macueta, Tranquitas, Lomitas,
Lomitas Bloque Bajo, and Ipaguazu (see Figures 8, 11).
To determine the structural style, we constructed a
series of balanced cross sections (Figure 8) using well
data, seismic lines, and surface geology (see Dahlstrom,
1969; Suppe, 1983; Woodward et al., 1985; Mitra and
550 Belotti et al.
Namson, 1989; Dahlstrom, 1990). The balancing method
we applied consisted of conservation of bed length of the
competent units (e.g., Santa Rosa and Huamampampa
formations). The less competent successions (e.g., Los
Monos Formation) were areally balanced. Several of
these cross sections were seismically modeled to check
their validity and correspondence with the available
seismic data.
The Ramos and Aguaragüe ranges have high relief
and steep surface dips. As a result, seismic profiles
provide data on their western flank and across the
synclines between ranges. In the Campo Duran,
Madrejones, and Ipaguazu ranges, seismic data are better
because of the gentler topography and rather low dips at
the surface (see Figures 13, 16).
RAMOS RANGE
The Ramos structure is the southernmost morpho-
structural unit of the San Antonio range (Figure 8).
Others to the north are the San Pedro and Macueta struc-
tures. The trend is about 70 km long in Argentina and
extends into the San Alberto structure in Bolivia.
The Ramos structure has an asymmetric configuration
that is limited to the north by an oblique ramp that
generated a steeply dipping closure. To the south, the
structure is gently dipping and ends near the extensional
faults that bound the Cretaceous Lomas de Olmedo rift
basin (Figure 5). The oldest outcropping sedimentary
sequence is the Tertiary Tranquitas Formation. The
structure is subdivided into two main areas on the basis
of structural style. In the northern area, the structure
consists of a triangle zone (see Gordy et al., 1977; Jones,
1982; Woodward et al., 1985) where the tectonic wedge
Figure 8—Eastern sub-
Andean ranges and the
principal gas and condensate
fields (shaded areas). Cross
sections A–A' through D–D'
are shown in Figures 9, 11,
13, and 16, respectively.
generates a fault-bend fold (see Suppe, 1983) with a lower
detachment in the Kirusillas Formation and an upper
detachment at the base of the Los Monos Formation
(Figure 9). The tectonic wedge verges eastward causing
delamination of the sedimentary units (Figure 10). This
major sole thrust has a total shortening of 5.5 km, which is
transferred to the overlying units by means of the upper
detachment level. The sedimentary sequence that overlies
the tectonic wedge is folded into a box fold geometry. A
zone of complex deformation, occurring in a zone of high
fluid pressure within the Los Monos Formation, is
present in the core of the fold. This results in a coinci-
dence between the axis of the box fold at the surface and
the crest of the tectonic wedge at depth.
The large Ramos field produces gas and condensate in
fractured quartz arenites of the Santa Rosa and
Huamampampa formations within the tectonic wedge.
The oil–water contact is believed to be similar in both
formations, thus questioning the sealing capacity of the
Icla Formation (Figure 9).
The San Pedrito and Macueta fields are located to the
north of Ramos field and produce oil from the Carbonif-
erous Tupambi Formation. In Bolivia, the San Alberto
field produces small amounts of oil from the Tarija
Formation (Quevedo Velasco, 1977), and a recently
drilled deeper exploratory well discovered large
amounts of gas and condensate in the Devonian
Huamampampa Formation.
To the south of Ramos, the Cretaceous unconformity
truncates the Los Monos Formation (Figures 5, 6),
resulting in a change of the structural style. Here, the
upper detachment is in the Tertiary Tranquitas
Formation, and the shortening to the upper units is trans-
ferred as a fault-propagation fold to the eastern Tomasito
range (Figure 8).
 Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence, Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt, Northern Argentina
Figure 10—Theoretical model of tectonic wedge delami-
nating sedimentary units. (Modified after Allmendinger,
1987.)
AGUARAGÜE RANGE
The Aguaragüe range is formed by a single contin-
uous 250-km-long structure, oriented NNE-SSW. One
third of it lies in Argentina and the rest in Bolivia. The
oldest exposed sedimentary rocks occur in the Bolivian
sector and belong to the Upper Devonian Los Monos
Formation (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960; Pareja et al., 1978).
In Argentina, the Carboniferous Tupambi Formation is
the oldest exposed unit, cropping out near the Bolivian
border (Aramayo Flores, 1989). Crustal shortening
increases northward from 5.3 km in the Aguaragüe field
in Argentina to 11 km near Villamontes in Bolivia. At the
surface, the Aguaragüe range continues along strike with
gentle inflections of its axis and without displacement
transfers. Like the Ramos range, its southern limit is
marked by an oblique ramp near the extensional faults of
the Lomas de Olmedo Cretaceous basin (Figure 5).
The structural style of the Aguaragüe structure shows
a triangle zone geometry similar to that of the Ramos
551
Figure 9—Balanced structural
cross-section A–A' through
the Ramos field in the
northern part of the Ramos
range. See Figure 8 for
location.
structure (Figure 11). There is an important difference,
however: several minor imbricate thrusts that detach
near the top of the Los Monos Formation break through
the box fold geometry of the overlying Carboniferous
and Tertiary units and offset the crest of the box fold
eastward with respect to the crest of the underlying
tectonic wedge.
Wells drilled on the flanks of the structure encounter a
normal thickness of the Los Monos Formation (Figure
11). However, wells drilled through the core penetrate
up to three times the normal thickness of the Los Monos
Formation in a zone of complex deformation and high
fluid pressure.
The tectonic wedge is formed by fault-bend folding of
alternating massive and thin-bedded units. These thin-
bedded units, such as the Kirusillas, Icla, and the base of
the Los Monos Formation, required interstratal slip for
concentric folding in ramp anticlines. The massive quartz
arenites of the Huamampampa and Santa Rosa forma-
tions adjusted to the shortening at the top of the ramp by
extensional fracturing in the fold crest and frontal limb
(Figure 12). This kind of trap described by Jones (1987)
combines shalier units (source and seal rocks of the Los
Monos Formation) with massive units (fractured reser-
voirs of the Huamampampa and Santa Rosa formations)
at its leading edge. This is also true for the Aguaragüe
field where the best gas and condensate production is
located at the fold crest and the eastern flank (Grieco,
1991).
The size of the hydrocarbon accumulations in the
Aguaragüe range is closely related to the location of the
traps within the structure. The large Aguaragüe field
produces gas and condensate from fractured quartz
arenites of the Huamampampa Formation within the
tectonic wedge. Its distinguishing characteristic is its
structural continuity along strike (Mombru and
Aramayo Flores, 1986), reflecting the continuity of the
major thrust associated with the tectonic wedge. The
smaller Tranquitas, Lomitas, and Lomitas Bloque Bajo
552 Belotti et al.
Figure 12—Alternation of massive and thin-bedded units
within the tectonic wedge creating a hydrocarbon trap
above a ramp anticline. The massive quartz arenites of the
Huamampampa and Santa Rosa formations developed a
fractured reservoir at its leading edge. (After Jones, 1987.)
fields produce oil from Carboniferous and Tertiary units
and are deformed by minor thrusts that form shallow
anticlines and imbricates with vertical fold limbs (Figure
11). Formed by many small faults, these anticlinal traps
do not extend far along strike.
CAMPO DURAN–MADREJONES RANGE
The Campo Duran–Madrejones range is the eastern-
most component of the Argentinian fold and thrust belt
that involves Silurian and Devonian units. Almost the
entire range lies within Argentina, with only the north-
ernmost part extending into Bolivia. The northern and
southern ends are marked by oblique ramps. The upper
Tertiary Chaco Formation is the oldest outcropping
stratigraphic unit. This range is subdivided into two
main areas on the basis of structural style: Campo Duran
to the south and Madrejones to the north (Figure 8).
Figure 11—Balanced structural
cross section B–B' through
Aguaragüe field. See Figure 8
for location. (Based on surface
data from Mombru and
Aramayo Flores, 1986.)
Compared to the Ramos and Aguaragüe ranges, the
Campo Duran structure represents an early stage in
triangle zone formation (Figure 13). The tectonic wedge
in this structure has a displacement of 1.5 km in the
south and 2.4 km in the north, which is less than in the
Ramos and Aguaragüe ranges. Along strike, an increase
in sole thrust shortening was accompanied by an
increase of shortening on minor thrusts formed within
the Los Monos Formation, resulting in a higher structural
elevation of the Carboniferous and Tertiary units above
the detachment.
Incipient back-thrusts originated east of the sole thrust
as shortening transferred out of the Campo Duran
structure (Figure 13). To the north, displacement on this
back-thrust increased as the minor thrust in the Campo
Duran structure died out. As a result, a syncline in the
Carboniferous and Tertiary units separates the Campo
Duran structure from the Madrejones structure (Figure 8).
The large Campo Duran field produces gas and
condensate from Carboniferous sandstones of Tupambi
Formation. It consists of southeast-northwest oriented
fluvial channels and deltaic distributary mouth bars that
vary in thickness as the result of an incised valley at the
top of the Los Monos Formation.
Figure 14 is traced from a seismic profile. It was used
to construct the structural cross section of Figure 13. It
illustrates the divergence between the hanging wall and
the footwall that defines the location of the sole thrust.
Although a domal shape of the Ordovician, Silurian, and
Devonian sequences beneath the thrust is evident on this
tracing, seismic modeling (Figure 15) of the Campo
Duran structural cross section shows that these
sequences are not involved in the deformation and are
subhorizontal. The pull up in the footwall results from
higher interval velocities of the overlying Paleozoic rocks
 Structural Styles and Petroleum Occurrence, Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust Belt, Northern Argentina
Figure 14—Tracing of seismic section used as the basis of
the Campo Duran structural cross section (Figure 13).
Velocity pull-up affects the Devonian, Silurian, and Ordovi-
cian sequences beneath the sole thrust.
in the thrust sheet compared to the lower velocities of the
Tertiary units in the adjacent synclines. A similar pull up
exists in the Aguaragüe range (Lesta and Kozlowsky,
1992).
To the north, the Madrejones structure is a fault-bend
fold that has the same basal detachment level as the
Campo Duran structure. The difference between the two
is that shortening on the sole thrust in the Madrejones
structure is transferred to the foreland, forming an
eastward-verging fault-propagation fold above the Los
553
Figure 13—Balanced struc-
tural cross section C–C'
through the Campo Duran
field. See Figure 8 for
location.
Figure 15—Seismic model used to construct the Campo
Duran structural cross section (Figure 13).
Monos Formation that is known as the Ipaguazu
structure (Figure 16). Total shortening is about 2.7 km
and decreases northward into Bolivia.
The large Madrejones field produces gas and conden-
sate from the Carboniferous Tupambi Formation. It
involves a broad anticlinal crest with some minor thrusts
affecting the Carboniferous and Tertiary units. To the
east, the Ipaguazu field contains noncommercial hydro-
carbons in the Tupambi Formation on the western
faulted flank of the structure (Figure 16).
554 Belotti et al.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The eastward-verging Eastern Cordillera
responded to compressive stress in a thick-skinned
fashion. Part of the shortening was transmitted
toward the thin-skinned sub-Andean fold and
thrust belt along a detachment located at the base
of the Silurian Kirusillas Formation, and part was
accommodated by back-thrusts at the front of the
Eastern Cordillera. This deformation occurred in
the late Miocene or early Pliocene.
2. The southward development of the thin-skinned
sub-Andean ranges was limited as the lower
detachment in the Kirusillas Formation became
eroded by the Cretaceous unconformity and as
compressional stresses inverted the basement-
seated extensional faults of the northwest Argen-
tinian rift system.
3. The sub-Andean ranges are characterized by two
structural styles. First, triangle zones are present
where tectonic wedges generate fault-bend folds by
ramping up from a lower detachment in the
Kirusillas Formation to an upper detachment at the
base of the Los Monos Formation. The sedimentary
sequence that overlies the tectonic wedges is folded
into a box fold. A zone of complex deformation
associated with zones of high fluid pressure in the
Los Monos Formation occupies the cores of these
folds. Second, shortening on the major thrust is
transferred to the foreland where it formed an
eastward-verging fault-propagation fold.
4. Within the tectonic wedge, the thin-bedded units,
such as the Kirusillas, Icla, and basal Los Monos
Formation, required interstratal slip for concentric
folding in ramp anticlines. The massive quartz
arenites of the Huamampampa and Santa Rosa
formations adjusted to the shortening at the tops of
ramps by extensional fracturing in the fold crests
and frontal limbs.
Figure 16—Balanced struc-
tural cross section D–D'
through the Madrejones and
Ipaguazu fields. See Figure 8
for location.
5. The large Ramos and Aguaragüe fields produce
gas and condensate from silica-cemented quartz
arenites of the Huamampampa and Santa Rosa
Formations. Hydrocarbon productions are related
to fractures that link matrix porosities along the
structures. Fluvial and deltaic sandstones of
Tupambi Formation produce gas and condensate
in the Campo Duran and Madrejones fields.
6. Major hydrocarbon accumulations are found in
sedimentary sequences that are involved in fault-
bend folds overlying major step thrusts. Only small
hydrocarbon fields are associated with minor
thrust folds that form shallow and narrow anti-
clines.
7. The hydrocarbon fields in the eastern sub-Andean
ranges are closely related to the presence of the Los
Monos Formation. In the western sub-Andean
ranges, oil seeps and minor hydrocarbon fields
occur where this formation is present.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Exploration
Department of Naviera Perez Companc for support and
permission to publish this study; Herman Welsink, Peter Jones,
and Gustavo Vergani for their helpful suggestions; Patricia
Moretti and Diana Valenzuela for the Spanish–English trans-
lation; and Silvia González for typing. Ramón Colombres,
Gustavo Pascal, and Silvia Colonna drafted the figures. Part of
this study was made during our employment with Yacimientos
Petrolíferos Fiscales.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
H. J. Belotti
L. L. Saccavino
G. A. Schachner
Perez Companc
J.J. Lastra Sud 6000
C.C. 181
8300 Neuquén
Argentina
Northern South America

MERIDA ANDES of western Venezuela, with frailejón shrubs in foreground.

The Merida range is a striking example of pronounced vertical uplift that
occurred along basement faults during the Andean orogeny, forming a giant
“pop-up” structure.

Edgar Ortiz, 1994, watercolor, 30 × 23 cm

 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador:
Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures

H. R. Balkwill F. I. Paredes

G. Rodrigue J. P. Almeida

Petro-Canada Resources, Tripetrol Petroleum Ecuador

Calgary, Alberta, Canada Quito, Ecuador

Abstract

I ndustry reflection seismic profiles from the northern part of the Oriente basin display families of
basement-rooted structures ranging in age from early Mesozoic (and possibly Permian) to Quaternary. We
interpret the Mesozoic-Cenozoic structures to be kinematically and chronologically compatible with tectonic
events displayed in the contiguous Andean Cordillera. Late Triassic (and Permian?) extensional structures may
have been linked to an intra-Cordilleran rift regime. Widely developed Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous conver-
gent structures are coeval with transpression along the western margin of the South American plate. Late
Cretaceous and Cenozoic convergent structures are responses to major episodes of plate marginal terrane
accretion and plate convergence. Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic phases of structuring are displayed on seismic
profiles as a network of steeply dipping northward-trending faults that have risen from Precambrian crystalline
basement into the Phanerozoic cover rocks. Northward-elongated sharply hinged folds generated in cover
rocks by slip on basement faults are traps for Oriente basin oil fields.

Resumen

L os perfiles de reflexión sismica disponibles dentro de la industria de la parte norte de la cuenca del
Oriente, muestran varios typos de estructuras asociadas con el basamento que datan desde el Mesozoico
superior (y posiblemente del Pérmico) haste el Cuaternario. Las estructuras del Mesozoico-Cenozoico se inter-
pretan cinematica y cronológicamente compatible con eventos tectónicos que se manifiestan adyacentes a la
Cordillera Andina. Tales eventos son los siguientes: Las estructuras de extensión del Triasico Superior pueden
ester asociadas a un régimen de "rift" intra-cordillera. Las estructuras convergentes, ampliamente desarrolladas
al Jurasico Superior-Cretacio Inferior, son contemporaneas con la compresión a lo largo del margen oeste de la
place suramericana. Las estructuras convergentes del Cretacio Superior y del Cenozoico son resultados debido
a mayores episodios de acreción de terrenos y de convergencia de la place. Las differentes etapas de desarrollo
de las estructuras del Cretacio Superior y del Cenozoico se manifiestan como un conjunto de fallas de fuerte
buzamiento de dirección norte, que surgen del basamento cristalino Precambrico hasta la cobertura Phanero-
zoica. Los pliegues agudos de type tumbados de direccion norte, generados en la cobertura por deslizamiento
de fallas al nivel del basamento, son trampas pare los campos de la cuenca del Oriente.

INTRODUCTION southward into Peru, where it is called the Marañon basin.

Ecuador can be divided into three distinctive subpar-
allel tectonic-morphologic provinces, which from east to
west are the Oriente, Cordillera (Andes), and Costa
province (Baldock, 1982) (Figure 1). The jungle-covered
Oriente basin is the focus of on-going petroleum explo-
ration. The Oriente basin extends northward into
Colombia where it is called the Putamayo basin, and
These domains are part of the system of sub-Andean
foreland basins that reach from Venezuela to southern
Chile (Gansser, 1973).
Cumulative oil production from the Ecuadorian
Oriente has been more than 1.5 billion bbl; current
production is about 300,000 bbl per day. Oriente basin oil
is housed in Cretaceous sandstones, trapped in structures
of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages (White et al., 1995).

559
Balkwill, H. R., G. Rodrigue, F. I. Paredes, and J. P. Almeida, 1995, Northern part of Oriente basin,
Ecuador: reflection seismic expression of structures, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink,
Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 559-571.
560 Balkwill et al.
Geochemical analyses indicate that the oil migrated into
these structures from Cretaceous source rocks in areas
now comprising the eastern Cordillera and southern-
most parts of the Oriente basin (Dashwood and Abbotts,
1990). Rivadeneira (1988) suggested that Lower Jurassic
source shales in southern Ecuador and northern Peru
may have provided some of the oils.
Petroleum exploration progressed generally eastward
and southward across the Oriente basin. Large, topo-
graphically expressed anticlines of the sub-Andean
foothills were drilled in early operations (Tschopp, 1953).
Present exploration is directed mainly to subtle struc-
tures concealed beneath the Oriente jungle (Canfield et
al., 1982; Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990). More than 550
wells have been drilled, most of which bottomed in
Mesozoic rocks. A few wells penetrated through the sub-
Mesozoic unconformity to Paleozoic strata and to
Precambrian crystalline basement. In excess of 30,000 km
of CDP reflection seismic data have been acquired since
1961. The average seismic grid is about 4 x 4 km, but it is
denser in some areas. Data have been recorded and
processed usually to 5-6 sec (two-way time). Seismic
Figure 1--Regional tectonic
map of the Oriente basin,
Ecuador. Note locations of
seismic sections in Fgures
3-12. (Adapted from
Baldock, 1982; Rosania and
Morales, 1986; and from
mapping of regional seismic
grid by Petroecuador and
Petro-Canada.)
quality ranges from poor to excellent; the quality and
coverage are adequate for regional mapping purposes.
Tschopp's (1953) paper on early oil exploration in the
Oriente region provides a standard valuable reference
for stratigraphic nomenclature and early concepts of
Oriente geology. Canfield et al. (1982) have provided an
informative paper on the geology of the large Sacha oil
field in the western part of the basin (Figure 1).
Dashwood and Abbotts (1990) have summarized Oriente
basin petroleum geology, with an emphasis on the
geochemistry of oils and source rocks. Abundant unpub-
lished geologic and geophysical reports have resulted
from work by the staff of Petroecuador (formerly Corpo-
racion Estatal Petrolera Ecuatoriana, or CEPE).
This paper provides representative reflection seismic
profiles across the northern part of the Oriente basin to
illustrate the styles and ages of oil-bearing and prospec-
tive structures and to provide evidence for interpreta-
tions of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic environment of
the basin. Much of the material and concepts resulted
from a collaborative regional study by CEPE and Petro-
Canada explorationists in 1987-88 (Balkwill et al., 1988).
 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: R Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures 561
REGIONAL SETTING
By reason of its great elevation (locally higher than 5000
m), the Cordillera forms the dominant physiographic
province of Ecuador (Gansser, 1973) (Figure 1). The moun-
tainous Cordillera consists of two subparallel belts
separated by a narrow graben. The Western Cordillera has
a basement of Upper Cretaceous oceanic crust that was
obducted onto the margin of South America in latest
Cretaceous-early Tertiary time and subsequently restruc-
tured by Tertiary plate dynamics (Daly, 1989). The Eastern
Cordillera (Cordillera Real) consists of an infrastructure of
polydeformed, variably metamorphosed Mesozoic and
older rocks, with a superstructure of Cenozoic andesitic
flows, volcaniclastics, and associated sedimentary rocks.
Jaillard et al. (1990) recognized an initial Mesozoic
tectonic event (possibly as old as Permian) in the region of
the Cordillera Real. It involved Triassic continental margin
rifting, linked possibly northward through Colombia to
the vast Tethyan rift domain of the proto-Caribbean and
mid-Atlantic. The Triassic rift domain was superposed in
the Early Jurassic by a marine trough (Santiago trough) in
which carbonates, shales, and subaerial volcanic rocks
accumulated. From detailed mapping of outcrops in the
Cordillera Real, Aspden and Litherland (1992) proposed a
tectonic scenario for subsequent Jurassic-Cretaceous
development of the Cordillera Real. They interpreted the
western margin of the pre-Mesozoic craton to lie near the
eastern edge of the Cordillera, where large-scale calc-
alkaline volcanic and plutonic activity commenced in the
late Early Jurassic and continued to middle Late Jurassic.
Structural fabrics mapped in the Cordillera by Aspden
and Litherland (1992) indicate dextral transform and
eastward overthrusting along steeply dipping shear zones.
The shear zones bound distinctive tectonic-lithologic
assemblages ("divisions"), which they interpreted as
allochthonous terranes, accreted to the margin and
deformed from the latest Jurassic to middle Early Creta-
ceous (about 125 Ma). In addition, they correlated uplift of
the Cordillera Real and major resetting of mineral ages in
the middle Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary (85-55 Ma) with
convergence generated by accretion of the allochthonous
oceanic rocks now comprising the basement of the
Western Cordillera and Costa (Figure 1).
Neogene plate reorganization in the eastern Pacific
caused accelerated convergence at the northwestern
margin of South America, resulting in great uplift of the
Cordillera, a surge of andesitic volcanism, and develop-
ment of present-day Andean morphology (Herron, 1972;
Daly, 1989).
The Oriente basin province consists of two physio-
graphic-structural domains. A topographically low,
jungle-covered eastern region has a floor of Precambrian
crystalline basement, overlain by a westward-thickening
wedge of slightly folded and faulted Phanerozoic cover
rocks. A system of large, westward-dipping reverse faults
(and locally an eastward-facing steep monocline)
separates the eastern Oriente subprovince from a
contiguous sub-Andean segment. Moderately to strongly
folded and faulted eastward-displaced cratonic basement
and Phanerozoic strata lie under the moderately incised
sub-Andean domain. These rocks are largely correlative
with the less disturbed rocks of the eastern part of the
basin. Two anticlinoria (Napo and Cutucu uplifts)
separated by an intervening structural depression (Puyo
depression) dominate the structural geometry of the sub-
Andean domain (Figure 1). Westward-dipping steep
thrusts, which bring ruggedly incised Cordilleran crys-
talline rocks against the unmetamorphosed sub-Andean
rocks, form an abrupt western boundary for the sub-
Andean foothills.
STRATIGRAPHY
The Oriente basin cover rocks range in age from
Silurian to Quaternary; regional lithostratigraphic, bio-
stratigraphic, and reflection seismic evidence allows delin-
eation of several megasequences (Figure 2). The succession
thickens westward and southward to more than 5 km at
the border with Peru (Figure 1).
Only a few wells have reached crystalline basement
under the Oriente foreland basin cover. From this meager
well control and from regional mapping of shallow reflec-
tion seismic character, the basement under the entire
Oriente is believed to consist of Proterozoic metamorphic
and plutonic rocks of the Amazon craton (Baldock, 1982;
Canfield et al., 1982). As a generalization, radiometric ages
of Amazon craton rocks decrease systematically
westward, outlining northwest-trending geochronologic
provinces that may represent terranes affixed successively
to an Archean core during the early-middle Proterozoic.
The youngest province recognized thus far (Sunsas mobile
belt) may represent a phase of ensialic deformation,
metaphorphism, and plutonism during the interval 1100-
900 Ma (Teixeira et al., 1989; deMatos and Brown, 1992).
Regional gravity data indicate that the sialic crust under
the Oriente basin is about 30-35 km thick (Feininger and
Seguin, 1983).
Paleozoic rocks in the sub-Andean foothills are
assigned to the Pumbuiza and Macuma formations
(Tschopp, 1953). From these outcrops and some deep
wells, the Pumbuiza terrigenous clastics have yielded
marine fossils ranging in age from Late Silurian to Early
Carboniferous. The Macuma carbonates and clastics
contain fossils ranging in age from Late Carboniferous to
Permian (Canfield et al., 1982).
The Pumbuiza and Macuma formations cannot be
easily separated on most seismic profiles (Figures 3,4,5,6).
There is sufficient regional control to outline a western
region of Pumbuiza-Macuma rocks under the proximal
part of the Oriente foreland and an eastern domain along
the Ecuador-Peru border. The two domains of Paleozoic
strata are separated by an irregularly shaped northward-
elongated region of Precambrian basement (Figure 1). The
Paleozoic strata typically lie in isolated structures bounded
by basement-rooted faults that display large-scale reversal
of dip slip (Figures 4, 5, 6). The combined thickness of
Pumbuiza-Macuma beds in some of these structures is
greater than several hundred meters (Rosania and
562 Balkwill et al.
Figure 2--Stratigraphy of the northern part of the Oriente basin. (Adapted from Canfield et al., 1982; Rosania and Morales,
1986; Petro-Canada proprietary reports.)
Morales, 1986).
The basement fault-bounded structures that define
inliers of Pumbuiza-Macuma strata commonly contain a
superimposed succession, hundreds of meters thick, of
conglomeratic, nonmarine, terrigenous clastics (Figures
3, 4, 5, 6). These successions are indistinctly layered on
most seismic profiles. They lie in structures interpretable
as post-Macuma extensional half-grabens subsequently
modified by reversal of dip slip. The rocks were drilled
at a location near seismic line CP 3530 (Figure 6). They
have long been considered as correlatives of the Jurassic
Chapiza Formation of the sub-Andean Foothills because
of their texture and red color and because they were
evidently younger than Macuma strata and older than
Cretaceous (Tschopp, 1953). No firmly diagnostic fossils
have been reported from the enigmatic strata from this
location or other wells where the fault-bounded beds
have been drilled, although possible Triassic spores were
recovered from some well samples (M. Rivadeneira,
Petroecuador, 1988, personal communication). Regional
seismic evidence from northern Peru (Marañon basin--
not available for display--shows that the fault-bounded
clastic rocks are older than the Jurassic Chapiza
Formation. Balkwill et al. (1988) have suggested that the
graben-associated beds might be broadly correlative
with the Mitu Formation of the Peruvian Andes. We
now propose that the rocks represent isolated rift
elements that were linked westward to the cratonic
marginal Triassic rift regime recognized recently in the
Cordillera Real by Jaillard et al. (1990) and Aspden and
Litherland (1992).
Lower Jurassic marine carbonates and shales
(Santiago Formation) crop out in the Cutucu uplift
(Baldock, 1982). These rocks and coeval volcanic breccias
and tuffs were deposited in an initially deep narrow
trough, superimposed on the Triassic rift domain of the
 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: R Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures 563

Figure 3--Part of the reflection seismic proflie CP 48 from the eastern Oriente basin (see Figure 1 for location). Vertical scale
for this and all following seismic displays is in seconds (two~way time). Rock units: PC, Precambrian basement; Pz,
Pumbuiza-Macuma formations; Tr, Triassic beds; Kh, Hollin Formation; Kn, marker in Napo Formation; Tt, top of Tiyuyacu
Formation. Note the paraconformable contact of Paleozoic strata with basement, the local truncation of Macuma beds
beneath indistinctly layered Triassic beds, and the structural disruption of Triassic and older rocks and their truncation
beneath subhorizontal basal Cretaceous strata.

Figure 4--Part of seismic section

CP 3506 (unmigrated) from the
northeastern Oriente basin.
Rock units as in Figure 3. Note
the paraconformable contact of
the Paleozoic strata (Pz) above
the basement broken by
basement-rooted extension
faults (at left). Also note the
inverted half-graben (at left) and
basement-rooted reverse fault
(at right) produced by middle
Tertiary convergence.

Cordillera Real Qaillard et al., 1990). Platform carbonates
of the upper part of the Santiago Formation are present in
the southern part of the Oriente basin. Coeval nonmarine
strata may extend northward along the axial part of the
basin.
Coarse-grained, Jurassic red beds assigned to the
Chapiza Formation in the sub-Andean foothills (Baldock,
1982) may be partially coeval with Santiago strata
(Aspden and Litherland, 1992). The Chapiza clastic
wedge tapers and becomes finer grained eastward,
demonstrating Jurassic syndepositional uplift along the
western margin of the Oriente basin. The clastic rocks and
the overlying volcaniclastic Misahualli Member (Figure 2)
are approximately coeval with some large Jurassic calc-
alkaline plutons in the easternmost part of the Cordillera
Real. Aspden and Litherland (1992) propose that the
intrusive phase was followed by latest Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous accretion and eastward thrusting of exotic
terranes against the western margin of the Cordillera
Real.
564 Balkwill et al.

Figure 5--Part of reflection seismic section CP 3588 from the eastern Oriente basin. Rock units as in Figure 3. Note the trun-
cation of Triassic beds beneath Cretaceous strata and the middle Tertiary inversion of Triassic extension fault. The late
Tertiary (far left) and middle Tertiary (left center) narrow contractional "pop-up" anticlines are focused at the base of
Triassic strata, possibly from intrastratal slip associated with a basement reverse fault. Moderately westward-dipping intra-
basement reflectors were activated as slip surfaces in late Cenozoic convergence. The basement-rooted late Cenozoic
reverse faults with opposed vergence define a large crustal "pop-up" and associated forced folds in the cover rocks.

Figure 6--Part of reflection seismic section CP 3530 from the northeastern Oriente basin. Rock units as in Figure 3. Note the
variably dipping intrabasement reflectors, the paraconformable contact of Paleozoic strata with basement, and the indis-
tinct reflection character of Triassic rocks.Large-scale structural disruption and truncation of Triassic beds occur beneath
basal Cretaceous Hollin Formation. Note the inversion of the Triassic half-graben by late Cenozoic contraction.
 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: R Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures 565
Hollin quartz arenites, possibly as old as Aptian
(Aleman and Marksteiner, 1993), form the basal beds of
the Cretaceous megasequence. Hollin strata lie uncon-
formably above an erosionally planed surface developed
on previously structured older rock units ranging from
Precambrian basement to Chapiza red beds (Figures 2
through 12). Unpublished biostratigraphic determina-
tions (Petro-Canada proprietary information) indicate
that the Hollin Formation, which is locally up to 130 m
thick, is diachronously younger eastward. The sand-
stones are coastal and shallow marine facies of Creta-
ceous clastic wedges that prograded westward into the
Oriente basin from its eastern margin (Figure 2). The
distal marine facies (Napo Formation) is as thick as a few
hundred meters; it may range in age from Albian to
Campanian (Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990).
The eastern part of the Napo succession contains
southwest-tapering and southwest-fining stacked
wedges of quartz arenites and subarkoses, informally
named from upper to lower, the M1, M2, U, and T sand-
stones. The sandstones are separated by shales and lime-
stones (the latter also having some informal member
designations). Local intraformational parasequence
boundaries are evident in the Napo Formation lying
above elongate, northward-trending paleostructural
highs (Figure 7). Subtle intra-Napo relief on these
elements may represent local erosion and winnowing of
strata and/or onlap by basal beds of the overlying
parasequence. Some leaching of Napo limestones at the
local unconformities indicates that the paleotopographic
highs were sometimes exposed. The upper part of the
Napo Formation was truncated progressively westward
from the axial part of the basin prior to deposition of
overlying beds of the Maastrichtian - lower Tertiary Tena
Formation (Figure 2).
Upper Maastrichtian-Cenozoic strata consist of coarse-
to fine-grained, mainly nonmarine terrigenous clastic
detritus shed eastward in response to uplift and erosion
of the Andean orogenic belt. The lower part of this
succession, the Tena and Tiyuyacu formations, are domi-
Figure 7--Part of a reflection
seismic section from the central
Oriente basin (location confiden-
tial). Rock units as in Figure 3.
Note the low-relief asymmetric
anticline in Cretaceous strata in
the central part of the section.
Also note the thinning of intra-
Cretaceous reflector "a" toward
anticlinal crest and the rejuvena-
tion of anticline in the middle
Tertiary marked by a subtle fold at
the level of Tiyuyacu Formation.
nantly fine-grained and are a few hundreds of meters
thick. Locally prominent disconformities between the
Tiyuyacu Formation and overlying Orteguaza strata
mark important intrabasin structuring in Eocene or
Oligocene time (Figure 2). The structural relief developed
during this interval delineated elongate anticlinal traps in
Cretaceous sandstones that host the largest oil fields in
the Oriente basin (Canfield et al., 1982).
The upper terrigenous clastic sequence (Oligocene
Orteguaza Formation and overlying strata) represents
depositional responses to accelerated convergence of
cratonic and oceanic crust at the western margin of the
South American plate. This was accompanied by
vigorous uplift of the Andes and eastward-shedding of
coarse-grained clastic wedges into the contiguous Oriente
foreland basin. Orteguaza beds lie above truncated
Tiyuyacu beds in the periphery of the sub-Andean belt.
Eastward from there, the basal Orteguaza strata (which
contain some thin marine beds) occupy paleodepressions
in the broad folds that were developed in underlying
Tiyuyacu beds during middle Tertiary tectonism. Large
amounts of latest Tertiary-Quaternary clastic detritus
were shed basinward through the Puyo structural
depression (Figure 1). The entire Cenozoic depositional
cycle of eastward-prograding clastics and the older cover
rocks under it are undergoing present-day structural
modification by neotectonic movement on basement
reverse faults (Figures 5, 6, 9,10,11,12).
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Division of the Oriente basin into the sub-Andean and
eastern Oriente domains was originally based on topo-
graphic expression of structures (Tschopp, 1953). Most of
the sub-Andean part of the Oriente consists of large, high,
northward-trending strike ridges, with outcrops of folded
Paleozoic and younger strata cut by steeply dipping
reverse faults. The eastern Oriente is a very low, morpho-
logically subdued terrain where underlying structures
are manifested only locally by gentle surface dips and
566 Balkwill et al.

Figure 8--Eastern part of seismic section CP 149 from the north-central Oriente basin. Rock units as in Figure 3. Note the
opposed vergence of basement-rooted reverse faults and associated "kink-band" forced folds. Fault at left is early
Tertiary age, with differential thickening of Tiyuyacu Formation (Tt), and fault at right is middle Tertiary age, associated
with thickening of post-Tiyuyacu strata.

Figure 9--Part of seismic section CP-

3506 from the northeastern Oriente
basin. Rock units as in Figure 3. Note
the eastward-dipping basement-rooted
reverse faults and forced folds in cover
rocks, having different ages of
movement: fault A, early Tertiary only;
faults B and C, Late Cretaceous or early
Tertiary, rejuvenated slightly in middle
Tertiary; fault D, prominent late
Cenozoic development, with associated
"kink-band" forced fold.
 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: R Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures 567
Figure 10--Part of seismic section CP 3514 from the northeastern Oriente basin. Rock units as in Rgure 3. Note the
westward-dipping late Cenozoic basement-generated "pop-up" anticline; fault at the eastern margin of structure may reach
the surface.
subtle alignments of drainage elements.
Abundant industry reflection seismic profiles show that
the most significant structures in the foreland comprise a
network of steeply dipping faults arranged in north-
trending en echelon sets (Figure 1). The faults rise from
basement into various stratigraphic levels in the cover rock
succession and have disrupted the cover rocks as forced
(drape) folds. The strike directions of basement faults in
the eastern Oriente subdomain are approximately parallel
with structural trends in the contiguous sub-Andean Napo
and Cutucu uplifts. Faults north of Curaray River strike
north-northeastward, parallel to the general trend of the
Napo uplift, and the foreland faults south of the Curaray
River strike north-northwestward, parallel to the Cutucu
uplift. A broad inference is that the regional structural
trends owe their parallelism to an interconnected through-
going deep basement fabric. Because many of the
basement faults have undergone kinematic reversal in
their histories, they are discussed here in a chronologic
framework.
Proterozoic and Paleozoic
The oldest structures evident on northern Oriente
seismic profiles are moderately dipping prominent reflec-
tions in basement, shown in some profiles near the eastern
border of Ecuador (Figures 4, 5, 6). The bundles of strong
reflectors interrupt a generally diffuse basement seismic
character, commonly lacking distinctive planar reflection
characteristics. Some of the basement fabrics have struc-
tural continuity into Phanerozoic cover rocks and have
influenced structures generated within those strata. In
other places, the basement fabrics are truncated abruptly at
the upper surface of the basement and seem not to
influence the cover rocks. It is inferred from this that the
basement discontinuities originated during Proterozoic
events and that some of these have been reactivated--as
innate zones of brittle failure at various times in the
Phanerozoic, depending on the state of stress and the
nature and orientation of the basement inhomogeneity.
The genetic origins of the basement fabrics may represent
large thrust faults or shear zones imparted during Protero-
zoic accretionary events.
Lower Paleozoic (Pumbuiza) rocks in Cutucu uplift
were folded and faulted prior to deposition of overlying
Carboniferous (Macuma) beds (Tschopp, 1953). The
Pumbuiza and Macuma megasequences are difficult to
separate (except locally) in the subsurface of the northern
Oriente basin. We could not discern evidence from the
seismic data of significant middle Paleozoic structures.
Permian-Triassic
A network of basement-involved half-grabens and
other relict structural depressions extend from the
northern Oriente basin southward to Rio Curaray, thence
southeastward into the Marañon basin of Peru (Figures 3,
4, 5, 6). The half-grabens commonly contain two strati-
graphic sequences. The lower succession consists of
moderately well-stratified strong reflectors that are subpar-
allel internally and with the underlying basement contact.
We interpret these rocks as carbonates and clastics of the
568 Balkwill et al.
Macuma Formation and older Pumbuiza Formation. The
upper sequence, with its indistinctly layered, diffuse to
vaguely apparent internal reflection characteristics, are
conglomeratic terrigenous clastics penetrated by the well
drilled near seismic line CP 3530 (Figure 6).
We interpret the extensional elements and their coarse
clastic infill to be relict cratonic inliers, genetically linked
to the Triassic rift regime that Jaillard et al. (1990) and
Aspden and Litherland (1992) mapped in the Cordillera
Real and which extend along the eastern Andes of
Colombia and Peru.
The early Mesozoic rift assemblage and older rocks
were significantly folded, uplifted, and erosionally
planed prior to preservation of basal Cretaceous deposits
(Figures 3, 4, 5, 6). This impressive intracratonic conver-
gent tectonic event reached eastward as far as the
western part of Solimoes basin, western Brazil, where
deep seismic profiles show evidence of major Late
Jurassic - Early Cretaceous reverse faulting, uplift, and
planation before deposition of the oldest preserved
Cretaceous strata (deMatos and Brown, 1992; see also
Petrobras, 1983). The evidence of intra-Cordilleran trans-
pressive accretionary convergence during the Late
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, elucidated by Aspden and
Litherland (1992), provides a possible dynamic cause for
this important intraplate event.
Cretaceous-Cenozoic
Cretaceous-Cenozoic representatives of the network
of Oriente basin faults extend upward with moderate to
Figure 11--Part of seismic
section CP 3550 from the
eastern Oriente basin. Rock
units as in Figure 3. Note the
prominent westward-dipping
basement-rooted reverse fault
and narrow, asymmetric "pop-
up" anticline developed by an
antithetic reverse fault rooted
near the base of Cretaceous
cover rocks.
steep dips from crystalline basement and cut overlying
Cretaceous-Cenozoic strata or have developed sharply
hinged, asymmetric forced folds with relief of a few tens
of meters to hundreds of meters (Figures 4-12). The
basement-generated faults and folds have critical signifi-
cance for hydrocarbon exploration. All of the major fields
thus far discovered in the eastern Oriente basin, such as
the Sacha field (Figure 1), are low-relief structural traps,
owing their existence to closure on these elements
(Canfield et al., 1982).
The oldest seismically recognizable Late Cretaceous
structures are low relief, northward-elongated paleoto-
pographic highs against which beds in the upper part of
the Napo Formation are seen to thin (Figure 7). Napo
limestones are leached at the crests of some of these
structures. We interpret these elements as small-scale
Late Cretaceous convergent uplifts of basement. They
appear to be embryonic foreland basin responses to the
Late Cretaceous transpressional convergence that
Aspden and Litherland (1992) interpreted for the
Cordillera Real.
Differential thinning and thickening of the Tena-
Tiyuyacu succession, across basement-rooted reverse
faults and forced folds, demonstrate that basin conver-
gence accelerated in the early Tertiary from mild begin-
nings in the Late Cretaceous (Figures 8, 9). The early
Tertiary foreland convergent phase was dynamically
compatible with the regionally convergent tectonic envi-
ronment that prevailed in the Cordillera (Daly, 1989;
Aspden and Litherland, 1992). A late Cenozoic surge of
basin compression, coincident with convergence and
 Northern Part of Oriente Basin, Ecuador: R Reflection Seismic Expression of Structures 569
Figure 12--Part of seismic section CP 149 from the sub-Andean foothills, northwestem Oriente basin. Rock units as in
Figure 3. Note the westward-dipping late Cenozoic reverse fault and splays, as well as the eastward-dipping antithetic
reverse faults.
great uplift of the Andes, is made evident by the amounts
of structural relief generated on structures far out in the
foreland basin (Figures 5, 6,11) as well as in the sub-
Andean foothills (Figure 12).
Some of the Cenozoic faults are up-section projections
of faults displaying Triassic (and Permian?) normal slip.
Slip on the Cenozoic components of these vestigial struc-
tures has been in a reverse sense (Figures 4, 5, 6). Many
other basement faults with Cenozoic slip or forced-fold
flexure do not coincide with early Mesozoic (or Paleozoic)
structures (Figures 8, 9,10,11). Whether or not relict
basement fabrics determined their locations cannot be
demonstrated. The amounts and times of reverse slip and
associated forced-fold flexure vary across members of the
Cenozoic network, even for faults in close proximity
(Figure 9). For the large fault that forms the leading edge
of the faulted domain north of Curaray River (Figure 1),
the region of greatest Cenozoic reverse slip coincides
approximately with the position of greatest Triassic (and
Permian?) normal slip (Figure 6), indicating that some of
the inherited basement anisotropies are particularly
susceptible to large-scale stress adjustment. East-dipping
reverse faults, antithetic to the large westward-dipping
reverse faults that form the leading edge of the disrupted
foreland, have created anticlinal "pop-up" culminations
that range in width from a few kilometers to many kilo-
meters (Figures 5,10). Some other east-dipping antithetic
faults forming pop-ups are detached in ductile cover rocks
above basement rather than being rooted in basement
(Figure 11).
The regional geometry of Cretaceous-Cenozoic struc-
tures in the Oriente foreland indicates that the network of
basement faults and associated folds comprise two
immense lobes, which meet at a structural reentrant
crossed by the Curaray River (Figure 1) and extend from
there westward to the Puyo depression (Figure 1). This
vaguely defined zone is about 30 km wide. Within it there
are abundant, short, variably oriented Cenozoic faults and
associated folds. The zone separates the dominantly north-
northeastward structural grain of the northern Oriente
basin and Putamayo basin from the dominantly north-
northwestward grain of the southern part of the basin and
Marañon basin.
We lack deep crustal reflection seismic data that might
delineate the fashion in which the network of Oriente
basin basement faults are adjusted in the lithosphere.
Focal depths for sub-Andean foreland earthquakes in
Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador are in the range of 8-38 km,
indicating that all of the crust and possibly the uppermost
mantle are involved in deformation (Suarez et al., 1983).
At those depths, the basement faults may meet a zone of
intracrustal detachment or shear, possibly inherited from
Proterozoic terrane fabrics, similiar in style and kinematics
to the Andean foreland of western Argentina (Jordan and
Allmendinger, 1986; Cahill et al., 1992).
CONCLUSIONS
Reflection seismic data from the northern Oriente basin
display families of structures having different ages and
styles that involve Precambrian crystalline basement and
Phanerozoic cover rocks. We interpret these cratonic struc-
570 Balkwill et al.
tural elements as products of episodic plate events along
the Ecuadorian margin of the South American craton.
Episodic terrane accretion established the Amazon
craton in the Proterozoic (Litherland et al., 1985; deMatos
and Brown, 1992). The Oriente basin Paleozoic strata
were deposited on a widespread shallow marine shelf
(Baldock, 1982); the regional tectonic setting of the basin
during deposition of these rocks has not been elucidated.
Half-grabens containing continental red clastics may
be remnants of a Triassic (and Permian?) rift domain,
linked westward to the Gondwana rift system demon-
strated in the eastern Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, and
Peru (Jaillard et al., 1990; Aspden and Litherland, 1992).
The Triassic rift elements and the Paleozoic and Precam-
brian rocks lying under and between them were reverse
faulted and uplifted during a phase of widespread
intraplate convergence within the western South
American craton. This was possibly associated with plate
marginal transpression in the eastern Cordillera Real in
the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous. The Jurassic and
older rocks and structures were erosionally planed prior
to deposition of basal Cretaceous (Aptian?) Hollin sand-
stones.
A second phase of transpressional convergence in the
Cordillera Real in Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary time
was concurrent with obduction of oceanic crust now
lying under the Western Cordillera and Costa. This
convergence prompted development in the Oriente
basin of a network of low-relief basement reverse faults,
mainly having northward strikes. Propagation of the
faults generated elongate folds in lower Tertiary and
older cover rocks. Late Cenozoic accelerated conver-
gence of the South American and Pacific (Nazca) plates is
continuing to accentuate the relief on some of the
basement-rooted reverse faults and their associated
folds. Some small-scale intrastratal detachment may
have taken place locally as adjustment to inversion of
basement faults (Figure 5). However, we have seen no
evidence in the seismic profiles from the northern
Oriente basin of the large-scale, thin-skinned thrust
structures seen in the sub-Andean foothills of the Llanos
basin of Colombia (Cooper et al., 1995).
We interpret the evidence from the regional seismic
grid to indicate that the basement under the Oriente
basin has a complex, anisotropic fabric consisting of large
and small basement blocks that lie above a deep, region-
ally distributed intrabasement detachment zone. This
basement fabric was probably inherited from Proterozoic
tectonic events. The fabric is capable of large-scale adjust-
ment to regional intraplate stress regimes, whether in
divergence or convergence.
The relatively subtle structures of the Oriente basin,
rooted in a zone of basement delamination, can be
viewed as embryonic examples of the types of large-
scale, high-relief basement-involved foreland deforma-
tion spectacularly displayed in some other sub-Andean
regions, such as the Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina
(Jordan and Allmendinger, 1986), and in the western
United States (Lowell, 1977).
Large oil fields in the Oriente basin are in Cretaceous
reservoirs (mainly Hollin and Napo sandstones) on
northward-elongated, low-relief folds developed above
the basement-rooted reverse faults (e.g., Canfield et al.,
1982). We have shown that some of the structures origi-
nated in the Late Cretaceous, some in the early Tertiary
and have since been dormant, and others have rejuve-
nated or moved initially in the late Cenozoic and were
episodically rejuvenated in the Cenozoic. Critical rela-
tionships may exist in terms of the ages of fold closure
and the times of regional oil migration and charging of
traps.
Acknowledgments The writers thank Petroecuador and
Petro-Canada for permission to publish this material, much of
which resulted from a collaborative Petroecuador/Petro-Canada
regional project in 1988. We thank reviewers Norman
Haimila, Robert Meneley, and Howard White for their
constructive comments.
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 Reservoir Characterization of the Hollin and Napo
Formations, Western Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Howard J. White Jose A. Rodas

Oryx Ecuador Energy Company
Robert A. Skopec Quito, Ecuador
Felix A. Ramirez
Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A. Quito, Ecuador

Abstract

T he Oriente basin of Ecuador has produced a substantial amount of oil over the past 20 years. Nearly
3 billion bbl of oil have been recovered from the principal reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo and Hollin
formations. Subtle north-south structures, commonly associated with Andean-related faulting, have trapped
much of the recoverable hydrocarbons in the thicker sandstones deposited within the Hollin and Napo reser-
voirs. East to west thinning of these reservoir units also contributes to the formation of stratigraphic traps. Both
the Hollin and Napo formations comprise successions of eastward-sourced fluvial and deltaic sedimentary
deposits that prograded westward into shoreline and marine shelf parasequences. The Albian Hollin reservoir
interval consists of a dominant alluvial plain sandstone sequence (Main Hollin sandstone) that occupies much
of the Oriente basin. In the western Oriente, the uppermost Hollin section grades vertically into open marine
strata with isolated tidal- and storm-influenced sandstone bodies. The overlying Napo stratigraphy also
consists of sand-rich fluvial and deltaic deposits in the eastern Oriente and abruptly changes to marine shales
and limestones and lowstand valley-fill sandstones in the western part of the basin. Extensive structural and
stratigraphic trap potential remains within the Napo and Hollin strata in the Oriente basin. High-resolution
geophysical techniques and detailed geologic reservoir characterization facilitate successful exploitation of
these remaining reserves.

Resumen

E n los últimos veinte años la Cuenca Oriente del Ecuador ha producido una cantidad sustancial de
hidrocarburos. Alrededor de tres mil millones de barriles de petroleo han sido recuperados de los reser-
vorios principales de las formaciones cretácicas Hollin y Napo. Estructuras sutiles orientadas norte-sur,
comunmente asociadas con fallamiento de edad Andina, han entrampado la mayoría de los hidrocarburos
recuperables dentro de los espesos depósitos arenosos de los reservorios de Napo y Hollin. La formación de
trampas estratigraficas ha estado favorecida por los adelagazamientos este-oeste de dichas unidades reservo-
rios. Las formaciones Napo y Hollin comprenden una sucesión de sedimentos deltaicos y fluviales alimen-
tados desde el este, los cuales progradaron hacia el oeste integrando parasecuencias de zonas de playa y
marino-plataformicas. El reservorio Albense Hollin consiste de una secuencia predominantemente arenosa de
planicie aluvial (Arenisca Hollin Principal) la cual se encuentra ocupando la mayoría de la Cuenca Oriente. En
el occidente del Oriente, la sección superior de Hollin grada verticalmente a sedimentos marino-abiertos con
cuerpos arenosos influenciados por mareas y tormentas. La sobreyacente estratigrafia de Napo tambien
consiste, en el este del Oriente, de depósitos deltaicos y fluviales ricos en arena, los cuales cambian abrupta-
mente a calizas y lutitas marinas, y areniscas “lowstand” de relleno de valle en la parte oeste de la cuenca.
Existe enorme potencial en trampas estructurales y estratigraficas dentro de los estratos Napo y Hollin de la
Cuenca Oriente. Las técnicas geofísicas de alta resolución y la caracterización geologica de los reservorios
facilitaran una explotación exitosa de las reservas remanentes.

White, H. J., R. A. Skopec, F. A. Ramirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla, 1995, Reservoir char- 573
acteristics of the Hollin and Napo formations, western Oriente basin, Ecuador, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 573–596.
574 White et al.
INTRODUCTION
The Oriente basin of Ecuador produces a substantial
amount of oil and provides attractive exploration oppor-
tunities. The Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs have
proven to be consistent producers since initial produc-
tion was first established in August 1972. The Napo
sandstone has a cumulative production (December 1992)
of 1.17 billion bbl, and the Hollin Formation has a cumu-
lative production of 1.70 billion bbl. Production estimates
for the next 20 years are about 2 billion bbl, which will be
derived from the currently producing fields with addi-
tional reserves from fields in the process of development.
This paper presents an integrated geologic study of
the Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs in the greater
Oriente basin, with emphasis on the western Oriente.
Figure 1 illustrates the regional setting of the Oriente
foreland basin in front of the Andean fold and thrust
belt, as well as the distribution of producing fields.
STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC
SETTING
The Oriente basin of eastern Ecuador is part of the
upper Amazon River drainage basin and covers an area
Figure 1—Overview of the
Oriente basin, Ecuador,
showing structural features,
distribution of producing fields,
location of cross sections
shown in Figures 7, 15, and 16,
and specific wells referred to in
the text.
greater than 80,000 km 2. It is contiguous with the
Puntamayo basin of Colombia and the Marañon basin of
Peru. Stratigraphically and structurally, the Oriente
preserves a complex Phanerozoic geologic history
beginning with earliest Paleozoic deposition and culmi-
nating with Tertiary deposits shed from the Andean fold
and thrust belt. Figure 2 shows the general stratigraphy
of the Oriente basin. The succession is subdivided into
several unconformity-bounded sequences: Paleozoic–
Jurassic stratigraphy, the Cretaceous Hollin and Napo
formations, and Upper Cretaceous–Quaternary sedimen-
tary sequence.
The sedimentary fill rests on Precambrian igneous
and metamorphic basement that has been intersected by
several wells in the eastern Oriente adjacent to the
Guyana shield. The Silurian–Jurassic interval consists of
several thousand meters of carbonates, shales, and
subordinate sandstones and conglomerates that have
been structurally deformed during several episodes of
uplift and extension. Examples of the pre-Hollin
structure are documented by Balkwill et al. (1995). The
uppermost strata of this interval belong to the Jurassic
Chapiza Formation and the associated Misahualli
volcanics. In parts of the western Oriente basin, the
Hollin–Napo interval unconformably overlies the
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 2—Stratigraphic column for the Oriente basin.
Jurassic Chapiza and Misahualli volcanics, but elsewhere
the Cretaceous rocks overlie Paleozoic strata and
Precambrian basement.
The Hollin–Napo interval consists of up to 500 m of
continental and marine sandstones, shales, and carbon-
ates. The basin deepens toward the southwest, while its
575
eastern margin is masked by basin margin arches related
to the Guyana shield (Figure 1). Structural arches shown
on the regional map of Dashwood and Abbotts (1990)
indicate two east-west trending arches extending
westward from the Guyana shield. Interval isopach
maps confirm the existence of these two intrabasin
highs—the Aguarico arch to the north and the Cononaco
platform or arch to the south. The arches are believed to
have provided sediments as well as localized the Hollin
and Napo fluvial systems. Reservoirs within the Hollin
and Napo formations are structurally less deformed than
the underlying strata. Nevertheless, Hollin and Napo
structures are large enough to form prolific hydrocarbon
traps. A complex of major reverse faults mark the
western limit of the present-day basin adjacent to the
Napo uplift. Most of the major oil fields occur east of this
complex in structural traps that parallel the north-south
structural grain. The source rocks for these reservoirs are
believed to be the organic-rich Napo shales which have
been extensively tested for maturity, as reported by
Dashwood and Abbotts (1990).
The overlying Upper Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimen-
tary rocks in the Oriente basin were the first to be influ-
enced by incipient Andean movement. The Tena and
Tiyuyacu formations (Figure 2) are the earliest strata of
the post-Napo basin fill and consist of interbedded
shales, sandstones, and minor conglomerates. The basal
sandstone of the Tena Formation in the western Oriente
was probably derived by erosion and local reworking of
uppermost Napo. Late Tena and Tiyuyacu deposition
consisted of episodes of continental redbeds and limited
incursions of marine deposition. Deposition continued
with the Orteguaza and post-Orteguaza formations and
consisted mainly of clay-rich continental strata eroded
from the Andean volcanics. These continental sedimen-
tary rocks mark the infill of the Andean foreland basin
and comprise over 1600 m of section in the western
Oriente. The Andean volcanic arc controlled much of the
Tertiary sedimentation along the western margin of the
Oriente basin.
HOLLIN STRATIGRAPHY AND
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Characterization of the Hollin and Napo reservoirs
includes data from seismic, well logs, core descriptions,
and petrophysical analyses. Over 1100 m of core were
examined. Regional mapping of the Ecuador Oriente
basin focused on depositional environments, paleoshore-
line trends, facies distribution, and reservoir continuity.
The Hollin Formation occurs throughout the Oriente
basin. It thickens from a zero edge along the eastern
margin to nearly 200 m thick, forming a sand-rich
blanket composed of several depositional sequences.
Figure 3 is an isopach map of Hollin strata from its
pinchout in the eastern Oriente to the depocenter in the
southwestern part of the basin.
In the western Oriente basin, the Hollin can be subdi-
vided into the Main Hollin sandstone and the thinner
576 White et al.
Figure 3—Isopach map of the entire Hollin sequence.
Contour interval is 25 m.
Upper Hollin sandstone. General Hollin stratigraphy is
described elsewhere (Wasson and Sinclair, 1927;
Tschopp, 1953; Campbell, 1970; Canfield et al., 1982;
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). The
Hollin is Albian in age, although the basal strata of the
Main Hollin may date to the late Aptian. Faunal and
flora taxa, although sparse, suggest that the Hollin is time
transgressive and trace the overall sea level rise during
late Hollin and early Napo deposition. The Hollin in the
western Oriente basin consists of five successive deposi-
tional sequences: three sequences in the Main Hollin
Sandstone and two in the Upper Hollin Formation
(Figure 4).
Main Hollin Sandstone
Valley Fill Deposition
The initial Main Hollin sediments occupied substan-
tial relief that was eroded into the underlying Jurassic
strata. Several wells penetrate this valley fill succession,
including Oso #1 and Entre Rios X1. The sedimentary
rocks are interpreted to be paleovalley fluvial deposits of
channel sandstone and flood basin shales; no cores of this
interval have been taken. Figure 5 shows these character-
istics in the Oso #1 well. This interpretation is also
supported by Pungarayacu cores in the Napo uplift and
Figure 4—Hollin stratigraphic column, western Oriente
basin, showing the five depositional systems comprising
the complete Hollin sequence.
by isolated Hollin outcrops near Puyo. Valley fill
thickness varies up to 40 m, reflecting the original topo-
graphic relief. The resulting depositional surface was a
very low relief, gently tilted surface over which braid-
plain deposition occurred.
Braidplain Deposition
The dominant depositional package in the Main
Hollin consists of stacked cross-bedded sandstone and
subordinate intervals of interbedded mudstone and
sandstone (Figures 4, 5) of Albian age. The upper part of
this interval forms the main oil reservoirs in the western
Oriente basin.
There are three lithofacies types in the braidplain
sequence. The first and predominant one consists of
stacked channel sandstones that range in thickness from
3 m to more than 10 m. The sandstones are quartzose in
composition and fine to very coarse grained. Granule
conglomeratic lag occasionally overlies channel scour
surfaces. Channel units generally have a uniform grain
size distribution without any obvious fining-upward
trend. Internally, the sandstone units are structured by
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 5—Hollin lithofacies and depositional systems
within the Oso #1 well, Block 7, western Oriente basin. The
depositional systems have been interpreted in more than
100 Oriente wells.
planar tabular and trough cross beds in sets 30–100 cm or
thicker (Figure 6a). Cross bed slip faces commonly
display a grain size segregation typical of avalanche
processes. Sandstone units are separated by erosion
surfaces with carbonaceous shale laminae and mudstone
beds up to 30 cm thick. Macerated plant debris often
occurs as concentrations along cross bed laminae. Dia-
genetic kaolinite is dispersed throughout the sandstones.
The resulting gamma ray signature is that of a shaly
sandstone rather than the high-porosity sandstones that
typify the Main Hollin.
The second facies type consists of fining-upward
channel units of finer grained sandstones and
interbedded mudstones generally less than 30 cm thick.
These sandstones are more poorly sorted than the first
sandstone facies and are dominated by trough cross
bedding.
Facies three comprises mudstones and mudstone
interbedded with thin sandstones. The sandstone
interbeds are fine to very fine grained and often ripple
laminated. The mudstones are massive to faintly
laminated and often dolomitic. This facies is up to 13 m
thick (e.g., Oso #1 well, Figure 5).
577
These sedimentary facies are attributed to deposition
in a braided alluvial plain environment. The overall
facies architecture resembles the Platte River and Bijou
Creek models of Miall (1977) and Cant (1982). In this
environment, the planar and trough cross bed sets are
interpreted as straight and sinuous-crested mid-channel
bars. River discharge may have been seasonally variable,
but the sand bedload was sufficiently high to account for
the stacked braid bars that dominate the Main Hollin. In
addition to sediment supply, local topography, precipita-
tion, and vegetation also influenced fluvial deposition.
Facies two, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, are
attributed to channel, overbank levee, and crevasse splay
deposition. The third facies, dominantly thick
mudstones, is inferred to have originated as channel
abandonment intervals and laterally equivalent flood
basin deposits.
Coastal Plain Deposition
The contact between the Main and Upper Hollin
formations has historically been picked on electric logs at
the base of the thicker shales overlying the stacked sand-
stones of the Main Hollin. Detailed core examination of
this contact in the western Oriente basin demonstrates
that, instead of the stacked sandstones at the top of the
Main Hollin, this sequence is frequently a fining-upward
succession of planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones
and thin mudstones. These sandstones are slightly finer
than the braided sandstones, thin upward, and are rhyth-
mically interbedded with numerous, thin, laminated
mudstones (Figure 6c). Rooted horizons are occasionally
present in the sandstones. The distinctive appearance of
these lithofacies (at least in cored intervals) indicates
coastal plain deposition. The package ranges up to 15 m
in thickness in the western Oriente.
The coastal plain depositional sequence is interpreted
to represent the overall abandonment of the Main Hollin
fluvial system. As such, a lower energy, higher sinuosity
fluvial and estuary depositional system is envisaged for
these capping sediments. The interval’s fining upward
character, the occurrence of planar and trough cross
bedding and ripple lamination, the rhythmic mudstone
interbeds, and the occasional rooting are interpreted to
have originated in a meandering stream system that
likely entered a coastline estuary setting.
The features observed in the coastal plain deposition
of the Main Hollin are similar to the meandering fluvial
to estuary profiles recognized by Smith (1987). The
interbedded sandstones and mudstones in the top part of
the estuary profile exemplify features observed in tidally
influenced sediments, although the tidal reworking is
minor (microtidal) in the coastal plain deposits.
Upper Hollin Formation
Shore Zone Deposition
The upper Hollin transgressively overlies the coastal
plain veneer of the Main Hollin sandstone. It has been
generally interpreted as a marine deposit (Dashwood
and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). This transgressive
578 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6—Core photographs from the Main and Upper Hollin formations. Photographed slabs are from conventional 10-cm
whole-diameter cores. (a) Typical planar cross bedding within the braided fluvial facies. (b) Cross-bedded sandstones and
thin mudstones of the coastal plain facies. (c) Interbedded sandstones and shales of the tidally reworked Upper Hollin shore
zone facies. (d) Open marine glauconitic sandstones beneath the capping limestones of the Upper Hollin.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
blanket occurs throughout the Oriente basin, except in
the extreme northeast. It consists of two distinctive litho-
facies associations. The lower shore zone deposition
comprises a sandstone and shale complex that varies up
to 15 m thick in the western Oriente. The upper open
marine sequence caps the overall abandonment of the
Hollin depositional system.
The shore zone lithofacies consist of fine- to medium-
grained planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones, very
fine to fine-grained ripple laminated sandstones, and
burrowed lenticular-bedded mudstones. Above the basal
mudstones, the shore zone locally displays a vertical
profile of stacked cross-bedded and ripple-laminated
sandstone with minor shale interbeds. A few kilometers
away, the profile may be dominantly lenticular
mudstone and isolated, thin sandstones of limited
reservoir quality. The majority of the ripple sandstones
contain abundant clay drapes within the lamination. The
coarser sandstones occasionally exhibit strongly oblique
cross-bedding orientations. Lenticular mudstones are
moderately to weakly burrowed (Chondrites, Planolites,
and minor Teichichnus) with rare ripple-laminated
sandstone lenses.
A variety of shoreline to shallow marine depositional
environments combined to create the shore zone litho-
facies. A continued transgression of the tidally influ-
enced coastal plain resulted in the formation of sand-
dominated bay head deltas, estuaries, and subtidal
shoals. Muddy tidal flat and shallow marine mud depo-
sition locally dominate the shore zone lithofacies.
Open Marine Deposition
The open marine succession completes the trangres-
sive Upper Hollin depositional sequence. It may range
up to 15 m in thickness. The lithofacies consists of glau-
conitic and quartzose sandstone, limestone, marl, and
shale. Ripple-laminated, very fine to fine-grained
quartzose sandstones are commonly thin bedded and
moderately burrowed and occur at the base of the open
marine succession. In the upper part of the open marine
sequence, glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 6d) are
capped by a thin veneer of micritic and fossiliferous lime-
stones and marls. The sandstones are typically very fine
to fine-grained quartz with fine- to medium-grained
glauconite which vary up to 1 m in individual bed
thickness and form sharp-based tabular units. Mudstone
rip-up clasts occasionally overlie scour surfaces. Sedi-
mentary structures include trough cross bedding, ripple
lamination, and flaser bedding. Bioturbation often oblit-
erates all primary sedimentary structures. This unit
contains an open marine biota, including ammonites and
both thick- and thin-shelled bivalves. In the glauconitic
sandstones, the glauconite content is locally in excess of
50% of the framework grains. Capping limestones (fossil-
iferous wackestones) and marl beds generally measure
less than 2 m thick and are well lithified. Vuggy porosity
due to shell dissolution occurs sporatically.
The basal quartzitic sandstone and shale of the open
marine facies are interpreted to be of subtidal shoal
origin. These sandstones are generally thinner than the
overlying glauconitic shoal deposits and are almost
579
always interbedded with marine shelf shales (lenticular-
bedded burrowed mudstone). The quartzitic beds origi-
nated as nearshore, tidally reworked marine sands. The
glauconite-rich sands accumulated more seaward of the
shoreline as storm-generated sand waves. These shoals
incorporated whatever quartz sand reached the middle
shelf position, as well as the glauconite-replaced fecal
material derived on the shelf, and any reworked inverte-
brate shell debris. It is likely that fossil abundance
increased away from the clastic shoreline. The shelf area
beyond the glauconitic shoals provided sites for thin but
widespread carbonate deposition.
The fossiliferous, micritic limestone and marls
capping the Upper Hollin record the final phase of
Hollin deposition as the sea transgressed eastward over
the Cretaceous Oriente margin. Because of the typical
thickness of the limestones (less than 2 m), seismic
amplitude contrast at the top of the Hollin is generally
minimal. The acoustic contrast does increase locally
where limestone thickness increases.
Pungarayacu Area
The Pungarayacu concession is located on the
basinward margin of the Napo uplift. It is noted for a
large, shallow, heavy oil reservoir that has been
evaluated by Petroecuador (Almeida et al., 1983). The
Pungarayacu #2 well is representative of the entire
Hollin section in this area west of the Oriente basin. Eight
braided channel sandstone packages are present in the
Main Hollin. Significant mudstone intervals separate
several of the upper channel sequences. These
mudstones indicate periodic abandonment and aggrada-
tion of the alluvial plain. The lower channels, above the
Misahualli volcanics, are sand rich and devoid of
interbedded mudstone. Figure 7 shows a north-south
oriented cross section through three of the Pungarayacu
wells. Rapid facies changes occur within the distal or
westward fluvial components of the Main Hollin. The
abundance of mudstone suggests that the braidplain
depositional system responsible for the Main Hollin
became a mixed sand and mud system as it prograded
westward. The Upper Hollin is represented by relatively
thin mud-rich beds, subordinate quartzose and glau-
conitic sandstone, and capping limestone.
Hollin stratigraphy is well exposed along the
Hollin–Loreto road in the Pungarayacu area on the Napo
uplift (see de Souza Cruz, 1989). A composite section of
the Main and Upper Hollin strata exposed in the roadcut
is shown in Figure 8. The Main Hollin consists princi-
pally of the braidplain facies, which unconformably
overlies the Misahualli volcanics. The braidplain succes-
sion is locally saturated with oil. The outcrop shows
well-developed levee and floodplain deposits (Figure 8).
The lower braided channel sandstones in this section are
comparable with the Bijou Creek model. The capping
beds of the Main Hollin are correlative with the coastal
plain sandstones observed in cores from the western
Oriente. Shale interbeds in the coastal plain facies are
both more numerous and thicker than those observed in
the braidplain deposits.
580 White et al.
Figure 7—Hollin sandstone cross section, Pungarayacu concession, eastern Napo uplift. Inferred correlations demonstrate
the more frequent facies changes in the western Oriente. See Figure 1 for location.
The Upper Hollin deposits present in this roadcut are
part of the shore zone deposition. Individual channels
have a lenticular geometry 30–150 m or more wide and
1–3 m thick. The strata are interpreted to be of tidal flat
and tidal channel origin. No exposures of the open
marine facies of the Upper Hollin were observed here,
such as the glauconitic sandstones or carbonates. De
Souza Cruz (1989) interpreted the Main Hollin as origi-
nating from braided fluvial and eolian paleoenviron-
ments. We see little evidence for eolian deposition. We
agree with de Souza Cruz that the Upper Hollin in this
outcrop is estuarine, although the tidal range need not
have been macrotidal.
NAPO STRATIGRAPHY AND
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
The Napo Formation consists of organic-rich shales,
bioclastic grainstones and packstones, and terrigenous
sandstones believed to have been deposited in fluvial,
deltaic, marginal marine, and marine shelf environments
during the Late Cretaceous. The Napo Formation
conformably overlies the Upper Hollin Formation and is
in turn overlain unconformably by the Tena Formation
(Maastrichtian–Paleocene). Total Napo thickness exceeds
275 m over much of the western Oriente basin. Figure 9
shows the lithologies and stratigraphic relationships of
the Napo in the western Oriente basin. The Napo T, U,
and M sandstone units are related to a series of regres-
sive-transgressive cycles that built the Napo stratigraphy.
There were at least four such cycles in the western
Oriente basin. Only the T and U intervals deposited
sands in the western Oriente basin. To the east in the
central Oriente (e.g., Shushufindi field), these sequences
are indistinguishable because of their stacked, sand-rich
character which resulted in their amalgamation.
Mapping of the Napo transgressive shales (referred to as
the lower, middle, and upper Napo shales) define a
northeast-southwest Napo shoreline trend within the
western Oriente basin.
Seismic reflection data show that Napo stratigraphy
has substantial acoustic contrasts that can be resolved,
depending on data quality and signal processing. The
most conspicuous acoustic change is at shale-limestone
interfaces. The sandstones generally have gradational
contacts. The least resolvable acoustic contrasts occur
within the U and T sandstones where they thin
westward and are difficult to distinguish seismically.
Geophysical modeling of the U sandstone shows a subtle
amplitude increase where the sandstone is well
developed. A marked amplitude increase also occurs
where the U sandstone is replaced laterally by limestone.
Seismic models for the T sandstone indicate subtle
amplitude decrease where the sandstone is well
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 581

Figure 8—Roadcut stratigraphy exposed along the Hollin-

Loreto road, eastern Napo uplift. See Figure 1 for location.

developed; however, the overlying B limestone is a

strong reflector that tends to mask the T sandstone. On
this basis, subtle amplitude anomalies in the western
Oriente basin are attributed to the U sandstone.
Amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis of the U
sandstone indicates that there is no significant offset due
to hydrocarbon-bearing lithologies.

Napo T and U Sandstones

Stacked fluvial and deltaic sandstones comprise the
Napo T and U reservoirs of Shushufindi and Libratador
fields in the central Oriente (Canfield et al., 1982). These
intervals quickly thin and become separated by thicker
marine shales in Sacha and Auca fields (Canfield, 1991).
From these fields westward, both the T and U sand-
stones exhibit different lithofacies (and depositional envi- Figure 9—Composite log of Hollin and Napo formations,
ronments) than in the central Oriente. Quartzose sand- western Oriente basin.
stones occur in each of the western Oriente Napo cores
582 White et al.
Figure 10—Idealized Napo depositional package resulting
from sedimentation following sea level drop on the Napo
marine shelf.
examined. Glauconitic sandstones, laminated to
burrowed mudstones, and fossiliferous limestones are
common components of both T and U sequences. The
quartzose sandstones exhibit the following characteris-
tics: (1) abrupt basal contacts, (2) bed thicknesses from 30
cm to 1 m, (3) medium to very fine grain size, (4) large
scale planar and trough cross bedding to ripple lamina-
tion, (5) abundant clay drapes along laminations, and (6)
occasional disruption due to burrowing. The glauconitic
sandstones are similar to those of the Upper Hollin and
typically occur in the upper parts of both the T and U
successions. Cross beds commonly occur in oblique
orientations and less often in strongly oblique, or
herringbone, orientation.
Figure 10 shows a typical vertical profile through the
Napo T and U sequences. A varying complex of thin
fossiliferous limestones, burrowed silty mudstones, and
thin quartzose sandstones form an interval less than 5 m
thick that commonly occurs above the laminated shales
below both the T and U. The sandstones abruptly overlie
this complex. Stacked, fine- to medium-grained, cross-
bedded sandstones dominate the lower half of the Napo
T and U sandstone packages. In the upper half of the
profile, the sandstone beds are thinner, finer grained,
ripple laminated, and generally glauconitic. Mudstone
interbeds are intermittent within the sandstones.
Capping the T and U intervals are more burrowed
mudstone, minor sandstone (locally thicker and medium
grained), and limestone interbeds. Laminated shales
separate the sandstone intervals from thick carbonate
wackestone and mudstone (B and A limestones, respec-
tively).
Situated between thick intervals of marine limestones
and mudstones, the Napo T and U sandstone packages
show a channel-like development, locally exceeding 10
m thick, that is attributable to fluvial channel, shoreline
estuary, and subtidal shoal origin. Channels and shoals
within this setting were probably controlled by the range
of tidal energy, the shoreline configuration (embayments
and estuaries), and the physiography of the marine shelf
(de Boer et al., 1988; Terwindt, 1988). Westward-flowing
streams delivered sediment to these Napo shorelines.
The initial stacked sandstones of these prograding
channels is inferred to be of fluvial point bar or deltaic
origin.
Overlying the channel sandstones, the beds exhibit
reworking by tidal currents that progressively controlled
sand distribution seaward of the fluvial-dominated
deposition. As in the Upper Hollin, the variety of tidal
environments recognized includes tidal flat, tidal creek,
and subaqueous tidal shoals. Dimensions of these shoals
can range up to hundreds of meters in width, hundreds
of meters to several kilometers in length, and more than
5 m in thickness. Positioning of these sandstone bodies
was probably influenced by paleotopographic highs on
the Napo marine shelf. Glauconitic sandstone shoals are
mixed with quartzose shoals in the upper parts of the
Napo T and U sequences. The cycle of progradation
dominated by channel and tidal shoal sedimentation was
replaced vertically by mud-dominated marine conditions
followed by transgressive bioclastic and micritic
limestone deposition (Figure 11).
CRETACEOUS PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The four principal sandstone packages deposited in
the western part of the Oriente basin during
Aptian–Maastrichtian time were the Main Hollin, Upper
Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U intervals. The Main Hollin
is the thickest and most widespread of these intervals. It
was deposited initially on an irregular erosional surface.
The valley fill deposits smoothed this relief and created
an alluvial plain that was dominated by braided rivers.
The provenance for the Main Hollin sandstones is
believed to have been the Guyana shield and its
Paleozoic cover. Grain size decreases from east to west.
However, isolated outcrops of Hollin valley fill deposits
in the uplifts west of Puyo contain gravel- to cobble-sized
clasts of locally derived igneous basement demonstrating
the influence of possible local source areas during early
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 583

Figure 11—Napo regressive–transgressive cycle of sedimentation showing rapid progradation followed by sea level rise
with marine onlap.

Hollin sedimentation. The westward extent of the

shoreline during braidplain deposition is unknown
because the Andean fold and thrust belt has now
completely overprinted this area west of the Napo uplift.
The physiography conceptualized for the Main Hollin
braidplain is a very low relief, low gradient system. The
multiple river systems comprising the Hollin alluvial
plain carried a high volume of fine to very coarse sand
that was efficiently distributed over the entire alluvial
plain. The source of the quartzose sand is further
envisaged to have been a much higher relief escarpment
of Paleozoic sandstones and igneous basement. Several
examples of such settings include the valley sandur
deposits of southern Iceland (Bluck, 1974), the Scott
outwash deposits of Alaska (Boothroyd, 1972), the
Canterbury plain of New Zealand (Brown and Wilson,
1988), and the Pantanal escarpment and alluvial plain in
Brazil (Short and Blair, 1986). What these alluvial plains
have in common is a high sand supply and a braided
channel network capable of distributing the high bed
load. Regional to local tectonics and vegetation would
also have had an important impact on the resulting
depositional system. The alluvial plain gradient varies in
these examples from several meters per kilometer to less
than 0.01 m/km in the Pantanal basin.
The Aptian–Maastrichtian eustatic sea level curve
(Figure 12) records significant sea level lows that are
correlated with the regressive-transgressive para-
sequences of the Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U
(Macellari, 1988). The Main Hollin coastal plain and
Upper Hollin shore zone depositional systems are Figure 12—Correlation of Napo stratigraphy with global
believed to have been deposited during the late Albian sea level change for the Early–Late Cretaceous. The T and
sea level rise that inundated the Main Hollin braidplain. U sandstone packages correspond to the significant sea
There is no evidence in the Oriente cores for a significant level lows during the Cenomanian and Turonian, respec-
sea level fall at this time. Deposition of the Upper Hollin tively.
Formation reflects gradual eastward encroachment of the
sea and progressive destruction of the delta plain to form formation of the early Andean orogenic belt. A passive
neritic tidal shoals. Figure 12 shows a more substantial margin shelf apparently received the Hollin and Napo
sea level drop in the Late Turonian at the start of Napo U sedimentation. Limited exposures of phosphatic shales
sedimentation, suggesting a marked westward shift of and cherts in the northwestern Napo uplift suggest the
the shoreline. It is envisaged that Upper Hollin and existence of a shelf slope break and Late Cretaceous
Napo deposition took place on a broad, relatively stable upwelling prior to its destruction during Andean defor-
continental shelf west of the Guyana craton and prior to mation.
584 White et al.

Figure 13—Hollin paleogeography in Albian time. (A) Braided alluvial plain. (B) Initial transgression during Main Hollin
coastal plain deposition. (C) Upper Hollin shore zone deposition in tidally influenced nearshore environments. (D) Open
marine sedimentation ending Hollin sedimentation.

Figures 13 and 14 show a series of block diagrams that
summarize the paleogeography during Hollin and Napo
time. The Albian braided alluvial plain was built on the
edge of the Guyana shield and covered the Oriente basin
farther west than the Napo uplift. The position of the
Albian shoreline has been obliterated by Andean defor-
mation. Inundation by a late Albian sea level rise estab-
lished fluvial, deltaic, estuary, and tidal shoal environ-
ments (Figures 13b, c, d). The delta and estuarine sand
accumulations now form excellent hydrocarbon reser-
voirs in addition to the Main Hollin. Sand sedimentation
rates are inferred to have been very rapid within the
Hollin depositional systems. Wells suggest that the
shoreline was close to the Guyana shield at the end of
Hollin deposition. The late Albian maximum flooding
event (Lower Napo Shale) essentially closed Hollin sedi-
mentation.
The Napo Formation consists of several transgressive-
regressive packages related to Late Cretaceous eustatic
sea level fluctuations (Figure 12) (Haq et al., 1988),
including the Napo T and U (Figure 14). The successive
parasequences in the Upper Hollin and Napo formations
were deposited in a basin with a ramp margin (see Van
Wagoner et al., 1988). This model implies that relative sea
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 585

Figure 14—Napo paleogeography during Cenomanian–Turonian time. (A) Early Cenomanian marine shelf deposition domi-
nating much of the Oriente. (B) Napo T sandstone deposition in the western Oriente. (C) Transgressive marine mud deposi-
tion (Middle Napo Shale). (D) Turonian marine shelf sedimentation prior to sea level lowering and deposition of the Napo U
sandstone cycle.

level did not fall below the shelf break, which precludes
lowstand sediments within lowstand fan or prograding
wedge settings. The Hollin and Napo shore zone to shelf
facies tract transgressed and regressed several times. The
quartzose sandstones of the Upper Hollin, T, U, and M
sequences were deposited after maximum sea level fall
and within depocenters (eroded valleys) created during
falling sea level. Eventually both the T and U were
inundated and covered with limestone shoals and shelf
muds during the subsequent sea level rise. The ramp
margin model permits major shifts of the shoreline, espe-
cially where the rate of sedimentation exceeded the rate
of subsidence.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
Reservoir-Scale Heterogeneity of the Hollin
Lithofacies
The Coca-Payamino and Gacela fields in the north-
western Oriente basin have sufficient well density to
allow detailed stratigraphic correlation. Well spacings
range up to 3 km in the Gacela field and average about
1 km along the Coca-Payamino structure. The NNW-SSE
orientation of the Coca-Payamino is nearly orthogonal to
the east-west depositional pattern interpreted for the
Hollin strata. Figure 15 is a simplified cross section
586 White et al.
Figure 15—Stratigraphic cross section of the Hollin lithofacies in the Coca-Payamino field, western Oriente basin. Lithofa-
cies have been determined from cored intervals in the field. The top of the Upper Hollin is commonly a succession of thin,
fossiliferous limestones. See Figure 1 for location.
through Coca-Payamino field and illustrates the local
variation of depositional facies interpreted for each well
along the structure. Overall, the Coca #4 well contains
the thickest development of the coastal and shelf
sequences mainly because of thicker shore zone sand-
stones. A relatively thin veneer of coastal deposits is
present in each well, except in Coca #7, where the equiv-
alent interval is dominated by a braided channel. The
Main Hollin remains consistent throughout the structure.
Figure 16 shows the overall lithofacies variations
between two wells in the Gacela area immediately south
of the Coca-Payamino field. In the Gacela #1 well, both
the glauconitic sandstones of the shelf and the tidal sand-
stones of shore zone origin are thicker than their counter-
parts in the Gacela #2 well. The shelf sandstones in the
Gacela #2 are not as glauconite rich as those in Gacela #1
and have retained significant reservoir porosity. Finally,
the coastal plain deposits in Gacela #1 appear to be
absent in Gacela #2. The coastal plain facies is believed to
interfinger with braided channel lithologies.
These two field examples suggest that the Main Hollin
braided stream sandstones are remarkably consistent in
character across each field. The coastal plain, shore zone,
and open marine units, by comparison, show significant
compartmentalization that is largely a function of deposi-
tional environment. Optimum field development must
account for this lateral and vertical heterogeneity.
Sandstone Petrography
A representative suite of sandstone samples from
Hollin and Napo facies was examined using standard
petrographic techniques. From this analysis, it is
concluded that similar sandstone framework and diage-
netic characteristics occur in each of the reservoir
intervals. Two sandstone types are present: quartzose
sandstones occur in each facies, while glauconitic sand-
stones occur only in Upper Hollin and Napo intervals.
Figure 17 shows the framework and diagenetic charac-
teristics of the Hollin and Napo sandstones.
Quartzose sandstones (Figure 17a) volumetrically
dominate the arenaceous deposits. Grain size varies
substantially within a single cored interval. The coarsest
detritus in cores or outcrops occurs in the braidplain
depositional system of the Main Hollin succession. In the
Tiguino #3 core, for example, the braided stream sand-
stones contain beds dominated by coarse to very coarse
quartz grains, as well as local quartz granule conglom-
erate lag. The average grain size of the Main Hollin is
medium grained. Bimodal grain size segregation in slip-
face laminae is typical of much of the cross bedding. The
western Oriente Pungarayacu area has the finest grained
Hollin channel sandstones encountered in the Oriente
area. Excellent porosity and hydrocarbon staining occur
throughout the Oriente in the fine-grained to granule
textured lithologies. Sandstones in the Upper Hollin and
Napo successions also vary significantly in grain size, but
generally within the very fine to medium-grained size
range; they have locally excellent porosity and perme-
ability (Figure 17b).
Glauconitic sandstones of the Upper Hollin shelf
facies tract and each of the Napo intervals consist of a
framework of glauconite and quartz grains (Figure 17c).
Glauconite content varies from trace to dominant.
Typically, the glauconite grains are about 200 µm larger
than associated quartz grains. Whereas the quartz in the
shelf sand shoal facies was reworked from deltaic and
shore zone deltas, the glauconite was locally derived by
diagenetic replacement of biogenic material. Glauconite
grains are easily compacted under moderate overburden
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 587

Figure 16—Stratigraphic correlation in Gacela field 5 km southwest of Coca-Payamino. Thickness and lithofacies variations
are especially noticeable in the coastal plain and open marine facies.

pressure and may form a pseudomatrix that occludes the
original primary porosity. Where the percentage of glau-
conite is less than about 20% of the sandstone
framework, the quartz-dominated framework retains
much of the original porosity, resulting in significant
reservoir potential. In contrast, the dark green, laterally
equivalent glauconitic sandstones are tight due to
framework grain compaction.
Quartz dominates the detrital framework in all sand-
stones except the glauconite-rich shelf facies. The quartz
is generally monocrystalline and less commonly poly-
crystalline; it has a strong undulose extinction. Feldspars
and micas are subordinate to rare, but more abundant in
the Napo T and U sandstones. Feldspar composition
varies from sodic plagioclase to potassic feldspar. Unless
encased in early calcite cementation, most surviving
feldspar grains exhibit moderate to extensive secondary
leaching. Secondary leaching during burial diagenesis
helped reduce the feldspar content. The provenance is
believed to be the feldspar-rich granitic Guyana
basement to the east. However, the possibility of a
quartzose Paleozoic sandstone source overlying the
basement is also possible. Other components of the
sandstone include heavy minerals such as zircon and
coalified plant debris.
The burial diagenetic history of the Cretaceous
reservoir sandstones reflects several processes that
occurred in the following order:
• Limited mechanical compaction of framework
grains
• Early calcite and pyrite precipitation
• Dissolution of unstable framework grains
(feldspars)
• Precipitation of silica overgrowths
• Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals
Calcite precipitation occludes the initial porosity in
thin sandstone beds, especially adjacent to shale
interbeds where it forms small, spherulitic concretions.
These calcite-cemented sandstones show no evidence of
mechanical compaction, suggesting that protective
cementation occurred at an early stage. Pyrite precipita-
tion in the form of concretionary cements or framboids
are characteristically associated with the organic debris
trapped within the sandstones and shales. Early mechan-
ical compaction is again limited to isolated grain inter-
penetrations. Organic debris and pyrite crystals are
concentrated along stylolite-like surfaces.
Silica overgrowths are ubiquitous throughout the
588 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 17—Petrography of Hollin and Napo reservoir sandstones as seen in thin section photomicrographs and scanning
electron micrographs. (a) Plane light view of Main Hollin braidplain sandstone. (b) Quartzose sandstone of Napo U interval.
(c) Glauconitic sandstone of the Upper Hollin open marine facies. (e) Diagenetic kaolinite occupying isolated pores in thin
section. (f) Scanning electron micrograph of secondary silica overgrowths and kaolinite clay mineral.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
quartz arenites of the Hollin and Napo sequence and
provide the framework support that has preserved
porosity to reservoir depths in the Oriente basin.
Although the overgrowths (Figure 17d) make up only a
small percentage of the sandstones, they strengthen the
highly porous sandstones while only slightly reducing
overall primary porosity. Mechanical testing of these
sandstones documents the high compressive strength
required to break the strong silica-cemented framework.
The amount of porosity attributable to framework-grain
dissolution is not significant compared to the primary
intergranular porosity preserved by silica overgrowth.
Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals followed over-
growth formation. The kaolinite typically fills small
clusters of pores, but does not seriously affect sandstone
permeability (Figure 17e). Kaolinite diagenesis
succeeded silica overgrowth formation (Figure 17f), but
preceded oil emplacement. Such relationships are
common and invariably associated with the oil–water
contact where differentially stained sandstones may
occur below the base of the oil-saturated sandstones.
Petrophysical Characteristics
Electric Log Response
The stratigraphic and sedimentologic characterization
of the Napo and Hollin reservoirs has been facilitated by
using core studies combined with electrical log evalua-
tions. Many of the mineralogic characteristics observed
in cores have a petrophysical log response. Carbona-
ceous debris on cross bed slip faces induces a stronger
shaly gamma ray response than would be expected from
core examination. A clean gamma ray deflection is
typical of a clean sandstone, but a higher gamma
response may indicate relatively clean sandstones conta-
minated with carbonaceous laminae, shaly sandstone, or
carbonaceous limestone or marl. Glauconite and pyrite
reduce the resistivity. The glauconite-rich sandstones
result in some of the lowest resistivity responses on
observed logs. Pyrite is locally abundant as a dissemi-
nated replacement fabric or as concretions in all litholo-
gies. Dolomitic shales tend to have higher resistivity than
nondolomitic shales due to carbonate cementation of
pore space. These shales are the most resistive clastic
lithofacies in the Oriente basin.
Fluid chemistry is also reflected in log response, and
its effects limit the usefulness of resistivity or SP curves
for facies correlation. Low salinities within the Main
Hollin succession limit the reliability of the SP curve and
also moderately affect the resistivity curve. The presence
of oil is noticeable regardless of lithology.
Porosity–Permeability Relationships, Pore
Geometry, and Capillarity
Multiple rock types occur in the Hollin formation
because of variations in depositional environment. The
most important factors affecting porosity preservation
are lithology, compaction, and diagenesis. Porosity and
permeability generally correlate in the Upper Hollin
despite significant mineralogic differences throughout
589
this interval. In the quartz-dominated Main Hollin,
sediment texture is the primary factor controlling pore
geometry and connectivity.
Figure 18a shows the porosity–permeability data for
the entire Upper Hollin in a single Coca-Payamino well.
Permeability ranges over six orders of magnitude, and
no distinct trends are discernible in the overall data set.
The poorest permeabilities are associated with glau-
conitic sandstones and clay-rich interbeds. Figures 18b
and 18c illustrate the wide range of measured porosity
and permeability in this highly heterogeneous
formation. Quartz-rich zones are of high reservoir
quality and comparable to those found in the Main
Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are
8.6% and 1.67 md, respectively. A histogram of grain
density (Figure 18d) further demonstrates the diversity
of minerals present in this interval.
Mercury injection extended range capillary pressure
data were generated to examine reservoir rock quality,
determine size and sorting of pore throats, and evaluate
seal capacity. Shales within the Upper Hollin (Figure 19)
are microporous and considered to be effective seals.
Because of inhibiting diagenetic effects, glauconitic sand-
stones have bimodal pore throat size distributions and
complex pore geometries (Figure 20). Further reduction
in reservoir quality can result from extensive diagenetic
pyrite and the abundance of detrital clay drapes and
coalified plant debris.
Figure 21a shows the porosity-permeability data for
the Main Hollin Formation in a single Coca-Payamino
well. A clear cluster of data in the 15–20% porosity range
and greater than 100 md permeability demonstrates
excellent reservoir quality. The Main Hollin is a “clean”
uniform sandstone, although thin, impermeable clay-rich
interbeds are not uncommon. Figures 21b, c, and d illus-
trate the quartz-dominated nature of the Main Hollin.
Median values for porosity and permeability are 18.6%
and 1013 md, respectively. Mercury injection data
(Figure 22) show unimodal well-sorted and well-
connected pores, further substantiating high reservoir
quality. Most pore throat radii are larger than 1 µm, with
most pores greater than 10 µm in width.
Anisotropy within the Main Hollin causing direc-
tional preferences in permeability is minimal. Horizontal
and vertical permeabilities were measured on full-
diameter core to determine the potential for reservoir
fluid coning. In the quartz-rich zones of the Main Hollin,
horizontal and vertical permeabilities are almost equal
(Figure 23). This indicates that cross bedding and other
sedimentologic features do not create anisotropy in this
sand body.
Rock Mechanics
Uniaxial and triaxial compression testing was
performed on four lithologies from the Hollin formation:
shale, limestone, glauconitic sandstone, and quartzose
sandstone. These data were critical in the assessment of
borehole stability and other engineering evaluations
useful for horizontal drilling parameters (Ramirez and
Rodas, 1992). Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria were estab-
lished under triaxial load on four samples for each
590 White et al.

Figure 18—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Upper Hollin Formation. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to nitrogen
at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of all lithofacies of the Upper Hollin.
(c) Porosity histogram of all lithologies. (d) Grain density histogram for the Upper Hollin.

lithology. Compressive strengths were measured at
9520–25,170 psi for shale, 16,700–28,040 psi for limestone,
8370–27,550 psi for low-percentage glauconitic
sandstone, and 5100–16,870 psi for clean sandstone
(Figure 24). Tensile strengths ranged from 1760 psi for
shale to 660 psi for clean sandstone.
Wettability
Both the Upper and Main Hollin demonstrate inter-
mediate to oil-wetting tendencies based on qualitative
and quantitative indicators. Localized development of
mixed wettability or preferentially oil-wet characteristics
can be mineralogy specific, that is, glauconite-rich rocks
tend to show stronger oil-wet conditions. Complex pore
geometries formed by small, irregular pore throats lead
to high immobile saturation of the wetting phase. Irre-
ducible water saturation tends to be low, with an average
of 15%, and residual oil saturation ranges from 25 to 40%
based on “fresh state” water-oil relative permeability
measurements. Wettability indices in the Upper Hollin
support the theory of intermediate to slightly oil-wet
conditions. Asphaltinic oils (up to 15.2% asphaltene by
weight) are common near the oil–water contact. Hollin
wetting tendencies could have significant impact on
production (fluid flow characteristics) and reservoir
development scenarios, such as water flood potential.
CONCLUSIONS
Core descriptions have shown that four depositional
systems comprise Hollin stratigraphy: braidplain and
coastal deposits of the Main Hollin Sandstone, and shore
zone and open marine shelf facies in the Upper Hollin
Formation. This reconstruction enlarges on previous
interpretations of marine-influenced Hollin fluvial depo-
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 591

Figure 19—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin shales. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size
distribution of reservoir seals in the Upper Hollin.
592 White et al.

Figure 20—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin glauconitic sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection
pressure. (b) Pore size distribution.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 593

Figure 21—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Main Hollin quartzose sandstones. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to
nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of quartzose sandstone. (c)
Porosity histogram for sandstones. (d) Grain density histogram for the principal reservoir sandstones.

sition. Sandstones in overlying Napo strata in the
western Oriente basin are also divided into two
sequences (T and U intervals).
The Hollin braidplain depositional system is a
sandstone-dominated unit that comprises most of the
Hollin succession. It is also the most prolific reservoir
zone in the western part of the basin. The braided fluvial
sandstone units have excellent continuity and connec-
tivity, as shown by analysis of closely spaced wells.
However, shale interbeds and thicker channel abandon-
ment mudstones adversely influence local permeability.
It is believed that the braidplain deposits are most
productive in structural traps where there is limited
stratigraphic trapping potential.
The coastal plain depositional system consists of
braided and meandering river sediments, overbank
floodplain strata, and deltaic-estuarine deposits. Even
between closely spaced wells, sandstone–shale ratios
may be variable. Similarly, the overlying shore zone
depositional system of the Upper Hollin succession has
variable sandstone distribution, with local good quality
reservoir development. The capping open marine sand-
stones are moderately prospective, especially where
glauconite content is low. Stratigraphic trapping
potential is implied by the heterogeneity of these litho-
facies.
Fluviodeltaic Napo sandstones are prolific producers
of oil from fields in the central part of the Oriente basin.
These stacked channel and shore zone sandstones have
reservoir characteristics similar to the underlying Hollin
fluvial sandstone reservoirs, albeit with local hetero-
geneities. Toward the west, the Napo sandstones occupy
valley-like, topographic lows; these sandstones have
locally significant reservoir potential.
A better understanding of the Hollin and Napo
stratigraphy and distribution of reservoir quality sand-
stones will help to optimize wellbore placement during
field development. This understanding has been further
594 White et al.

Figure 22—Petrophysical relationships of the Main Hollin sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b)
Pore size distribution from mercury injection data.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 23—Full diameter core permeability measurements
(horizontal and vertical) for the Main Hollin sandstones.
enhanced by detailed petrophysical analysis of the
reservoir sandstones, which has provided the appro-
priate data for accurate reservoir simulation. The Oriente
basin of Ecuador is a proven oil province that has
tremendous potential for future production.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the
Direccion Nacional de Hidrocarburos (DNH) and Petroe-
cuador for permission to publish this paper and for their
invaluable assistance in making Hollin and Napo cores
available. The core examination in Ecuador (Quito and Lago
Agrio) was undertaken by the principal author, Ed Robbs and
Felix Ramirez (Oryx Energy, Dallas), and Mariana Lascano
(Petroecuador). Acknowledgment is given for their assistance
in collecting the initial core data for the project. Harold Illich
(Oryx Energy, Dallas) contributed substantially to the Hollin
outcrop study and our understanding of the Oriente basin
burial history. Further acknowledgment is given to Tim
Martin (Oryx Energy, Dallas), Cliff Thomson (Oryx
Ecuador), Oryx Energy (Dallas), and our partners for permis-
sion to publish this paper, and to the Oryx Graphic group for
preparation of the illustrations.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Howard J. White
Felix A. Ramirez Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
13155 Noel Road J. Leon M y Av. Orellana
Dallas, Texas 75240-5067 Quito
U.S.A. Ecuador
 Intermontane Late Paleogene–Neogene Basins of the
Andes of Ecuador and Peru:
Sedimentologic and Tectonic Characteristics

R. Marocco R. Baudino
ORSTOM Laboratoire de Modélisation des Bassins Sédimentaires
Paris, France Université de Pau
Pau, France
A. Lavenu
ORSTOM
Université de Pau
Pau, France

Abstract

A n important characteristic of Neogene basin evolution in the Andean Cordillera was the formation of
intermontane basins. These basins were initiated in the late Oligocene with reactivation of Andean
tectonism and were abandoned in the latest Miocene (about 7 Ma). Their sedimentary fill and structures record
the Neogene tectonic history. The sedimentary fill of these basins comprises two megasequences. The first
consists of fluvial and overlying lacustrine deposits attributed to basin opening. The second is composed essen-
tially of proximal fluvial sedimentary units and reflects the closure of the basins in the latest Miocene.
Structural analysis of the Neogene basins shows that their evolution was controlled by the regional tectonic
stress. Synsedimentary folding and fracturing show that the direction of stress experienced a clockwise
rotation in the Neogene, thus explaining variations in the behavior of the faults bordering the basins as well as
the different stages of their evolution.

Resumen

U na característica importante de la evolución de las cuencas neógenas de la cordillera de los Andes ha

sido la formación de las cuencas intramontañosas, cuya creación se inició en el Oligoceno superior con
la reactivación de la tectónica andina, y cuyo relleno finalizó en el Mioceno terminal (aproximadamente 7 Ma).
Su relleno sedimentario y sus estructuras registran la historia tectónica del Neógeno. El relleno sedimentario de
tales cuencas comprende dos megasecuencias. La primera consiste en depósitos fluviales y lacustres sobreya-
centes que corresponden a la apertura de las cuencas. La segunda se compone básicamente de sedimentos
fluviales proximales y refleja el cierre de las cuencas en el Mioceno terminal.
Según los resultados del análisis estructural de la cuencas neógenas, su evolución ha sido controlada por el
esfuerzo tectónico regional. Plegamientos y fracturas sinsedimentarios muestran que la dirección del esfuerzo
ha experimentado una rotación horaria durante el Neógeno, explicando así las variaciones en el compor-
tamiento de las fallas del borde de las cuencas y en las diferentes etapas de su evolución.

Marocco, R., A. Lavenu, and R. Baudino, 1995, Intermontane late Paleogene–Neogene 597
basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru: sedimentologic and tectonic characteristics, in
A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America:
AAPG Memoir 62, p. 597–613.
598 Marocco et al.

80° 76° 72° 68°

COLOMBIA

lley
an V a
0° Quito 0°

A nde
Coast ECUADOR

Inter-
Guayaquil
Cuenca

M
D -G
4° PERU 4°

Ne
og
Co

en
as
t

e
Fo
Ea

re
s te

la
nd
Cajamarca BRAZIL

rn

Ba
Ma
8° 8°

si
Co
Figure 1—Location of basins in an Andean-type orogenic

in

n
An
rd i
belt.

dea
lle r

nT
AA

hru
st
Hi
SU

gh
BD

lan
UC
INTRODUCTION

ds
TI
12° 12°

ON
Lima

ZO
The phenomena that cause folding and uplift of

NE
Ayacucho Cuzco
orogenic belts are also responsible for the genesis of Al
tip
foreland basins and intermontane basins (Figure 1). The
AAA
We la
s te no
rn
sedimentary fill of these basins and their bounding struc- Nazca
Co

AAA
Co

Pa
as rd i Puno
t lle
tures are controlled by the tectonic forces that build the

ci
16° ra 16°

fic
orogenic belt. Sedimentologic, stratigraphic, and struc-

O
Arequipa
La Paz

ce
tural analysis of the synorogenic basins allows a recon-

an
BOLIVIA

struction of their development and their regional rela-

tionships. This type of study is essential to under-
standing the geodynamics of mountain belts.
We are particularly interested in the Andean inter-
montane basins of Ecuador and Peru because they are
contemporaneous with Neogene tectonism and because
they record structural reactivation. These processes have
significance for the basins described by Mégard et al.
(1984), Bonnot et al. (1988), Noblet et al. (1988), Bellier et
al. (1989), Marocco et al. (1990, 1993), and Baudino et al.
(1991). There are three types of intermontane basins:
those linked to strike-slip faulting, those controlled by
reverse faults, and those related to normal faults. Basins
such as the Andean intermontane basins commonly
develop through each of these types. The term intermon-
tane is occasionally misused to define some Andean
basins. For example, the Moquegua basin of the southern
Peruvian coast has been defined as intermontane
(Marocco et al., 1982; Marocco, 1984), although it is
actually a Neogene continental forearc basin. Some small
basins in the Eastern Cordillera of Perú, which are inter-
preted as Neogene intermontane basins because of their
setting, are actually the early stages of the sub-Andean
foreland basin. Examples include the Bagua basin of
northeastern Perú and the Andamarca basin of central
Perú. Mathalone and Montoya (1995) illustrate some
examples.
Neogene intermontane basins are located in the inter-
Andean region. This is a region of variable width sepa-
rating the Western and Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador
and Perú. It is known as the Inter-Andean Valley in
Ecuador, as the Highlands (or High Plateau) in central
Perú, and as the Altiplano in southern Perú and Bolivia
(Figure 2).
200 km
20° 72°
CHILE
80° 76° 68°
Figure 2—Morphostructural map of Ecuador and Peru.
D-G M, Dolores-Guayaquil megashear, the tectonic border
between the oceanic accreted coastal terranes (on the
west) and the South American continental lithosphere.
DATING THE BASIN FILL
The chronostratigraphy of the succession filling the
intermontane Neogene basins is not well known.
Sporadic fossil occurrences and radiometric ages date
some specific strata. However, radiometric ages of the
volcanic rocks underlying and overlying the sedimentary
fill confirm a Neogene age.
Age of the Volcanic Rocks
In Ecuador and Peru, the formation of the Neogene
basins began in about the late Oligocene when arc
magmatism recorded the effects of Andean tectonic reac-
tivation. Most recent work on Andean deformation,
chronology, and related sedimentation (Noblet et al.,
1988; Sébrier et al., 1988; Lavenu and Noblet, 1989; Baby
et al., 1990; Lavenu et al., 1990; Marocco et al., 1990;
Marocco, 1991; Sempere, 1991; Sempere et al., 1991)
agrees that, in the region presently occupied by Neogene
intermontane basins, Andean tectonism was reactivated
during the late Oligocene. This is the Aymara phase of
Sébrier et al. (1988) and was apparently the start of a long
tectonic phase (see Sempere, 1991).
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 599

In Ecuador, the Saraguro volcanics immediately 80° 78° 76°

preceding the formation of intermontane basins

COLOMBIA
(Baldock, 1982) have an age bracketed between 35.3 and

rio B
C
26.8 Ma (Lavenu et al., 1992). The oldest dated rocks

lanco
h

within the sedimentary succession yield an age of 22 Ma 0° G 0°

QUITO
(Lavenu et al., 1992); they form the lower part of the

ca
Co
Biblián Formation in the Cuenca basin (Noblet et al.,

ZO NE

r io
*

aule
L
1988). The presence of volcanic units, dated at 19.5–14.2 L

rio D

r io
Ma by Kennerley (1980), is evidence that volcanic activity

SU BD UC TION

Na
po
was persistent during basin subsidence (Marocco et al.,

rio
Riobamba

Cu
GUAYAQUIL R
1993).

ra
2° r io 2°

ra
Ti

y
In Peru, the youngest volcanic series underlying the gr
e

M
C
intermontane basins belongs to the Calipuy Formation in

ain A

rio Pa
the north (Cobbing et al., 1981), to the Huanta, Castrovir- Cuenca

staza
n
reyna, and Ayacucho formations in central Peru G

rio Santia
dean
N
(Mégard, 1978), and to the Tacaza Formation in the south D -G

Thru
M 4°
(Newell, 1949). The Calipuy Formation has been dated at 4°

go
L

54–14 Ma (Cobbing et al., 1981). In central Peru, Noble

st
V 100 km

(1973), Noble et al. (1974), and Dalmayrac et al. (1980)

showed that the volcanic rocks enclosing the intermon- PERU Z

tane basins had an age between 41 and 6 Ma. Finally, the

76°
age of the Tacaza Formation of southern Peru ranges 80° 78°

from 27.2 to 8.9 Ma (Sébrier et al., 1988). Therefore, in

Peru as well as in Ecuador, the enclosing volcanic suites
were emplaced before and during the evolution of the
basins.
The sedimentary fills of the basins are generally
overlain by volcanic materials. This recent volcanic
cover, known as the Barroso Group in southern Peru
(Mendivil, 1965), has an age of 7.2–0.17 Ma (Sébrier et al.,
1988). Where present in Ecuador (e.g., Cuenca basin)
(Noblet et al., 1988), the volcanic cover has a younger
age, from 3.59 Ma to present (Barberi et al., 1988; Lavenu
et al., 1992).
Age of Basin Sedimentary Rocks
Available dates for the sedimentary fill of the inter-
montane basins are both paleontologic and radiometric
because significant volcanic activity occurred in the
vicinity of the basins while lacustrine and fluvial
sediments were being deposited. This is reflected in the
basins by the occurrence of lava or pyroclastic flows and
by the deposition of river-transported volcaniclastic
materials.
Lacustrine facies present in almost all the basins have
yielded most of the reported animal and plant fossils,
which indicate an early–late Miocene age. In the northern
Peruvian basins of Namora, San Marcos, and
Cajabamba, Bellier et al. (1989) have described diatomite
associations of early–middle Miocene age in the
Cajabamba Formation and of late Miocene age in the
Namora Formation. In the latter beds, a volcanic tuff
dated radiometrically at 7.2 ± 0.6 Ma confirms the
Tortonian age of these fossil associations.
Lacustrine fauna and flora have been studied in more
detail in Ecuador. In the Cuenca basin, Marshall and
Bowles (1932) and Liddle and Palmer (1941) describe
ostracods (Cyprideis aff. Howei), crabs (Necronectes
proavitus), gastropods (Limnopomus [ampullarius] cf.
Figure 3—Location of the Ecuadoran Neogene intermon-
tane basins. D-G M., Dolores-Guayaquil megashear;
Ch, Chota basin; G, Guayabamba basin; L, Latacunga; R,
Riobamba basin; C, Cuenca basin; G, Girón–Santa Isabel
basin; N, Nabón basin; L, Loja basin; V, Vilcabamba basin;
Z, Zumba basin.
manco, Poteria [pseudoaperastoma] bibliana), and bivalves
(Ecuadorea bibliana) in the lacustrine intervals of the
Loyola Formation (Noblet et al., 1988). These indicate a
broadly Miocene age (Bristow and Guevara, 1974).
Notoungulae (Toxodontidae) have been discovered in
the overlying Mangán Formation (Repetto, 1977). The
ostracod Cyprideis stephensoni and plant remains occur in
the coal at the top of the lacustrine intervals in the Loja
and Vilcabamba-Malacatos basins (Kennerley and
Almeida, 1975; Marocco et al., 1993). These plants,
studied by Berry (1929), include Camphoromea speciosa,
Cassia longiflora, Heronymia lehmanni, and Tapirina lanceo-
lata and belong to the late Miocene.
Radiometric dates complement the stratigraphic infor-
mation. In some cases, they support the paleontologic
ages, such as in the Cuenca basin (Figure 3), where
volcanic intercalations show ages of 22–5.2 Ma (early–
late Miocene) (Barberi et al., 1988; Noblet et al., 1988;
Lavenu et al., 1992), and in the Namora basin of Peru
(Figure 4). Elsewhere radiochronology is the only
method for dating the sedimentary column. This is the
case for the Peruvian Rumichaca basin (see Figure 8),
where the base of the succession has been dated at 22 Ma
(McKee and Noble, 1982; Mégard et al., 1983) and the
Ayacucho basin (see Figure 7), where volcanic intercala-
tions in the volcaniclastic succession yield ages of 18.3–6
Ma (Mégard et al., 1984). In southern Ecuador, the fluvio-
lacustrine sedimentary rocks of the Nabón basin
(Figure 3) have been dated at 22–7.9 Ma (Winkler et al.,
1993).
600 Marocco et al.

80° 76°
COLOM BIA
72° 70°
sequences of the type shown in Figure 9A. The sequence
0° 0° begins with an erosive base and is overlain by a lower
COLOMBIA
conglomeratic or coarse pebbly sandstone bed with
common large-scale trough cross stratification and
pebble imbrication, corresponding to channel fill. Above
ECUADOR
these are finer grained conglomerates of longitudinal bar
4° 4°
origin (see Collinson, 1986), with or without coarse hori-
zontal lamination. The overlying sandstones have hori-
zontal lamination (Figure 9A) or ripple structures attrib-
uted to low water stage. The sequence is commonly
200 km
capped with several meters of claystone or siltstone in

AA
C ajam arca
which small floodplain channels may be incised. These
N BRAZIL
8°
SM 8° sedimentary rocks can be divided into larger decameter-
C ba
or hectometer-scale sequences. The latter are either

AA
C ordillera Blanca batholith
H uaraz fining-upward, as in the lower parts of the sedimentary
fill of the Cuenca (Noblet et al., 1988) and Vilcabamba
M
ai

CH
n

basin (Marocco et al., 1993), or coarsening-upward, as in

An
de

the middle part of the B megasequence of the same

an
Th

basins (Figure 5). The abundance of debris flows interca-

ru

12° Lima
st

12°
A yacucho lated in the fluvial sequences confirms the proximal

AA
R A
C uzco character of the sedimentation.
SU

A cho
BD

P ro Another type of fluvial environment is characterized

U

AA
CT

T Titicaca
by conglomeratic coarsening-upward sequences
IO

Nazca
Pa

Lake
N

10–100 m thick (Figure 9B). These sedimentary units are

cif

ZO

Puno
ic

interpreted as alluvial fans that form the upper part of

Oc

16°
16°
ea

A requipa
the fill in each of the basins studied (Figures 5, 6, 7, 8).
n

La Paz

BOLIVIA These alluvial fans reflect rapid filling of the basins

20°
80° 76°
Figure 4—Location of the Peruvian Neogene intermontane
basins. N, Namora basin; SM San Marcos basin; Cba,
Cajabamba basin; CH, Callejón de Huaylas basin; R,
Rumichaca basin; Acho, Ayacucho basin; A, Anta basin;
Cc, Ccatca basin; Pro, Paruro basin; T, Tinajani basin.
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
The basins are filled with fluvial and lacustrine conti-
nental sedimentary rocks and significant amounts of
intercalated volcanic material. Because the sedimentary
environments of the Ecuadorian intermontane basins
have been studied in most detail, we have taken the
following examples from the works of Noblet et al.
(1988), Noblet and Marocco (1989), Barragán (1992), and
Marocco et al. (1993).
Depositional Environments
Only the fluvial and lacustrine sedimentary environ-
ments are represented in these intermontane basins
(Figures 5, 6, 7, 8).
Fluvial Sedimentary Rocks
The fluvial sedimentary units are typically character-
ized by fining-upward sequences 0.5–7 m thick (Figure
9A). The relatively small area of Andean intermontane
basins (rarely exceeding 1000 km2) and the proximity of
provenance is reflected in proximal fluvial systems with
controlled by tectonic processes that uplifted the basin
CHILE
flanks. The crests of the alluvial fan sequences sometimes
72° 68° contain boulders several meters in diameter, such as in
the upper sequences of the B megasequence in the
Vilcabamba basin (Figure 5) (Marocco et al., 1993). The
conglomerate beds are variable. They may be structure-
less or locally channelized or may consist locally of sheet-
flood deposits, sieve deposits, or debris flows. These
facies types suggest a semi-arid climate during alluvial
fan sedimentation (see Collinson, 1986). The clays that
commonly form the lower parts of the alluvial fan
sequences may contain red oxidation intervals and
calcareous crusts, such as in the Vilcabamba basin
(Marocco et al., 1993). These argillaceous lower parts
indicate lower energy and reduced coarse sedimentation
(such as during tectonic quiescence or long droughts)
that favor soil formation.
Lacustrine Sedimentary Rocks
Lacustrine sediment units are important in the lower
part of the sedimentary fill of each basin. Two main
types of facies are represented: a sedimentary facies
related to quiescent periods and a catastrophic sedimen-
tary facies contemporaneous with intense tectonic
activity. The granulometry of the lacustrine fill may thus
reflect either tectonism or climatic changes. We ascribe
the change from fine-grained to coarse-grained sedimen-
tation to tectonic processes. Although there may be a
climatic overprint, there are no data available on
Neogene climates in the Andes.
The quiescent sedimentation facies are of two types
that reflect their proximity to the shore zone. Clastic sedi-
mentation occurred near river mouths where small
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 601

AAAAAA
AAAA AA A
Chota basin Cuenca basin Vilcabamba basin
1 2 3

AAAA
AA AA
A A AA AA A
1 2 3 Llacao Fm
5000 1 2 3
angular unconformity
2000

AA
AAAAA A A AAA AA A
8 Ma

alluvial fan deposits

AAAAA A A AA AA
AA A
AAAA
AAAAAA A A AA AA A
2000 4000 12 Ma
Mangán Fm 1600

AAA
AA AA
A AA
A AA B

AA AAA B

A
AA
AAA
AAAAAA A AAA AA
A AAA AA
B
16. 3 Ma

AAAAA
A A AA A
AAAAA AA
3000
1200

AAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAA AA AAAAA
Lacustrine turbidites

AA
AA AAAAA AA
AA
Azogues Fm
1000

AAAA
AAA AA AAAAAA
AAA AA
2000
800
Lacustrine
Loyola Fm turbidites

AAA AA
AA AAA AAAAA
AA AAAA AA
evaporites
local angular unconformity

AAA AA AA AAA AA
20 Ma A
1000 400

AAA A A A AA AAAA AA
A A
Biblián Fm A
A

AAAA
AAA A AA AA
Debris flow

AAAA
Debris flow
0m Om angular unconformity 0m
Paleozoic 26 Ma Loma Blanca Fm
Saraguro Fm

Figure 5—Stratigraphic sections of the Chota (Barragán, 1992), Cuenca (Noblet et al., 1988), and Vilcabamba (Marocco et al.,
1993) basins, Ecuador. Circled letters refer to megasequences A and B. Columns: (1) alluvial fan, (2) fluvial, and (3) lacustrine.

Gilbert-type deltas were formed (Gilbert, 1885) which
distributed sediments into the lake. The river floodplain
sediments are mainly argillaceous and suggest swamps
where bioturbation and rooting occurred. Biochemical
sedimentation may have also occurred in these shallow
zones, resulting in limestone with algae lamination and a
fetid smell due to hydrocarbons, such as in the
Vilcabamba (Figure 5) (Marocco et al., 1993) and
Rumichaca basins (Figure 8) (Mégard et al., 1983). Evap-
orites are attributed to lake margin precipitation, such as
in the Vilcabamba (Figure 5) and San Marcos basins
(Figure 6) (Bellier et al., 1989). In deeper offshore zones,
sedimentation was mainly due to suspension processes.
This resulted in shales and very fine grained deposits
that are white or pale yellow, well-stratified, and laterally
persistent. Slump blocks and slump scars locally indicate
the paleoslope of the lake and suggest some tectonic
instability (e.g., Vilcabamba basin) (Marocco et al., 1993).
Thin, low-density Bouma-type (1962) turbidite beds of
centimeter to decimeter scale are commonly intercalated
within the fine-grained sedimentary beds. Finally, in all
of the basins, the abundance of interbedded volcanic and
volcaniclastic strata in the lacustrine fill suggests contem-
poraneous volcanic activity.
The catastrophic sedimentary facies are represented
by high-density megaturbidites that locally form thick
successions in the Cuenca (Noblet et al., 1988; Noblet and
Marocco, 1989) and Girón-Santa Isabel basins (Mediav-
illa, 1991). Figure 10 shows an idealized lacustrine
megaturbidite sequence containing all the elements
observed in various outcrops. The lower part of the
sequence consists of debris flows (see Middleton and
Hampton, 1976; Lowe, 1982) with erosional basal discon-
tinuities that may be channeled but are generally flat
with flute, prod, or groove casts. Clasts in a typical debris
flow are centimeter to decimeter scale, whereas intra-
clasts of lower lacustrine strata can reach a diameter of
several meters. Large clasts are commonly concentrated
at the top of the bed, indicating that they were trans-
ported at the top of the turbidity flow before it solidified
(Middleton and Hampton, 1976; Lowe, 1982).
Sandstones overlying the debris flows are character-
istic of the high-density turbidites described by Lowe
(1982). The S1 unit (or facies) of Lowe is the lowest. It is
composed of coarse sandstones that are locally microcon-
glomeratic and preserve some traction structures as well
as poorly developed flat or oblique laminations. The
second unit, S2, is composed of thin, centimeter-scale
602 Marocco et al.

AA AA
San Marcos Basin Ayacucho Basin

AA
1 2 3

AA
800
Namora Basin

AA
1 2 3
300

Lacustrine deposits
AA
6 Ma

AA
diatomite

AA
7.2 Ma

AA
200
Ayacucho
Fm

AA
AA
B

AA B

AA AAA
500
7 Ma

AA AAA
7.4 Ma

AA
Om
Cretaceous Molinoyoc volcanics

AAAA
9.0 Ma

AA
angular unconformity
angular unconformity
9.3 Ma

A AA
diatomite

AAA
AA
diatomite

AA
evaporite
A 2000 Upper Huanta

AA
Fm

AA
evaporite
B

AA AA
AAAA AA
AAAA AAAA
0m angular unconformity
Cretaceous

AA
1000
Figure 6—Stratigraphic sections of the San Marcos and

AA
10 Ma
Namora basins, northern Peru. Circled letters refer to
megasequences A and B. Columns: (1) alluvial fan, (2) Lower Huanta
fluvial, and (3) lacustrine. (After Bellier et al., 1989.)

AAAA
Fm

coarsening-upward sandstone beds that formed by

“traction carpet” processes. Their genesis, due to traction
and suspension mechanisms, is linked to the increasing
instability of the turbiditic flow. The S2 facies are rare in
the intermontane basins studied, especially the Cuenca
0m
12 Ma

17. 3 Ma

18. 3 Ma
AA
angular unconformity
Larampuquio
volcanics

basin where lacustrine megaturbidites were recognized.

Noblet and Marocco (1989) attribute this to the low
proportion of spherical grains in the sediment, which is
composed mainly of idiomorphic volcanic minerals.
The S3 facies is the uppermost unit of the high-density
turbidites and consists of medium- to fine-grained
massive sandstones that show dish structures. The S3
unit was deposited by rapid settling of the remaining
sediments still in suspension. Megaturbidite sequences
vary from 5 to 20 m in thickness, and their areal extent
reaches 250 km2. The S3 facies is commonly capped by a
low density Bouma-type turbidite, either complete
(Ta–Te divisions) or consisting of only the most distal
components (Tc–Te). In the Cuenca basin, Noblet et al.
(1988) have shown that megaturbidites were related to a
lacustrine delta, which formed typical coarsening-
upward mouth bar sequences and received an abundant
supply of volcaniclastic material (3000-m level, Cuenca
basin section, Figure 5).
Figure 7—Stratigraphic section of the Ayacucho basin,
south-central Peru. Circled letters refer to megasequences
A and B. Columns: (1) alluvial fan, (2) fluvial, and (3) lacus-
trine. (After Mégard et al., 1984.)
Sequence Stratigraphy
The same pattern of stratigraphic evolution character-
ized all of the basins. Initial fluvial depositional systems
were followed abruptly by lacustrine deposition, and
fluvial environments were reestablished. The upper
fluvial deposition was progressively more proximal in
character and terminated in alluvial fan deposition. The
sedimentary units exhibit a sequential organization that
allows correlation, either among different sections of a
basin if the sequence-generating processes were local
(such as hydrodynamic changes or local morphologic
modifications) or among basins if the processes were
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 603

AA
Tinajani Basin
AA AA TB S3 S2 S1 DF

AAAA
Quaternary 1 2 3
Rumichaca Basin angular
unconformity

AA AA
low density

AA
1 2 3
600

AA
Upper
Tinajani

AA AA AA
Fm

AA
AA
B

AAAA AAA AA
AA AA AA
AA
1000 angular unconformity

high density
14 Ma

AA
AA
AA
A
AA
AA AA
AAAA
AA

5 - 20 m
Lower

AA
Tinajani

AA
Fm

AAAA A AAAA AA
18 Ma

AAAA
AAAA AA AA
AA
A angular unconformity
19 Ma
Lower

A AA
rhyolitic tuff Tinajani
22 Ma volcanics
27 Ma

AAAA A
basalt 0m angular unconformity

AA

debris flow
0m Puno group
Pucará Group

AA
Figure 8—Stratigraphic sections of the Rumichaca (Mégard
et al., 1983) and Tinajani (Sébrier et al., 1988) basins, south-
central and southern Peru, respectively. Circled letters
refer to megasequences A and B. Columns: (1) alluvial fan,
(2) fluvial, and (3) lacustrine.
Figure 10—Example of a megaturbiditic sequence in the
Azogues Formation, Cuenca basin, Ecuador. TB, Bouma
A B turbidite; DF, debris flow; S1, S2, S3, Lowe’s (1982)
12
0 cm 100 divisions of a megaturbidite. (After Noblet and Marocco,
7 1989.)

AAA
2
(Izquierdo, 1991), Girón-Santa Isabel (Mediavilla, 1991),
and Nabón (Winkler et al., 1993) basins of Ecuador

AAA (Figure 3) and the Cajabamba (Bellier et al., 1989),

Callejón de Huaylas (Bonnot et al., 1988), and Paruro
(Mendivil, 1979) basins of Peru (Figure 4). The
1 Pliocene–Pleistocene Anta and Ccatca basins of the

AAA
0m
Cuzco region in southern Peru (Figure 4) (Cabrera, 1988)
show a fining-upward sedimentary organization, but
conglomerate
clay

coarse
fine
medium

0m they are younger than the basins of this study and are
sandstone
still evolving.
The available chronologic data show that sets A and B
Figure 9—Two types of fluvial sequences observed in the are not the same age in all basins. In the Cuenca basin
sedimentary fill of the Río Chota Neogene intermontane (Noblet et al., 1988) (Figure 5), the age of the disconti-
basins, northern Ecuador. (A) Proximal fluvial sequence, nuity between sets A and B is bracketed between 20 and
lower part of the Río Chota basin sedimentary fill. (B) Two 16.3 Ma. In the Ayacucho basin (Mégard et al., 1984)
sequences (1 and 2) of alluvial fan deposits, upper part of (Figure 7), set A starts at about 15 Ma and finishes at
the Río Chota basin sedimentary fill. (After Barragán, 1992.) about 10 Ma. Finally, in the Tinajani basin, set A was
deposited between 18 and 14 Ma. The term megasequence
used here for convenience to name the sedimentary sets
regional in nature (climatic changes, tectonic modifica- A and B is valid only at the scale of an individual basin.
tions, or eustatic variations in marine basins). This This may reflect the lack of detailed biostratigraphy. The
section addresses the large-scale organization of the fossil flora in the Ecuadorian basins was studied more
deposits or megasequences in the basins. than 50 years ago. A reexamination of these flora may
The intermontane basins shown in Figures 5, 6, 7, and indicate that the megasequences are contemporaneous
8 preserve two types of stratigraphic columns: upward- even between basins.
fining set A and upward-coarsening set B. Thicknesses The discontinuity between megasequences A and B is
vary from hundreds of meters to kilometers in the always well defined. It generally consists of an angular
Cuenca and Vilcabamba (Figure 5), Ayacucho (Figure 7), unconformity, as in the Cuenca (Figure 5), San Marcos
and Tinajani (Figure 8) basins. This two-set organization (Figure 7), and Tinajani basins (Figure 8). However, even
is also observed in other basins, including the Loja without discordances, the discontinuity is expressed by a
604 Marocco et al.
drastic change in the sedimentary rocks, from distal beds
at the top of megasequence A (low-energy lacustrine) to
proximal deposits with a notable increase in grain size at
the base of megasequence B (lacustrine megaturbidites,
proximal fluvial).
Megasequence A
The lower megasequence (A) begins with proximal
fluvial deposits that grade abruptly into deep lacustrine
strata. In the upper part, sequences 20–100 m thick of
shoaling-upward lacustrine deposits are generally
present, showing deep facies in their lower parts and
progressively shallower facies in their upper parts. In the
southern Ecuador Vilcabamba basin (Figure 5) (Fierro,
1991; Marocco et al., 1993), the top of the lacustrine
shoaling-upward sequences preserve swamp facies:
limestones with algal laminations and a fetid smell and
coal and evaporite beds that are exploited manually. The
thickness of the lower fluvial part of the series varies
among basins. It exceeds 1000 m in the Cuenca basin,
where it constitutes the Biblián Formation (Figure 5)
(Noblet et al., 1988), whereas it is generally thinner than
100 m in the other basins. The Cuenca basin, however,
has subsided more than the other basins.
In summary, during deposition of megasequence A, a
progressively more distal location of the source areas is
reflected in the general fining-upward trend. This pattern
is interpreted as a sedimentary response to basin subsi-
dence. The initial depression was controlled by fault
systems, which trended parallel to the latest Oligocene
orogenic fabric (roughly north-south in Ecuador and
NNW-SSE in Peru) and which concentrated drainage.
The earliest deposits of the basin were fluvial. Subse-
quently, marked subsidence trapped the river systems
structurally, resulting in widespread lacustrine deposi-
tion of the lower megasequence in the Neogene Andean
basins. However, the early Miocene was also character-
ized by a eustatic sea level 100 m higher than the present
(Haq et al., 1987). If the rate of uplift in the central Andes
during the Neogene (0.15 mm/year) estimated by
Sébrier et al. (1979, 1988) is valid, the lakes must have
been at a relatively low altitude, a few tens or hundreds
of meters above sea level 20 Ma ago. In this setting, the
high sea level may have maintained a high base level,
favoring preservation of a lacustrine regime, which was,
nevertheless, controlled by subsidence.
Megasequence B
Megasequence B is marked in its lower part by the
abrupt change from a low-energy sedimentation regime
to one of coarse sedimentation. Thus, in the Cuenca basin
(Figure 5), quiescent lacustrine sedimentation of the
Loyola Formation grades upward into turbiditic and
megaturbiditic sedimentation of the Azogues Formation
(Noblet et al., 1988). This is also characteristic of the
Girón-Santa Isabel basin located just southwest of the
Cuenca basin (Mediavilla, 1991) and which was probably
connected to it. In the Vilcabamba basin (Figure 5), the
base of megasequence B is also composed of conspicuous
coarse turbidites (0.5-mm-diameter clasts); however,
megaturbidites such as those in the Cuenca and Girón-
Santa Isabel basins are absent. Neither did the
Vilcabamba basin receive as much volcaniclastic material
as the Cuenca basin. Turbidites filled the lake and were
overlain by proximal prograding fluvial strata; these in
turn were succeeded by typical coarsening-upward
alluvial fan deposits such as those previously described
(Figure 9B). Turbidites or megaturbidites have not been
recognized in the other basins. Thus, megasequence B
reflects a significant change in sedimentation from
quiescent lacustrine to progressively coarser. This change
is attributed to the increasing tectonism that affected
basin and provenance areas, as evidenced by the
progressive discordances observed in this megasequence
in the Cuenca (Noblet et al., 1988), Vilcabamba (Fierro,
1991), and Chota basins (Barragán, 1992).
In the Namora (Figure 6) (Bellier et al., 1989) and
Ayacucho basins (Figure 7) (Mégard et al., 1984), the
coarse alluvial fan deposits forming the top of megase-
quence B are overlain by lacustrine deposits of latest
Miocene age, radiometrically dated at 7–6 Ma in the
Ayacucho basin (Ayacucho Formation) and at 7.2 Ma in
the Namora basin. This lacustrine sedimentation, which
reflects a conspicuous modification of the tectonic regime
about 7 Ma, coincides with a discontinuity or interrup-
tion in the compressive regime that was building the
central Andean orogenic belt. Such uppermost Miocene
lacustrine strata have not been observed in the other
basins, either because they have been eroded or because
volcanic activity concealed their presence. In the Namora
and Ayacucho basins, the local structural framework and
tectonic regime is believed to have resulted in reactiva-
tion of subsidence, thus creating a lacustrine basin
contemporaneous with lesser amounts of thrusting in
neighboring areas, which explains the absence of coarse
sedimentation.
TYPES OF BASIN EVOLUTION
The tectonic evolution of the Neogene intermontane
basins of the central Andes can be grouped into two
main types according to the orientation of their
bounding structures in relation to the orientation of the
Neogene stress fields. The first type is the strike-slip
basin, of which we review the Cuenca basin of Ecuador
as an end-member (Noblet et al., 1988). The second type
of basin is linked to reverse faulting activity; we
emphasize the Rumichaca basin of central Peru (Mégard
et al., 1983). However, because of the variable nature of
Neogene stress fields, each basin has evolved through
several stages of the stress regime: extension, transpres-
sion, and compression. Each basin is characterized by a
dominant stress stage, the one that lasted longest and
controlled most of the sedimentation of that basin and
deformation of its environs.
From a structural perspective, our knowledge varies
greatly from basin to basin, with the Cuenca basin being
the best known. This complicates comparison, especially
where an author has emphasized only one aspect of
basin evolution. For example, in the northern Peruvian
basins of Namora, San Marcos, and Cajabamba, Bellier et
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 605

Sedimentation began with establishment of fluvial

systems on either side of the Santa Ana–San Miguel horst
(Figure 12a); drainage of the Biblián Formation was
toward the north and north-northeast. The Santa
Ana–San Miguel horst was probably formed during the
same tectonic events at the end of the Oligocene that
were responsible for creation of the early Cuenca basin.
As the Santa Ana–San Miguel horst disappeared in the
earliest Miocene and depocenters were yoked together
emphasizing the western depocenter, a lacustrine basin
was established. The middle Miocene Loyola Formation
was deposited in this lake (Figure 12b). Near the end of
the middle Miocene, the influx of large volumes of
detrital sediments into the basin (Figure 12c) marked the
beginning of megasequence B. To the south of the basin,
a fluvial system flowed into the lake, forming a delta that
prograded toward the northeast. As a result of sediment
stacking and tectonic instability, the lacustrine delta front
is believed to have collapsed, resulting in the lacustrine
turbidites and megaturbidites of the Azogues Formation.
In the late Miocene, fluvial sediments of the Mangán
Formation prograded into the lake and completely
filled it.
The tectonic evolution of the Cuenca basin can be
interpreted from analysis of the folding and faulting.
Based on a study of the effects of different periods of
synsedimentary folds, Noblet et al. (1988) established a
basin model related to strike-slip movements of the
bordering faults. Figures 13 and 14 show the synsedi-
mentary folds that were formed during three main
compressive periods:

1. The first period coincided with sedimentation of

Figure 11—Tectonic setting of the Cuenca basin in Ecuador
(after Noblet and Marocco, 1989). Key: 1, Mesozoic
substratum; 2, Saraguro Formation; 3, first megasequence
(A); 4, second megasequence (B); 5, Andesite of the
Cojitambo dome (6.3 Ma; Barberi et al., 1988).
al. (1989) have stressed the extensional phase of basin
evolution.
Cuenca Strike-Slip Basin
The Cuenca basin is located in southern Ecuador
(Figures 3, 11) and has been studied by Noblet et al.
(1988) and Noblet and Marocco (1989). It is the largest
Neogene intermontane basin in this part of the Andes
that we have studied (100 km × 30 km). It is controlled by
faults trending N 170˚ E to north-south and NNE-SSW.
Figure 5 summarizes the overall coarsening-upward
succession that is more than 4000 m thick in this basin
and consists of megasequences A and B. Its sedimentary
evolution is summarized in Figure 12, where maps (a)
and (b) represent megasequence A and maps (c) and (d)
represent megasequence B.
the Biblián Formation and resulted locally in
conical folds with axes trending N 120° E (Figure
14A) and in sedimentary pinch-outs along faults
trending N 20°–40° E. These structures are
compatible with a dextral strike-slip tectonic
regime along the approximately north-south
trending faults with horizontal axes σ1 and σ3
approaching N 30° E and N 120° E, respectively.
2. The second period occurred at the beginning of
turbiditic sedimentation of the Azogues Formation.
It was a compressive event that also resulted in
conical folds (Figure 14B, C) with axes trending
close to N 150° E and showing a shortening
direction of about N 60° E. These folds observed in
the vicinity of the fault trending N 20°–40° E along
the eastern border of the basin are compatible with
dextral strike-slip movements along that trend.
3. The third prominent compressive period occurred
throughout deposition of the Mangán Formation.
Numerous hiatuses affected 2000 m of deposits
(Figure 13). Analysis of these structures and of
those induced by deformation of the underlying
beds shows that the fold axes have an approxi-
mately north-south orientation (N 170° E in the
northern part of the basin, N 20°–30° E in the south)
and that shortening approaches an east-west
direction. Diagrams D–H in Figure 14 illustrate this
third compressional period.
606 Marocco et al.
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 607

Fracture analysis, particularly of the fault systems

bounding the basin (Lavenu and Noblet, 1989), confirms
the model of a basin related to strike-slip movements
interpreted by Noblet et al. (1988) on the basis of fold
deformation. This implies that between the latest
Oligocene and late Miocene–Pliocene phase of basin
subsidence compression directions experienced a
clockwise rotation, from N 20° E to N 60° E (opening
phase of the basin expressed in the Biblián, Loyola, and
Azogues formations) and finally to N 100° E (closing
phase of the basin reflected in the Mangán Formation).
Figure 15 summarizes the geodynamic evolution of the
Cuenca basin, as well as that of the south Ecuadorian
Neogene basins of Nabón, Loja, Vilcabamba-Malacatos,
and Zumba.
The nature of the structural evolution of the Cuenca
basin, the thick sedimentary accumulation comparable to
that of the Vienna pull-apart basin (Royden, 1985), and
the thicker filling in the proximity of the most active
faults all indicate that the Cuenca basin is linked to the
array of strike-slip faults with characteristics similar to
those described by Nilsen and McLaughlin (1985).
The Ecuadorian Vilcabamba (Fierro, 1991; Marocco et
al., 1993) and Girón-Santa Isabel basins (Mediavilla, 1991)
are also of pull-apart type, at least during part of their
evolution (Figure 15). The Neogene basins of Peru are
less well known; some of them may have had a geody-
namic evolution comparable to that of the Cuenca basin.

Rumichaca Reverse Fault Linked Basin

The Rumichaca basin of central Peru (Figure 4) has
been studied by Mégard et al. (1983). It is elongated in a
north-south direction (Figure 16) and has modest dimen-
sions (5 km × 1.5 km). It is limited to the west by a north-
south trending reverse fault and by the Huapa anticline
that deforms the Mesozoic succession.
The Rumichaca succession, attributed to the
early–middle Miocene by Petersen et al. (1977), consists
of approximately 600 m of continental, partially volcani-
clastic sedimentary rocks (Figure 8). To the east, these
strata rest with angular unconformity on paleorelief
carved into the Liassic limestones of the Pucará Group; to
the west, they are in reverse fault contact with Creta-
ceous sandstones and limestones (Figure 16A). The lower
100 m consists of volcanic tuffs that are variably altered
and commonly resedimented, with thin decimeter-scale
intercalations of lacustrine limestone beds. A tuff located
(facing page)
Figure 12—Schematic paleogeographic map and synthetic
cross section for each formation of the Cuenca basin (after
Noblet et al., 1988). (a) Biblián Formation; (b) Loyola
Formation; (c) Azogues Formation; (d) Mangán Formation.
Legend: 1, lake; 2, lacustrine megaturbidites; 3, lacustrine
delta; 4, flood plain; 5, braided river; 6, alluvial fan; 7, relief;
8, vector transport (N is number of measurements); 9,
slump axes; 10, vector transport from some measure-
ments; 11, fault; 12, conical fold axes of second synsedi-
mentary tectonic event; 13, conical fold axes of third
synsedimentary event. SB1 and SB2 are subbasins of the
Biblián Formation.
Figure 13—Outcrop map and synthetic cross section of the
progressive discordance affecting the Mangán Formation
(after Noblet et al., 1988). Legend: 1, Biblián Formation;
2, Cojitambo andesite; 3, Loyola Formation; 4, Azogues
Formation; 5, Mangán Formation; 6, fold axes (third
synsedimentary tectonic event); 7, probable fault.
in the upper part of this unit has been dated at 22 Ma
(McKee and Noble, 1982). The tuffs are overlain by 100 m
of lacustrine limestones with common algal laminations
that pinch out toward the west and south. Along the
western margin, near the basin-bounding fault, the lime-
stones contain interbeds of conglomerates with clasts of
Cretaceous sandstones and limestones, indicating fault
activity during the lacustrine calcareous sedimentation.
The upper 400 m consists of conglomerates of proximal
fluvial or alluvial fan origin which reflect conspicuous
activity of the western fault. Clast size of the conglomer-
ates increases upward and from east to west.
The structure of the basin is dominated by the
Rumichaca syncline (Figure 16). On the Lircay-
Huachocolpa highway along the Huachocolpa River, the
Rumichaca syncline is markedly asymmetric with a
vertical western flank. Detailed mapping of the basin
shows that it is bordered to the west by a reverse fault
and that the sedimentary fill of the basin is punctuated
by numerous synsedimentary unconformities near the
608 Marocco et al.

reverse fault (“u” in Figure 16). In contrast, the Neogene

strata of the eastern part of the basin are conformable,
demonstrating that the eastern border was tectonically
passive during Neogene sedimentation. From north to
south in the basin, close to the contact with the western
reverse fault, progressively lower levels of the strati-
graphy crop out. The observed structural attitude of the
strata is shown in Figure 16C. This structural–strati-
graphic architecture resembles that along the active
border of the Alto Cardener basin on the southern side of
the Pyrenees (Riba, 1973, 1974).
Synsedimentary deformation of the Rumichaca basin
began after 22 Ma and was related to formation of the
Huapa anticline. Deformation probably ceased at about
10.5 Ma, the age of the Julcani rhyodacitic domes (McKee
and Noble, 1982) that cross cut the structures affecting
the Rumichaca basin fill.
The Río Chota basin in northernmost Ecuador
(Figure 3) has an evolution comparable to that of the
Rumichaca basin during megasequence B deposition.
Marked synsedimentary tectonic activity, with an initial
shortening direction of N 120° E that later changed to
east-west, affected the conglomerates of the upper part of
the succession. These are alluvial fan deposits that
prograded eastward as a consequence of the activity of
the reverse fault system that forms the western margin of
the basin (Barragán, 1992). In contrast, deposition of the
lower megasequence (A) is characterized by a N 130° E
extensional regime. Evolution of the Neogene Nabón
basin of southern Ecuador (Figure 3) is also linked to
activity of a bordering reverse fault (Winkler et al., 1993).
Similar processes controlled the northern Peruvian
Namora, San Marcos, and Cajabamba basins (Bellier et
al., 1989), in which deposition of megasequence A
(Figure 6) was coeval with an extensional regime (σ3
changed from ENE-WSW to northeast-southeast). There,
coarsening-upward megasequence B is coeval with a
compressional regime in which the σ1 directions changed
from ENE-WSW to north-south, with the former normal
faults that controlled deposition of megasequence A
being reactivated as reverse faults.

CONCLUSIONS
Figure 17 summarizes the evolution of the Neogene
intermontane basins of Ecuador and Peru. Their
evolution begun about 28–26 Ma ago with renewed
Andean tectonism after a long period of relative inac-
tivity following the 42-Ma late Eocene compressive
episode (Sébrier et al., 1988). The evolution of these
basins ended at about 7 Ma. The Ayacucho and Tinajani
basins in Peru do not follow the two nearly simultaneous

Figure 14—Schematic structural map of the Cuenca basin

(after Noblet et al., 1988). Legend: 1, Mesozoic substratum;
2, Cenozoic volcanics; 3, Cenozoic sedimentary rocks;
4, travertines; 5, sites of tectonic measurements; 6,
Azogues and Mangán formations; 7, fold axes; 8, fault.
Diagrams AH are explained in text.
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 609

Figure 15—Evolution of the Neogene intermontane basins of southern Ecuador (after Noblet et al., 1988). (A) Location of
probable ancient faults sealed by Saraguro Formation deposits. (B) First synsedimentary tectonic event, with compression
oriented N 30° E. (C) Second synsedimentary tectonic event, with N 60° E compressional direction. (D) Third synsedimentary
tectonic event, with an east-west compressional direction. Dotted pattern is sedimentary deposits synchronous with defor-
mation.

megasequence models; the opening phase in the
Ayacucho ended about 10 Ma (Figure 7) and in the
Tinajani about 14 Ma (Figure 8). There are two possible
explanations for this difference: either basin evolution in
Peru south of Ayacucho is different from that of the
northern regions or the chronostratigraphy (especially
radiochronology) for all the Peruvian basins needs to be
revised.
The initiation of basin formation and subsidence
coincided with the last major reorganization of the
Pacific oceanic plates at 27–25 Ma, which caused
partition of the Farallon plate into the Cocos and Nazca
plates (Handschumacher, 1976; Pilger, 1984). This new
organization was associated with reorientation (N 80° E)
and acceleration of the convergence rate between the
Nazca and South American plates (Minster and Jordan,
1978; Pilger, 1983; Duncan and Hargraves, 1984).
Taking global geodynamic reorganization into
account, Lavenu and Noblet (1989) proposed a model for
the evolution of the Ecuadorian Neogene basins (Figure
14). The 50° obliquity between the convergence direction
and the orientation of the Ecuadorian active margin
caused the northward displacement of the coastal block,
which accreted in the latest Cretaceous (Mégard et al.,
1986). This displacement induced a dextral translation
movement along the preexisting north-south faults,
resulting in opening of the basins. Progressive blocking
of the wrenching movement caused clockwise rotation of
the stress, until it reached an east-west shortening
direction (about 7 Ma), roughly parallel to the direction
of convergence. This caused reverse faulting activity
along the north-south faults, which provoked closure of
the basins.
The extension observed in the Río Chota basin during
deposition of megasequence A is difficult to interpret. It
is perpendicular to the compression direction that
affected the more southward regions (such as the Cuenca
and Vilcabamba basins) during the same period. Because
of local characteristics, extensional structures in the Río
Chota basin probably presented a better expression than
compressive structures. The similarities in patterns of
evolution of the Ecuadorian basins is also observed in the
Girón–Santa Isabel (Mediavilla, 1991), Nabón (Winkler et
al., 1993), and Loja (Izquierdo, 1991) basins, including the
ages of the sequences and their bounding surfaces and
their tectonic characteristics. Only the Zumba basin,
straddling the Ecuador–Peru border, is largely unknown.
The Peruvian margin, at least south of the
Huacabamba deflection (south of 5° S lat), does not
comprise accreted terranes, which may explain the
important differences in geodynamic evolution seen
among the Neogene basins of Peru and Ecuador. Basin
610 Marocco et al.
Figure 16—Geologic map and cross sections (AC) of the Rumichaca basin (after Mégard et al., 1983). J, Jurassic (Pucara
Group); Ki, Lower Cretaceous (Goyllarisquizga Formation); Ks, Upper Cretaceous (Chulec Formation); 1, volcanics; 2, lacus-
trine limestones; u, intraformational angular unconformity.
evolution in Peru has been controlled by active margin
processes and Andean fold and thrust belt deformation
since the late Oligocene. Simultaneous with eastward
encroachment of the thrust belt, the Andes were uplifted.
The adaptation of preexisting structures to these two
processes explains the origin of the Neogene intermon-
tane basins. Bellier et al. (1989) interpreted the extension
during the deposition of megasequence A in the
Namora, Cajabamba, and San Marcos basins as a result
of the flow of Andean material toward the trench due to
gravity forces and weak coupling within the subduction
zone. If this explanation is correct, then the presence in
Ecuador of a coastal terrane between the trench and the
rising Andes must have opposed this gravity flow.
Evolution of the Neogene intermontane basins of the
Andes of Peru and Ecuador follows two stages:
1. The first stage represented by megasequence A
spans the establishment of the initial basin in which
progressively more distal sediments accumulated.
This period was contemporaneous with extension
or compression that was oblique to the preexisting
faults controlling the basins. This opening phase of
basin formation lasted until the end of the early
Miocene, that is, when the main stress directions
changed from NNE-SSW to northeast-southwest
(Figure 15).
2. The second stage represented by megasequence B
defines basin closure during the middle–late
Miocene as compression progressively approached
an east-west orientation. Movement along the
bordering faults in a reverse sense caused uplift of
the margins and influx of progressively coarser
sediments that overfilled the basin.
There is insufficient stratigraphic information to
correlate megasequences A and B of the Neogene inter-
montane basins with those of the coeval sub-Andean
foreland basin or coastal basins with confidence. In the
sub-Andean basin of northern Peru, Marocco (1993) has
shown that sedimentation proceeded in three coars-
ening-upward megasequences (sequence N1, 28–10 Ma;
 Intermontane Late Paleozoic–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru 611

ECUADOR PERU
central Andes at 28–26, 17–15, 10, 7, and 2.7 Ma (Sébrier
et al., 1988)? The angular discordances possibly express
Namora
Vilca- Ayacucho Rumi- Tinajani short breaks or kinematic modifications in the tectonic

AAA
AAA
Chota Cuenca S. Marcos chaca
bamba Cajabamba
continuum. Sempere (1991) has come to a similar conclu-

AAAAAA
ca 7 Ma
sion in his study of the Cenozoic basins of Bolivia.
B

AAA
Upper
Miocene
B
11 Ma
B B B B

Middle
Miocene A B Acknowledgments We thank T. Sempere and an
anonymous reviewer for their discussions which have helped us

AAA
? to improve the original manuscript. We are also grateful to J.
16 Ma

AAA AAAA
? ? ? A
Delfaud and E. Jaillard for helpful discussions. This work has

AAA AAAA
Lower been supported by ORSTOM and IFEA.
Miocene A

AAA
AAAAAAA
A A
A

23.5 Ma
AAAA REFERENCES CITED
AAAAAAA
A ?
Upper

AAAA
AAA AAAAAAA
Oligocene
26-28 Ma Baby, P., T. Sempere, J. Oller, L. Barrios, G. Hérail, and R.

AAAA
AAA
BASIN Paleogene Lower
SUBSTRAT. Paleozoic volcanics
Cretaceous Mesozoic Liassic Oligocene Marocco, 1990, Un bassin en compression d’âge oligo-

AAA
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Figure 17—Summary of the evolution of the Andean
Neogene intramontane basins.
sequence N2, 10–7 Ma; and sequence N3, 7–2.7 Ma), thus
forming a coarsening-upward succession. Sequences N1,
N2, and N3 represent three stages in the eastward propa-
gation of the Main Andean thrust (Figure 2). Although
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sub-Andean foreland basin.
West of the continent, the few available syntheses of
the Ecuadorian coastal forearc marine basins of Neogene
age (Baldock, 1982; Egüez et al., 1991) show that their fills
are organized into four fining-upward sequences: N1
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and N4 (7–2 Ma). The geodynamics of the coastal basins
are controlled by prominent eustatic variations and indi-
rectly by Andean tectonics, which in each pulse supplied
coarser detrital deposits to the coastal basins, thus
forming the base of the megasequences. It is impossible
to establish intrabasin chronologic correlations of
sequences in the three morphostructural regions (coast,
Andean zone, and sub-Andean zone) because the
processes controlling the evolution of the basins in each
region were different.
The results of the study of the intermontane basins of
Ecuador and Peru expand our understanding of
Neogene tectonism in both countries (Dalmayrac et al.,
1980; Sébrier et al., 1988). During the Neogene, the Andes
experienced persistent compression, as demonstrated by
the synsedimentary discordances and the chronology of
brittle deformation observed in most of the basins. For
the Neogene at least, the hypothesis of deformation by
short tectonic phases separated by long periods of
tectonic quiescence is incorrect. What, then, is the signifi-
cance of the main tectonic “phases” marked by angular
unconformities that occurred simultaneously in the
miocène dans le sud de l’Altiplano bolivien: Comptes
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dissertation, Engineering Dept., Escuela Politécnica
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
R. Marocco
Fozieres
39700 Lodeve
France
A. Lavenu
ORSTOM
Université de Pau
Avenue de l’Université
Pau
France
R. Baudino
Laboratoire de Modélisation des Bassins
Sédimentaires
Université de Pau
Avenue de l’ Université
Pau
France
 Basin Development in an Accretionary, Oceanic-
Floored Fore-Arc Setting: Southern Coastal Ecuador
During Late Cretaceous–Late Eocene Time

Étienne Jaillard Martha Ordoñez

ORSTOM Stalin Benitez
Paris, France Gerardo Berrones
Nelson Jiménez
Galo Montenegro
Italo Zambrano
Petroproducción
Guayaquil, Ecuador

Abstract

S outhern coastal Ecuador is an accreted terrane underlain by an oceanic crust formed during the Aptian-
Albian. To the southeast, the oceanic crust is overlain by Cenomanian–Coniacian fine-grained pelagic
deposits, coarse-grained volcaniclastic turbidites of Santonian–Campanian age, and Maastrichtian–middle
Paleocene tuffaceous shales. Toward the northwest, late Campanian–Paleocene volcaniclastic beds and lava
flows of island arc composition rest on the oceanic crust. This results from the opening of a marginal basin
between an early Late Cretaceous island arc (Cayo arc) and a latest Cretaceous–Paleocene island arc (San
Lorenzo arc).
In the late Paleocene, the accretion of the Cayo remnant arc to the Andean continental margin caused a major
deformation phase that affected only the southern part of coastal Ecuador. There, deformation was sealed by
thick, coarse-grained, quartz-rich turbidites that constitute the infilling of an early fore-arc or slope basin. A
subsequent tectonic event in the early Eocene is believed to have resulted in emergence of the entire area.
At the early–middle Eocene boundary, new fore-arc basins were created that filled with mud and clastic
shelf deposits. A marked disconformity is overlain by coastal to continental coarse-grained deposits of late
middle–early late Eocene age. These express a major tectonic phase attributed to definitive collision of coastal
Ecuador with the Andean margin. The entire area then emerged, until the formation of new fore-arc basins in
the latest Oligocene–Miocene.
The late Paleocene, earliest Eocene, and early late Eocene tectonic events are the most important deforma-
tion phases to affect southern coastal Ecuador and represent its progressive accretion to the margin. The
creation of repeated fore-arc basins can be attributed to subsidence from crustal erosion of the upper plate
because each subsidence event succeeded an important compressive phase that must have favored coupling
and tectonic erosion. This complex geologic history has implications for burial and maturation of organic
matter and must be taken into account in guiding oil exploration in coastal Ecuador.

Resumen

L a Costa Sur del Ecuador es un terreno acrecionado formado por una corteza oceánica que se formó en el
Aptiano-Albiano. Al Sureste, fué cubierta por depósitos pelágicos finos de edad Cenomaniano-Conia-
ciano, seguidos por turbiditas volcanoclásticas gruesas del Santoniano-Campaniano y por lutitas tobaceas de
edad Maastrichtiano-Paleoceno medio. Al Noroeste, turbiditas volcanoclásticas gruesas y coladas volcánicas
de arco insular, datadas del Campaniano-Paleoceno descansan sobre la corteza oceánica. Estos sedimentos se
depositaron en una cuenca marginal que se abrió entre un arco insular activo durante la parte temprana del
Cretácico superior (arco Cayo) y un arco insular, activo en el Cretácico terminal y Paleoceno (arco San
Lorenzo).

Jaillard, É., M. Ordoñez, S. Benitez, G. Berrones, N. Jiménez, G. Montenegro, and I. Zambrano, 615
1995, Basin development in an accretionary, oceanic-floored fore-arc setting: southern coastal
Ecuador during Late Cretaceous–Late Eocene time, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J.
Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 615–631.
616 Jaillard et al.

En el Paleoceno superior, una fase de deformación mayor que afectó solo la parte Sur de la costa ecuatoriana
representa probablemente la colisión del arco remanente Cayo contra la margen andina. Está sellada por
potentes turbiditas gruesas ricas en cuarzo que constituyen el relleno de una primera cuenca de ante-arco o de
talud. Un nuevo evento tectónico importante en el Eoceno inferior provocó probablemente la emersión de todo
el area.
En el límite Eoceno inferior-medio, una segunda cuenca de antearco se formó y fué rellenada por sedi-
mentos lutáceos y arenosos de plataforma. Una discontinuidad está cubierta por depósitos gruesos costeros o
continentales datados del fin del Eoceno medio y base del Eoceno superior. Estos depósitos expresan una fase
mayor relacionada con la colisión definitiva de la Costa con la margen andina. La Costa emergió despues, hasta
la formación de nuevas cuencas de antearco en el Oligoceno terminal-Mioceno.
Las fases tectónicas del Paleoceno superior, Eoceno inferior y Eoceno superior basal son las más importantes
conocidas en la Costa ecuatoriana y traducen su acreción progresiva con la margen. La erosión tectónica parece
ser responsable de la creación repetida de cuencas de antearco, ya que cada fase de subsidencia sigue una fase
compresiva que, al favorecer la fricción en el plano de subducción, provocaría la erosión mecánica de la base de
la placa superior. Dicha evolución sedimentaria discontinua aclara las condiciones de enterramiento y madu-
ración de la materia orgánica, y la estructura geológica compleja que resultó debe ser tenida en cuenta para
futuros trabajos de exploración petrolera.

INTRODUCTION
Coastal Ecuador has been identified as an allochtho-
nous terrane of oceanic origin (Goossens and Rose, 1973;
Juteau et al., 1977; Lebrat et al., 1987), accreted to the
Andean continental margin during Late Cretaceous–
early Tertiary time (Feininger and Bristow, 1980;
Shepherd and Moberly, 1981; Lebrat et al., 1987). The
allochthonous nature of coastal Ecuador is supported by
a gravimetric survey (Feininger and Seguin, 1983) and by
paleomagnetic studies that show a 70° clockwise rotation
of this area has occurred since the middle Cretaceous
(Roperch et al., 1987). Since the Eocene, these regions of
accreted basement have remained in a fore-arc setting
(Figure 1) (Benitez, 1983; Mégard, 1987; Daly, 1989;
Marksteiner and Alemán, 1991).
In coastal Ecuador, two main zones have been recog-
nized. They are separated by the present-day Chongón-
Colonche fault which has been interpreted as a major
paleogeographic feature (Canfield, 1966; Benitez, 1983,
1992). North of the Chongón-Colonche fault, on the
Chongón-Colonche Cordillera and in the Manabí basin
(Figure 2), the stratigraphic succession is characterized
Figure 1—Location map of the southern coast of Ecuador.
by middle or upper Eocene beds unconformably
overlying the Cretaceous–lower Paleocene interval.
South of the Chongón-Colonche fault, the stratigraphic
succession of the Santa Elena Peninsula is characterized successive sedimentary basins. This study was part of a
by a thick upper Paleocene sequence and by the develop- scientific cooperative agreement between the Ecuadorian
ment of the deeply subsided Progreso basin of Neogene state oil company Petroecuador-Petroproducción and the
age (Figure 3). French Institute of Scientific Investigations for Develop-
The occurrence of oil in southern coastal Ecuador ment in Cooperation–ORSTOM.
motivated several geologic studies that have led to
numerous and often contradictory interpretations. In this
paper, we present a synthesis of the available strati- PREVIOUS WORK
graphic and sedimentologic data, as well as new field
work and paleontologic studies. These efforts have The discovery of small oil fields in the southwestern
refined the stratigraphic framework and have enabled us part of the Santa Elena Peninsula at the beginning of this
to revise the sedimentologic and paleogeographic inter- century led to detailed paleontologic and micropaleonto-
pretations and to modify earlier interpretations of the logic studies of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary
tectonic and sedimentary evolution of this area. This stratigraphy of southern coastal Ecuador (e.g., Sinclair
paper specifically addresses the Cenomanian–Eocene and Berkey, 1923; Olsson, 1931, 1942; Thalmann, 1946,
interval, during which the geologic history is marked by Cushman and Stainforth, 1951; Sigal, 1969) and estab-
changing paleotectonic settings and development of lished regional stratigraphic relationships (Sheppard,
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
Figure 2—Structural and morphologic setting of southern
coastal Ecuador, and location of the main localities cited in
the text. Stars indicate oil fields.
1937; Marchant, 1961; Sauer, 1965; Canfield, 1966;
Faucher et al., 1971; Faucher and Savoyat, 1973). How-
ever, the subsurface studies carried out by different oil
companies in specific areas resulted in contradictory
local stratigraphic nomenclature and ages.
With emergence of the plate tectonic theory, the appar-
ently confusing stratigraphy, the poor quality and scarcity
of outcrops, and the tectonic complexity of the Santa
Elena Peninsula area led Azad (Anglo-Ecuadorian propri-
etary report, 1968) and Colman (1970) to interpret the
geology of the Peninsula as a giant olistostrome of late
Eocene age and involving Upper Cretaceous–middle
Eocene rocks. This interpretation was shared by Bristow
and Hoffstetter (1977) and Feininger and Bristow (1980).
In the 1980s, studies carried out by Petroecuador and
the Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral of Guayaquil
(Espol) restored the former stratigraphic framework and
elaborated sedimentologic interpretations based mainly
on submarine fan models (e.g., Benitez, 1983, 1992; Egüez,
1985; Nuñez del Arco et al., 1986; Santos et al., 1986a;
Contreras, 1990). Meanwhile, a large amount of micropa-
leontologic and geologic work has been carried out by oil
617
companies, most of which is unpublished. In this study,
we draw upon both new field observations and an
extensive synthesis of biostratigraphic information.
LATE CRETACEOUS–LATE EOCENE
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHIC EVOLUTION
Late Cretaceous–Early Late Paleocene
The basement of coastal Ecuador (Piñon Formation) is
made up of massive tholeiitic basaltic and basalt-
andesitic lavas generally considered to be a piece of
oceanic floor (Goossens and Rose, 1973; Juteau et al.,
1977; Feininger and Bristow, 1980; Mégard, 1987; Daly,
1989). However, early chemical studies showed that the
Piñon Formation has affinities with island arc volcanic
rocks (Goossens et al., 1977; Henderson, 1979). More
recently, Lebrat et al. (1987) distinguished the altered and
metamorphosed Piñon Formation of N-type MORB
composition, dated as late Aptian–Albian (110 ± 10 and
104 ± 15 Ma) (Goossens and Rose, 1973), and the San
Lorenzo Formation of island arc nature, which is late
Campanian–Paleocene in age and crops out only in the
Manabí area (see also Faucher and Savoyat, 1973;
Wallrabe-Adams, 1990). The Piñon Formation (Figure 3)
crops out in the Guayaquil area, in the Chongón-
Colonche Cordillera, and in the southwestern part of the
Santa Elena Peninsula and has been recognized in the
Manabí basin, thus suggesting that it constitutes the
basement of the entire southern coastal Ecuador
(Figures 3, 4).
Cenomanian–Coniacian
The Calentura Formation conformably overlies the
Piñon Formation (Figure 3) (Alvarado and Santos, 1983;
Benitez, 1990). It is a 200-m-thick succession of shales,
black laminated limestones, and thin-bedded graywacke
turbidites that were deposited in a pelagic, partially
anaerobic environment and that include a few thin-
bedded volcanic breccias and hyaloclastites. The
foraminifera indicate a late Cenomanian–Turonian age
(Thalmann, 1946; Sigal, 1969), which has been partially
confirmed by the discovery of a Turonian ammonite (R.
Marocco, 1992, personnal communication). Nannofossils
indicate an early Coniacian age (Gamber et al., 1990). The
Calentura Formation is known in the Guayaquil area and
the eastern part of the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera, but
has not been recognized farther west. The Calentura
Formation is attributed to starved, deep-marine pelagic
sedimentation deposited in Cenomanian–early
Coniacian time on the young Piñon oceanic crust
(Figure 4).
Santonian–Campanian
Guayaquil Area The Cayo Formation conformably
overlies the Calentura Formation (Benitez, 1990; Mark-
steiner and Alemán, 1991). It crops out on both sides of
the Chongón-Colonche fault. The Cayo Formation is a
618 Jaillard et al.

Figure 3—Stratigraphic
framework of the sedimentary
units of southern coastal
Ecuador.

Figure 4—Stratigraphy and

environment of the Creta-
ceous–middle Paleocene
deposits of southern coastal
Ecuador in the Guayaquil area
(after Benitez, 1990; Mark-
steiner and Alemán, 1991) and
the Manabí area (after Faucher
et al., 1971).
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
2000-m-thick succession of fining-upward, coarse-
grained volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates,
including a spectrum from high- to low-density
turbidites with shaly intercalations (Figure 4). Planktonic
foraminifera and dinocysts indicate a late Santonian–
Maastrichtian age (Thalmann, 1946; Bristow 1976;
Benitez, 1990; Gamber et al., 1990). Reworked foram-
inifera indicate a shallow-marine provenance, and scarce
paleocurrent data suggest a west-directed transport
(Benitez, 1990). This coarse-grained sedimentation
contrasts markedly with the underlying fine-grained
deposits and indicates that an important tectonic and
geodynamic change occurred by late Coniacian–early
Santonian time. The Cayo Formation is attributed to
erosion of a volcanic terrain, which is thought to have
been an island arc (Wallrabe-Adams, 1990; Marksteiner
and Alemán, 1991) (Figure 4). However, further
geochemical and mineralogic studies are necessary to
identify the provenance precisely.
Manabí Area Coarse-grained volcaniclastic conglom-
erates associated with basalt flows and dikes that were
known as the Cayo Formation (Faucher et al., 1971) are
now referred to as the San Lorenzo Formation (Lebrat et
al., 1987) (Figure 4). These beds rest on massive basalts
ascribed to the Piñon Formation (Faucher et al., 1971).
They have yielded late Campanian radiolarians at
Machalilla (Romero, 1990). In the Manta area,
interbedded pillowed basalts as well as dikes and small
plutons cross cutting the formation have yielded
Santonian–early Eocene radiometric ages (85–52.9 Ma),
with a maximum during the late Campanian–early
Maastrichtian (77–72 Ma) (Goossens and Rose, 1973; Hall
and Calle, 1982; Pichler and Aly, 1983; Lebrat et al., 1987;
Wallrabe-Adams, 1990). These volcanic rocks have an
island arc composition and are much less altered than
the rocks of the Piñon Formation (Lebrat et al., 1987). At
Machalilla, the occurrence of numerous andesitic
boulders and clasts derived from the Cayo Formation
indicates that the deposition is coeval with synsedimen-
tary tectonic deformation that caused subaerial erosion of
the formation. Paleocurrents are locally directed toward
the WSW (Romero, 1990). Chemical and geologic data
have shown that the San Lorenzo Formation can be
attributed to erosion of an active island arc (Lebrat et al.,
1987; Marksteiner and Alemán, 1991).
Maastrichtian–Early Late Paleocene
South of Chongón-Colonche Fault The Santa Elena
Formation crops out only in the Santa Elena Peninsula
(Figures 3, 5). It has long been considered a stratigraphic
equivalent of the Guayaquil Formation (Sinclair and
Berkey, 1923; Thalmann, 1946; Canfield, 1966). We have
recently confirmed this interpretation. Some outcrops on
the peninsula have yielded the radiolarians Amphy-
pyndax tylotus, Archaeodictyomitra lamellicostata, Diacantho-
capsa granti, and Stylospongia sp., among others, and the
calcareous nannofossils Arkhangelskiella cf. scapha, Coccol-
ithus paenepelagicus, Micula decussata, Quadrum gartneri,
and Watznaueria barnesae, which indicate a latest Creta-
ceous age. In other samples, the radiolarians Bathropy-
619
ramis sp., Buryella aff. tetradica, Cenosphaera sp., Dicty-
omitra aff. andersoni, Lychnocanoma sp., Phormocyrtis striata
exquisita, Protoxiphotractus sp., and Stylosphaera sp.
indicate a Paleocene age. These outcrops are altered,
weakly metamorphosed (Sheppard, 1937), and intensely
deformed, thus precluding any precise estimate of
thickness or detailed sedimentologic analysis (Figure 5).
However, the lithology is comparable to that of the
Guayaquil Formation, suggesting a similar depositional
environment.
The deformation of the Santa Elena Formation
involves gently southward-dipping shear planes and
tight folds with ENE-WSW to WNW-ESE trending axes,
associated with a penetrative axial plane cleavage
dipping gently toward the south. The overall deforma-
tion of the formation clearly increases toward the
southwest. The orientations of axial cleavages and shear
planes, the warping of the folds, and the analysis of the
displacement criteria indicate a heterogeneous deforma-
tion associated with north- to NNW-directed thrust
vergence. Because it affects lower upper Paleocene beds
(Santa Elena Formation) and is covered by uppermost
Paleocene coarse-grained deposits, this major tectonic
event is of late Paleocene age (about 57 ± 2 Ma, according
to Haq et al., 1987).
Northeast of Chongón-Colonche Fault The little
deformed Guayaquil Formation conformably and grada-
tionally overlies the Cayo Formation (Figures 4, 5). It
crops out only north of the Chongón-Colonche fault. It
consists of about 400 m of dark, siliceous tuffs and shales,
with numerous cherts and subordinate thinly bedded
turbidites, which contrast with the underlying coarse-
grained Cayo Formation. Thalmann (1946), Sigal (1969),
and Faucher et al. (1971) identified planktonic
foraminifera of Maastrichtian age, with a probable
extension into the Paleocene. This was confirmed by
Benitez (1991), Gamber et al. (1990), and our work
because of nannofossils and radiolarians that indicate an
early late Paleocene age (tympaniformis zone) for the top
of the formation near the town of Guayaquil.
The Guayaquil Formation is attributed to pelagic sedi-
mentation that was coeval with mild or distal volcanic
activity (Figure 4). The lack of any significant quartz-rich
detritus suggests either that southern coastal Ecuador
was located far from a continental source or that the area
was sheltered from any significant continental detrital
supply. The increasing amount of calcareous nodules or
beds toward the top of the unit suggests a slight shal-
lowing-upward trend (Benitez, 1991) and possibly a
deepening of the carbonate compensation depth (CCD).
The late Paleocene tectonic phase that followed the depo-
sition of the Santa Elena Formation ended this phase of
sedimentation.
Northwest of the Chongón-Colonche Fault In the
Manabí area, coarse-grained graywackes intercalated
with basaltic flows and ash beds yield Maastrichtian–
Paleocene(?) microfaunas (Sigal, 1969; Faucher et al.,
1971), which are consistent with the Maastrichtian–
Paleocene radiometric ages obtained from the top of the
620 Jaillard et al.
San Lorenzo Formation (Hall and Calle, 1982; Lebrat et
al., 1987; Wallrabe-Adams, 1990). Therefore, magmatic
activity related to an island arc went on in this area while
the Guayaquil and Santa Elena formations were being
deposited (Figure 4). This observation, together with the
lack of Cenomanian–Coniacian deposits in this area,
suggests that the volcaniclastic sedimentation is diachro-
nous and the volcanic activity migrated from the
Guayaquil area in the early Late Cretaceous and toward
the Manabí area in the latest Cretaceous–Paleocene.
Late Paleocene–Early Eocene
Late Paleocene
The conspicuous Azúcar Group is known only south
of the Chongón-Colonche fault (Figures 3, 5). Although
the lower contact has not been observed, it is most
probably unconformable on the Santa Elena Formation,
as suggested by the analysis of seismic lines (Marksteiner
and Alemán, 1991). The Azúcar Group consists of at least
1500 m of conglomerates, pebbly sandstones, sandstones,
Figure 5—The Upper Creta-
ceous–upper Eocene strati-
graphy of the Santa Elena
Peninsula and Chongón-
Colonche Cordillera.
and shales (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977). These
sediments were deposited on submarine fans largely by
high-density turbidites, with a minor amount of low-
density flows (Moreno, 1983; Benitez, 1983). Various
formations have been recognized (Marchant, 1961; Small,
1962; Canfield, 1966). However, their stratigraphic
succession is not established and they cannot be used for
mapping purposes, thus detracting from their usefulness
(Benitez, 1992).
On the basis of benthonic foraminifera, the Azúcar
Group has long been considered early Paleocene in age
(Thalmann, 1946; Small, 1962; Benitez, 1992; Marksteiner
and Alemán, 1991), although the mollusk fauna suggests
a younger age (Olsson, 1942; Canfield, 1966; Sigal, 1969;
Faucher et al., 1971; Daly, 1989). In contrast, the plank-
tonic foraminifera (e.g., Globigerina cf. velascoensis, G. trilo-
culinoides, G. aff. daubjergensis, Globorotalia angulata and G.
mackannai, Small, 1962; Moreno, 1983; Litton Resources
proprietary report, 1986; Gamber et al., 1990) are of
middle–late Thanetian age (pseudomenardii and velas-
coensis zones), and indicate that most of the benthonic
foraminifera are reworked (Figure 5).
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador 621

In the southern part of the Santa Elena Peninsula,

conglomeratic clasts are mainly derived from the Santa
Elena and Guayaquil formations, continental basement,
and volcanic rocks (Marksteiner and Alemán, 1991). This
indicates that the Cretaceous strata were deformed and
subjected to substantial erosion and that the Santa Elena
Peninsula was in contact with the Andean continental
margin. Paleocurrents indicate a north-northeastward
transport direction (Moreno, 1983) (Figure 6). In contrast,
in the northern Santa Elena Peninsula, the amount of
volcanic clasts is much greater (Marksteiner and Alemán,
1991) and preliminary results suggest southwest-directed
paleocurrents. The drastic change of provenance with
respect to older deposits is clearly related to the major
phase of late Paleocene deformation, and the Azúcar
Group postdates this event.
The Azúcar Group is also well structured, including
faulting and ENE-WSW-trending tight folds with vertical
axial planes. This tectonic phase is assigned to the early
Eocene because similar deformation is not present in the
overlying Lutetian sequence. As a consequence, the
observed deformation of the Santa Elena Formation
Figure 6—Paleocurrents measured in the Azúcar Group
apparently resulted from superimposition of an early
(latest Paleocene) in the Playas area (Santa Elena
phase characterized by ESE-WNW-trending, warped Peninsula). (After Moreno, 1983.)
tight folds of late Paleocene age, which affected only the
Santa Elena Formation, with a later ENE-WSW-trending
deformation which affected the Santa Elena Formation as
represent the lenticular “basal conglomerate” of the
well as the Azúcar Group.
overlying mainly Lutetian sedimentary cycle.
The Early Eocene Problem
North of Chongón-Colonche Fault West of
The early Eocene was marked by a widespread sedi- Guayaquil on the southern side of the Chongón-
mentary hiatus. Although no formations of this age are Colonche Cordillera, planktonic foraminifera and
known in southern Ecuador, some studies report early calcareous nannofossils of latest Paleocene–early Eocene
Eocene fossils from poorly known beds (Figure 3 and 5). age have been recognized in limestone samples (Unocal
proprietary report, 1987), which probably correspond to
South of Chongón-Colonche Fault In the Santa Elena the base of the San Eduardo Formation. In both areas, the
Peninsula, the “Passage beds” and equivalent units were lower Eocene sedimentation is either condensed or
only recognized in well cutting samples; there are no thinned by erosion. These characteristics suggest that the
direct data of a sedimentologic nature. These beds, the early Eocene hiatus resulted from widespread, possibly
thickness of which varies up to 350 m, have a lenticular diachronous emergence that occurred between earliest
shape and consist of two distinct horizons. The first Ypresian and earliest Lutetian times.
comprises shales and micaceous sandstones bearing
planktonic foraminifera of early Eocene age (Globigerina
aff. stonei, Globorotalia aff. acuta, G. aff. aequa, G. crassata) Late Early Eocene–Early Middle Eocene
which are associated with reworked benthonic (Late Ypresian–Lutetian)
foraminifera (Thalmann, 1946; Small, 1962; Bristow and
Hoffstetter, 1977). The second layer includes locally Late Ypresian–early Lutetian time was characterized
conglomeratic sandstones and shales with plant remains by a widespread transgression associated with tectonic
and is characterized by species of Discocyclina (Barker, subsidence, which allowed deposition of a thick, shal-
1932; Anglo-Ecuadorian Oilfields proprietary report, lowing-upward marine sequence. North of the
1956), suggesting a correlation with the lowest Lutetian Chongón-Colonche fault, the transgression is markedly
beds of northwestern Peru which contain a similar diachronous; it overlies deeply eroded rocks and is asso-
foraminiferal fauna (González, 1976). ciated with conspicuous synsedimentary tectonism. This
The “lower Passage beds,” containing mainly plank- diachronism, together with the variable facies, has
tonic foraminifera, may represent the end of the resulted in numerous poorly defined stratigraphic units.
preserved remnants of the uppermost Paleocene marine
Late Early Eocene–Middle Lutetian
sedimentary cycle (Azúcar Group). In the “upper
Transgression
Passage beds,” which are apparently absent north of the
Chongón-Colonche fault, the presence of plant fragments South of Chongón-Colonche Fault In the Ancón area,
and benthonic foraminifera indicates a shallow marine the Clay Pebble beds overlie the upper Passage beds. The
environment. The upper Passage beds may therefore Clay Pebble beds consist of up to 700 m of disrupted
622 Jaillard et al.
Figure 7—Stratigraphic correlations of the Lutetian trans-
gressive deposits in the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera.
shales, including clasts and contorted beds of pebbly
sandstones, sandstones, shales, cherts, and limestones
(Figure 5). They represent large-scale slumps (Brown and
Baldry, 1925; Marchant and Black, 1960; Marksteiner and
Alemán, 1991) that express instability of the substratum.
The Clay Pebble beds do not constitute a formation, but
rather a diachronous facies that occurs at the base and
within the lower part of the Lutetian sequence (Anglo-
Ecuadorian Oilfields proprietary report, 1956). In the
Ancón oil field, its age ranges from latest Ypresian to
early Lutetian (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Jiménez
and Mostajo, 1990). In other regions of the peninsula, the
Lutetian beds unconformably overlie Cretaceous or
lower Tertiary rocks and contain at the base a 0- to 30-m-
thick, coarse-grained basal conglomerate of early–middle
Lutetian age (Small, 1962; Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977;
Rosario conglomerate of Benitez, 1992).
North of Chongón-Colonche Fault North of the
Chongón-Colonche fault, the early Lutetian transgres-
sion is generally expressed by the San Eduardo
Formation which consists of 30–120 m of well-stratified
calciturbidites deposited within autochthonous,
hemipelagic marls and micrites (Santos et al., 1986b)
(Figures 5, 7). West of Guayaquil, the base of the
formation consists of a few meters of bedded cherty
marls and shales (Figure 8). We have identified radio-
larians (Lamptonium cf. fabaeforme, Orbula discipulus, Phor-
mocyrtis striata exquisita), calcareous nannofossils (Fasci-
culithus tympaniformis, Heliolithus kleinpelli, H. cf. riedelli,
Tribrachiathus orthostylus), and planktonic foraminifera
(Globigerina aff. primitiva, G. aff. collactea, Globorotalia
aequa, G. broedermanni, G. esnaensis, G. pseudotopilensis, G.
wilcoxensis), which range from late Paleocene to late early
Eocene in age. These are associated with reworked Creta-
ceous benthonic foraminifera. We interpret the base of
the San Eduardo Formation as middle–late Ypresian in
age (aragonensis zone). The overlying calciturbidites
contain numerous algae, oncolites, and benthonic
foraminifera (Discocyclina and Asterocyclina). Together
with associated calcareous nannofossils and planktonic
foraminifera, they indicate an earliest Lutetian age
(Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Gamber et al., 1990). At
the top of the formation, we found radiolarians
(Podocyrtis aff. diamesa, Thyrsocyrtis hirsuta) of late
Ypresian–early Lutetian age (P 9–10 zones). In the
western part of the Manabí basin, the San Eduardo
Formation unconformably overlies Upper Cretaceous
rocks, whereas in the eastern part of the Chongón-
Colonche Cordillera, it conformably overlies the
Paleocene Guayaquil cherts, thus suggesting a westward
increase of pre-Lutetian erosion (Figure 8).
In the western part of the Chongón-Colonche
Cordillera northeast of Colonche (Figure 2), the brec-
ciated Guayaquil Formation is overlain by thin lower
Lutetian marls. These in turn are overlain by a few
meters of fining-upward calcareous conglomerates that
reworked oncolitic limestones, and some Maas-
trichtian–Paleocene cherts (Javita limestones) (Sigal, 1969;
Benitez, 1992) (Figures 7, 8).
In most of the Manabí basin, the Lutetian transgres-
sion is reflected in radiolarian-bearing, fine-grained
shales, tuffaceous cherts, and siliceous limestones of
pelagic origin that are dated as middle Lutetian (Cerro
Formation, base of the San Mateo and Punta Blanca
formations) (Sigal, 1969; Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977;
Romero, 1990). These beds either conformably overlie the
San Eduardo Formation or unconformably rest on the
Senonian San Lorenzo Formation (Figure 8). They
commonly contain breccias, reworked Cretaceous micro-
fauna, and olistoliths of Cretaceous rocks (Schulman et
al., 1965), which indicate that the early–middle Lutetian
transgression was associated with tectonism and erosion.
Lutetian Sequence
After the diachronous and tectonically driven trans-
gression of late Ypresian–middle Lutetian age, the rest of
the Lutetian corresponds to a shallowing-upward
sequence of marine shelf deposits (Figure 5).
South of Chongón-Colonche Fault In the Santa Elena
Peninsula, the Lutetian sequence is 1000–1500 m thick
and comprises the Clay Pebble beds and the Socorro and
Seca formations (Anglo-Ecuadorian Oilfields proprietary
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
report, 1956) (Figure 5). The Socorro Formation consists
of laminated shales, siltstones, and fine-grained sand-
stones of an outer shelf environment, intercalated with
some thick-bedded turbiditic sandstones. Slumped beds
(including Clay Pebble facies) and turbidites are
common near the base and decrease upward, suggesting
a decrease in tectonic activity. The Socorro Formation
grades upward into the Seca Formation, a sequence of
laminated shales, siltstones, and marls that reflect
climatic or seasonal influences, as well as thin-bedded
sandstones attributed to storm processes and subordi-
nate turbidites (Figure 9). In the Seca Formation, the
upward increase of bioturbation, calcareous content, and
neritic fauna indicate a shallow shelf environment. The
Socorro and Seca formations contain calcareous nanno-
fossils, planktonic foraminifera, radiolarians, mollusks,
and reworked benthonic foraminifera in the turbiditic
beds, which together indicate an early–late Lutetian age
(Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Jiménez and Mostajo,
1990; Gamber et al., 1990). Sedimentary measurements
indicate NNW- to WNW-directed paleocurrents and a
northwest-dipping paleoslope (Figure 9).
North of Chongón-Colonche Fault In the southern
part of the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera, the 350-m-
thick Lutetian sequence is known as the Las Masas
Formation. In the Manabí basin, contemporaneous beds
are 500–1500 m thick and correspond to the lower part of
the San Mateo Formation (Figures 5, 8). The foraminiferal
and radiolarian content indicate a Lutetian–early late
Eocene age for the entire San Mateo Formation
(Cushman and Stainforth, 1951; Sigal, 1969; Bristow and
Hoffstetter, 1977; Navarrete, 1986; Contreras, 1990).
However, the Bartonian and late Eocene faunas were
probably found in the coarse-grained upper part of the
formation. The Las Masas and lower San Mateo forma-
tions are made up of partially calcareous shales, silt-
stones, sandstones, and graywackes. South of Puerto
Cayo, thin-bedded turbidites, tempestites, and rippled
beds indicate a shelf environment that was shallower
than that of the Cerro Formation. In San Mateo west of
Manta, the 700-m-thick Lutetian–Bartonian San Mateo
Formation (Contreras, 1990) includes plant fragments,
623
Figure 8—Chronostrati-
graphic sketch of the middle
Ypresian–Lutetian trans-
gression along the
Chongón-Colonche
Cordillera.
secondary gypsum veinlets, and heavy mineral laminae
and exhibits characteristics typical of clastic shore zone
sequences (shoreface to foreshore). Although no
complete section has been studied, the depositional envi-
ronment and evolution are thought to be comparable to
that of the Socorro and Seca formations of the Santa
Elena Peninsula. In the Manabí basin, undated layers of
the San Mateo Formation locally rest on volcanic rocks
ascribed to the Lower Cretaceous Piñon Formation
(Figure 8).
Middle–Late Eocene (Bartonian–Early
Priabonian)
In southern coastal Ecuador, the middle Eocene
sequence ends with continental to shallow marine
coarse-grained graywackes and lithic sandstones that
abruptly overlie the Lutetian marine sequence. These
deposits are called the Punta Ancón Formation along the
present-day coast of the Santa Elena Peninsula and the
San Mateo Formation (upper part) in the Manabí basin
(Figures 5, 8). On the inner part of the Santa Elena
Peninsula and in the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera, the
so-called Zapotal Formation apparently comprises two
stratigraphic units. One consists of coarse-grained,
poorly dated, continental to coastal deposits with
molluscan fauna (Hannatoma fauna) and rare marine
microfauna that broadly correlate with the lower
Priabonian beds of northern Peru (Verdún Formation)
(Olsson, 1931; Paredes, 1958; González, 1976; Bristow
and Hoffstetter, 1977). The other unit consists of fine-
grained, clastic marine deposits dated as late
Oligocene–early Miocene by planktonic foraminifera,
suggesting that it belongs to the overlying mainly
Neogene sedimentary cycle (Bristow, 1975; Bristow and
Hoffstetter, 1977). We agree with Olsson (1931), Canfield
(1966), and Sigal (1969) that the coarse-grained lower
part of the Zapotal Formation is partially equivalent to
the Punta Ancón Formation of Bartonian–early
Priabonian age. This implies that a major sedimentary
hiatus of Oligocene age separates the lower and upper
parts of the Zapotal Formation.
We are able to confirm the Bartonian age of the Punta
624 Jaillard et al.
Figure 9—Stratigraphic section and paleocurrent data for
the Socorro and Seca formations (Lutetian) in the Punta
Ancón beach area (Santa Elena Peninsula).
Ancón Formation (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Jiménez
and Mostajo, 1990) on the basis of rich radiolarian associ-
ations. In the southwestern part of the Santa Elena
Peninsula, the formation consists of reddish shales and
siltstones, lithic sandstones, and subordinate conglomer-
ates, all of which are organized in typically thickening-
Figure 10—Stratigraphic section of the Punta Ancón
Formation (Bartonian) in the Punta Ancón beach area
(Santa Elena Peninsula).
and coarsening-upward clastic sequences of shore zone
origin (Figure 10). Locally, massive conglomeratic facies
(west of Ancón, east of Playas) are interpreted as large
fluvial or distributary channels that fed into the clastic
coastal system. Measurements indicate southwest- to
northwest-directed paleocurrents perpendicular to the
present-day coast (see Figure 12). The amount of
conglomerates markedly increases northward, and in the
Colonche area, the Punta Ancón Formation grades
eastward into the lower Zapotal Formation.
The lower Zapotal Formation is a 300–600 m thick
succession of lithic sandstones and coarse-grained
conglomerates deposited in an alluvial environment. An
intermediate layer contains plant-bearing shales and
subordinate sandstones (Small, 1962; Canfield, 1966).
These argillaceous beds are believed to correlate with the
upper Eocene Jusa Formation which is exposed 15 km
ESE of Colonche (Cushman and Stainforth, 1951; Bristow
and Hoffstetter, 1977). In the Chongón-Colonche
Cordillera, the lower Zapotal Formation overlies either
Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene or middle Eocene deposits
and consists of coarser grained alluvial fan deposits.
These grade southward into finer grained deposits of
alluvial plain or coastal environment in the Santa Elena
Peninsula. At the southeastern end of the Peninsula
(Posorja, Figure 2), the lower Zapotal Formation consists
of coastal sandstones similar to those of the Punta Ancón
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
Figure 11—Stratigraphic column of the San Mateo
Formation (middle–upper Eocene) in the Julcuy area.
(Simplified after Egüez, 1985.)
Formation and contains the Hannatoma molluscan fauna
of early late Eocene age (Olsson, 1931; González, 1976).
North of Manglaralto, the Punta Ancón Formation
grades northward into conglomerate-prone deposits that
correspond to the upper part of San Mateo Formation of
Bartonian–early Priabonian age (Cushman and Stain-
forth, 1951; Sigal, 1969; Navarrete, 1986; Contreras, 1990).
Along the present-day coast, it consists of a few hundred
meters of coarse-grained conglomeratic lenses and beds
of alluvial origin intercalated within the shoreline
sandstone sequence, indicating a fan delta depositional
setting. Farther east and southeast in the Julcuy area, the
San Mateo Formation consists of a 600-m-thick sequence
of coarse-grained conglomerates similar to the lower
Zapotal Formation, with imbricated polymictic clasts,
debris flows, and olistoliths apparently deposited in an
alluvial fan environment (Figure 11). There, the San
Mateo Formation generally rests directly on Cretaceous
rocks (Cayo, San Lorenzo, or Piñon formations), indi-
cating strong pre-Bartonian erosion and a conspicuous
basal unconformity. In the entire Manabí area, paleocur-
rents indicate a NNW- to northwest-oriented transport
(Egüez, 1985; Santos et al., 1986a; Contreras, 1990)
(Figure 12).
In summary, the Bartonian–Priabonian paleogeo-
graphy comprises a central area (Chongón-Colonche
Cordillera, Manabí hills) marked by alluvial fan deposi-
625
Figure 12—Paleocurrents and paleogeographic interpreta-
tion of the Bartonian–early Priabonian deposits of southern
coastal Ecuador.
tion (lower Zapotal and upper San Mateo formations)
and reworking of Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks. These
coarse-grained deposits grade westward (Manabí
present-day coast) into fan delta deposits (upper San
Mateo Formation) and south- or southwestward into
alluvial plain systems (lower Zapotal Formation) and
coastal deposits (Punta Ancón Formation) (Figure 12).
This paleogeographic setting, together with the volcanic-
rich nature of the deposits (Figure 13) and the locally
important pre-Bartonian unconformity, clearly indicate
that the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera was drastically
rejuvenated near the Lutetian–Bartonian boundary and
submitted to intense erosion. Late Priabonian–late
Oligocene time is characterized by a widespread sedi-
mentary hiatus (Canfield, 1966; Sigal, 1969; Bristow and
Hoffstetter, 1977; Benitez, 1992).
Consequently, the Bartonian–early Priabonian time
span (about 42–38 Ma, after Haq et al., 1987) is inter-
preted as a period of pronounced tectonic activity that
culminated in emergence of the entire area during the
late Priabonian. In the Santa Elena Peninsula, the late
Eocene deformation resulted in open folds trending
north-south to northeast-southwest associated with east-
southeast gently dipping reverse faults, which indicate a
grossly ESE-WNW compression associated with WNW-
ward thrust movements. Such deformation has not been
observed in the Neogene deposits.
626 Jaillard et al.
Figure 13—Nature of the detritus during the early middle
Eocene (Socorro and Seca formations) and the late middle
and late Eocene (Punta Ancón and lower Zapotal forma-
tions). (After Marksteiner and Alemán, 1991.)
TECTONISM AND BASIN
DEVELOPMENT
The Late Cretaceous–late Eocene evolution of coastal
Ecuador reflects three phases that were separated by
major tectonosedimentary events (Figure 14).
Marginal Basin Stage: Late
Cretaceous–Middle Paleocene
Between the Late Cretaceous and middle Paleocene,
volcaniclastic pelagic sediments accumulated on the
Early–middle Cretaceous oceanic floor of southern
coastal Ecuador. The lack of significant quartz-rich
detritus suggests that they were not deposited from a
sialic landmass. The presence of a thick coarse-grained
sequence of Santonian–Campanian age (Cayo
Formation) suggests that the basin was bordered by an
island arc, active at least since the Coniacian. The fining-
upward trend of this sequence indicates that the activity
of the Cayo arc decreased with time. In contrast, volcanic
and tectonic activity since the late Campanian in the
Manabí area (San Lorenzo Formation) is interpreted as
resulting from the formation of a new island arc.
Therefore, we interpret the Late Cretaceous–middle
Paleocene sequence as the infilling of a marginal basin
(Karig and Moore, 1975) opened between the early Late
Cretaceous Cayo arc and the San Lorenzo island arc
active in latest Cretaceous–early Paleocene time (Figure
14). According to the models of Karig and Moore (1975)
and Carey and Sigurdsson (1982), the significant alter-
ation and metamorphism of the Early Cretaceous
volcanic rocks (Piñon Formation), the presence of hyalo-
clastites at the base of the sequence near Guayaquil, and
the apparent lack of Cenomanian–Coniacian deposits
(Calentura Formation) in the Manabí region are consis-
tent with this interpretation.
Accretion and Early Fore-Arc Basin Stage:
Late Paleocene–Early Eocene
The late Paleocene–early Eocene was marked by the
occurrence of major tectonism that caused drastic
changes in the paleogeography (Figure 5, 14). The nature
of the coarse-grained detrital deposits indicates that
sialic, sedimentary, and volcanic provenance areas were
intensely deformed and deeply eroded. The differences
in the tectonic and sedimentary evolutions of the Santa
Elena Peninsula and the Chongón-Colonche-Manabí
area indicate that they represent independent structural
units during the Paleocene–early Eocene deformation
phases (Figure 14).
In the Santa Elena Peninsula, intense deformation of
the middle Paleocene Santa Elena Formation is followed
by substantial tectonic subsidence that accommodated
deposition of thick uppermost Paleocene coarse-grained,
quartz-rich turbidites (Azúcar Group) (Figure 14). North
of the Chongón-Colonche fault, this tectonic phase is
believed to have induced the sedimentary hiatus of latest
Paleocene–early Eocene age. Although the early Eocene
period is still poorly understood, it is apparent that the
Santa Elena Peninsula became emergent at this time.
These events are interpreted as the result of collision of
the Cayo remnant arc with the continental margin, which
provoked the blocking of the subduction and probably
the thrusting of the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera and
Manabí areas (Figure 14). The shallowing-upward
sequence of latest Paleocene–early Eocene age represents
the infilling of the first real fore-arc or slope basin in
southern coastal Ecuador history.
In the Talara basin, which formed above the Amotape
massif of northwestern Peru, the Paleocene–Eocene
boundary coincides with a thick unconformity-bound
succession of continental derived sandstones and
conglomerates (Mogollón Formation) (González, 1976;
Macharé et al., 1986; Séranne, 1987). This unconformity
clearly expresses a second important tectonic event of
earliest Eocene age that we correlate with the wide-
spread sedimentary hiatus observed in southern coastal
Ecuador. These accretionary events, of late Paleocene
and earliest Eocene age, mark the end of the island arc
marginal basin evolution in southern coastal Ecuador.
Fore-Arc Basin and Definitive Collision:
Middle–Late Eocene
The middle–upper Eocene sedimentary strata of
marine shelf and terrestrial origin are characterized by a
marked shallowing- and coarsening-upward trend
(Figures 5). This period ended with a major sedimentary-
stratigraphic hiatus, which encompassed most of the
Oligocene.
The early Lutetian transgression is attributed to exten-
sional processes. This interpretation is supported by
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
persistent reworking and slumping, pronounced
diachronism of the transgression, local pre-Lutetian
erosion, and upward disappearance of the synsedimen-
tary deformation. This extensional driven transgression
following the early Eocene compression marks a
renewed stage of fore-arc basin subsidence in southern
coastal Ecuador (Figure 14). The differences in the
Lutetian evolution and lithologies observed on either
side of the Chongón-Colonche fault suggest that the
Santa Elena basin was separated from the Manabí basin
627
Figure 14—Schematic cross sections showing the
evolution of southern coastal Ecuador from Late Creta-
ceous to Miocene time. (Rotations are not taken into
account.) (a) In the late Cretaceous, a marginal basin
opened between the early Late Cretaceous Cayo arc and
the latest Cretaceous–Paleocene San Lorenzo island arc.
(b) In the late Paleocene–earliest Eocene, the Cayo
remnant arc collided with the Andean continental margin
and caused intense deformation of the Santa Elena
Peninsula, emergence of the Chongón-Cordillera, and in-
filling of the Santa Elena basin by coarse-grained
turbidites. (c) Middle Eocene time was characterized by the
extensional subsidence of fore-arc basins, which were
deformed and probably inverted during the late Eocene
compressional phase. (d) Following a general emergence
phase of latest Eocene–Oligocene age, new extensional
fore-arc basins were formed as the Gulf of Guayaquil
opened.
by the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera swell. These fore-
arc basins were filled by the middle–upper Lutetian shal-
lowing-upward sequence.
The paleogeographic change expressed by the basal
unconformity and the volcanic-rich and coarse-grained
nature of the Bartonian–Priabonian deposits are inter-
preted as the result of definitive collision of southern
coastal Ecuador with the Andean continental margin. The
WNW-ESE compression determined for the late Eocene
tectonic phase is consistent with this interpretation.
Coarse-grained Priabonian deposits comparable to
those of southern coastal Ecuador occur in the
surrounding areas. In northwestern Peru, unconformable
lower upper Eocene conglomerates (Verdún Formation)
overlap Tertiary sedimentary strata of the Talara basin
(Paredes, 1958; González, 1976; Séranne, 1987) and the
Paleozoic–Cretaceous rocks of the broader area (Caldas
et al., 1980; Reyes and Caldas, 1987). In the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador, which constitutes the eastern edge
of the microplate of coastal Ecuador (Santos and
Ramírez, 1986), the middle Eocene succession ends in
coarse-grained deposits (Apagua conglomerates) inter-
preted as the result of collision and underthrusting of
this unit under the continental margin (Egüez and
Bourgois, 1986; Bourgois et al., 1990). This interpretation
matches our own observations.
New Fore-Arc Basin:
Late Oligocene–Miocene
The late Oligocene–earliest Miocene to Pliocene
interval is marked by the development of several basins
that were filled by fine-grained shallow marine sand-
stones and shales (Figure 14). The creation of these
Neogene troughs is thought to have been triggered by
the opening of the Gulf of Guayaquil along the
Guayaquil-Dolores megashear (Shepherd and Moberly,
1981). In the Santa Elena Peninsula, the Neogene
Progreso basin is confined by a strand of the Chongón-
Colonche fault (Carrizal fault) and by the La Cruz fault
(Figure 2), probably inherited from the late Paleocene–
early Eocene collision (Figure 14). Their evolution is
broadly contemporaneous with that of the Andean inter-
628 Jaillard et al.

montane sedimentary basins controlled by a transten-

sional-transpressional tectonic regime (Lavenu et al.,
1992; Marocco et al., 1995). Most of coastal Ecuador
became emergent during the Quaternary.

CONCLUSIONS
Between the Late Cretaceous and late Eocene, the
oceanic-floored allochthonous terranes of southern
coastal Ecuador underwent a complex geologic evolution
that included island arc related and marginal basin sedi-
mentation, collisions associated with prominent shear
deformation, basin subsidence, and several phases of
uplift. The Cenomanian–middle Paleocene phase was
characterized by pelagic and volcaniclastic sedimenta-
tion in a marginal basin that was remote from silicic
detrital influx. Late Paleocene–early Eocene time was
marked by intense tectonic deformation, voluminous
silicic detrital influx, and prominent sedimentary breaks
and ended with widespread emergence of coastal
Ecuador. These phenomena are attributed to collision of
southern coastal Ecuador with the Andean continental
margin, which caused the creation of an early, short-
lived fore-arc or slope basin. Middle Eocene time began
with a tectonically induced diachronous transgression.
This was followed by a middle Eocene shallowing- Figure 15—Estimated sedimentation rates in southern
upward sequence that represents the infilling of a new, coastal Ecuador during Late Cretaceous–late Eocene time.
short-lived fore-arc basin. Late Eocene is marked by
locally unconformable, coarser grained, shallow-marine
and continental deposits. The latest Eocene emergence of
southern coastal Ecuador is attributed to a major “can presumably form structural basins within which
compressive event preceding the development of a new substantial thickness of shelf or slope deposits can accu-
stage of fore-arc basin subsidence in the latest mulate.” Southern coastal Ecuador exhibits such a
Oligocene–Miocene. complex structural and sedimentary evolution, which
The late Paleocene and early Eocene tectonic phases can be explained by a multiple accretionary history
recorded in the Santa Elena Peninsula are undoubtedly (Figures 14). The hypothesis, according to which
the most intense deformation episodes undergone by mélange or a giant olistostrome formed during Paleo-
coastal Ecuador. The first was responsible for numerous gene time (Colman, 1970), has not been confirmed by our
gently dipping shear planes, subisoclinal folds, and study.
pervasive cleavage. The second apparently formed tight One striking feature of this evolution is the close asso-
vertical folds and faults. In contrast, the present-day ciation between phases of uplift and the succeeding
structure of the middle Eocene beds displays only subsidence, which created successive short-lived fore-arc
reverse faults and gentle folding with dips usually less basins separated by periods of erosion (Figure 15). This
than 30°, which are probably due mainly to the late suggests the existence of a genetic link between compres-
Eocene tectonic phase. From the late Eocene onward, the sive tectonic phases responsible for uplift and the subse-
Andean deformation shifted eastward in the present-day quent subsidence associated with extensional tectonism.
Andes toward the sub-Andean zone. However, the Such a relationship has been noted in the present-day
effects of these early tectonic phases have been largely margins of Japan and Peru and is believed to be due to
ignored or at least underestimated in the eastern regions. tectonic erosion of the edge of the continental margin
Except for Feininger and Bristow (1980), Roperch et al. along the plane of subduction (Von Huene et al., 1985;
(1987), and Lebrat et al. (1987), southern coastal Ecuador Suess et al., 1988; Von Huene and Lallemand, 1990). It is
has generally been analyzed and interpreted from an inferred that during the compressive phases responsible
autochthonist point of view. The recognition of for emergence, coupling between the oceanic and conti-
numerous tectonic events during the Late Cretaceous– nental lithospheres increased substantially, thus
late Eocene clearly indicates, however, that this was a provoking tectonic erosion of the lower surface at the
very mobile zone that underwent various types of trans- edge of the continental margin. This loss of mass along
lation and rotation (Roperch et al., 1987). Scholl et al. the continental margin was sufficient to initiate tectonic
(1980, p. 568) noted that “lateral tectonic accretion can subsidence of the fore-arc zone and the creation of
create a geographically wide ocean margin of exceptional subsiding fore-arc basins as the compressive stresses
structural, lithologic and stratigraphic complexity,” and decreased (Von Huene and Scholl, 1991).
 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
Southern coastal Ecuador is an example of small oil
fields located in an accretionary fore-arc setting. The
origin and evolution of the organic matter was controlled
by the geologic history. The organic-rich, fine-grained
deposits of Cenomanian–Coniacian and Maas-
trichtian–middle Paleocene age (Calentura and
Guayaquil formations) form good potential source rocks
for oil generation (Alvarado and Santos, 1983; Petro-
ecuador proprietary report) and have probably sourced
the oil fields of southern coastal Ecuador. These sedimen-
tary strata were deposited in an anaerobic marginal basin
isolated from silicic detrital influx, characterized by weak
subsidence and low sedimentation rates.
All the producing oil fields in southern coastal
Ecuador occur on the Santa Elena Peninsula (Figure 2)
where there was intense deformation and substantial
latest Paleocene sedimentation. The late Paleocene
collision of part of southern coastal Ecuador against the
Andean continental margin deformed the stratigraphic
succession and allowed deposition of thick, quartz-rich
arenites in the Santa Elena Peninsula (Figure 14). These
deposits may have favored burial and maturation of the
organic matter, since the occurrence of oil fields in
southern coastal Ecuador coincides with the paleogeo-
graphic extent of the upper Paleocene turbidites.
Moreover, in the Ancón oil fields, the uppermost
Paleocene beds, which are called the Atlanta sandstone,
represent the main reservoir interval, whereas the
middle Eocene clastics provide thin secondary reservoirs.
However, the alternation of periods of high sedimenta-
tion rates (latest Paleocene and Lutetian) with periods of
nondeposition and even emergence and erosion (early
and late Eocene) (Figures 14, 15) probably disturbed
maturation of the organic matter.
Finally, the late Paleocene, early Eocene, and middle
Eocene tectonic phases recorded in the Santa Elena
Peninsula have significance for exploration. The intense
cleavage of some Cretaceous–Paleocene volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks resulted in pronounced fracture
porosity which has enhanced reservoir potential, such as
the small Santa Rosa–Petropolis oil field west of Santa
Elena. Thermal perturbations and weak metamorphism
related to early tectonic events may have also modified
and helped the organic maturation process. Although the
geometry of the large-scale thrust planes cross cutting
the deformed pre-Lutetian beds is still virtually
unknown, it undoubtedly controlled the migration and
trapping of hydrocarbons in the Santa Elena Peninsula.
Finally, reverse faulting of probable late Eocene age that
cross cut the older structures is responsible for east- to
southeast-dipping tectonic slices, within which small
reservoirs have been preserved.
Acknowledgments This work is a contribution to IGCP 301
“Paleogene of South America.” We acknowledge Petroecuador
for permitting the publication of this study, and ORSTOM for
having supported field work. We are grateful to A. Alemán, G.
Laubacher, G. Mascle, and P. Roperch for having shared their
629
experience of Andean and active margin geology during joint
field work. The final content of this manuscript was consider-
ably improved by a thorough review by D. Scholl and stimu-
lating discussions with G. Mascle.
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 Basin Development in an Accretionary Fore-Arc Setting, Southern Coastal Ecuador
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Étienne Jaillard
ORSTOM
213, rue La Fayette
75480 Paris Cédex 10
France
Martha Ordoñez
Stalin Benitez
Gerardo Berrones
Nelson Jiménez
Galo Montenegro
Italo Zambrano
Petroproducción
km 6.5 via a la Costa, casilla 10829
Guayaquil
Ecuador
 Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene
Crustal Evolution

D. Roeder R. L. Chamberlain
Institut für Lithosphärenforschung Blue Eagle Exploration Inc.
Justus Liebig–Universität Salisbury, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Giessen, Germany

Abstract

T he Eastern Cordillera of Colombia is an east-vergent Dahlstromian fold and thrust belt of Neogene age
involving 5–10 km of upper crust, 3 km of synrift fill of an early Atlantic embayment, and 11 km of
Cretaceous thermal sag basin fill. The Mesozoic rift event created an estimated 67–100 km of extension in a 200-
km-wide field with an average extensional strain (β) of 2. The fold and thrust belt contains 170 km of imbricate
thrust overlap at its front and at higher thrusts and 60 km of west-vergent back-thrusting at its west slope and
at its crest affected by incipient plateau collapse tectonics. The Oriente foreland load flexure suggests a rigid
lithosphere and more than 100 km of intracontinental subduction.
We have assembled and numerically processed public domain data about the surface geology, Mesozoic
basin history, and subsurface structure in the Oriente foothills. Andean crustal data and northeastern Pacific
plate tectonic data suggest a Miocene age change from low-dip subduction to Recent steep-dip subduction.
Therefore, a polyphase history of foreland upthrusts redeforming the fold and thrust belt is unlikely. However,
upper crustal detachment and foreland upthrusting prior to Cordilleran thrusting is possible.

Resumen

L a Cordillera Oriental de Colombia es una faja fallada y plegada con vergencia oriental, de estilo similar
al definido por Dahlstrom y edad neógena. Involucra 5 a 10 km de corteza superior, 3 km de relleno
sintectónico depositado en el inicio de una bahia atlántica, y 11 km de sedimentitas cretácicas relacionadas a
subsidencia termal. La extensión mesozoica está estimada en 67 a 100 km en una franja de 200 km de ancho,
con una deformación promedio (β) de 2. La faja plegada y fallada posee 170 km de acortamiento en los corrim-
ientos imbricados en su frente oriental y corrimientos someros, y 60 km en los retrocorrimientos de vergencia
occidental en su pendiente oeste. La porción crestal está afectada por una tectónica extensional incipiente. El
flexuramiento por carga del antepais oriental sugiere una litósfera rígida y mas de 100 km de subducción intra-
continental.
Fueron reunidos y procesados numéricamente datos de dominio público acerca de la geologia de super-
ficie, desarrollo de la cuenca mesozoica y estructuras en el subsuelo pedemontano oriental. El análisis de los
datos relacionados a la corteza andina y a la tectónica en el noreste de la placa pacífica sugieren un cambio en
la inclinación de la subducción, de baja durante el Mioceno a mas empinada en épocas recientes. De acuerdo a
lo expuesto, es poco probable un desarrollo polifásico de corrimientos redeformando la faja plegada y fallada.
Por lo tanto, existirían despegues en la corteza superior y deformación del antepaís anteriores al fallamiento
cordillerano.

Roeder, D., and R. L. Chamberlain, 1995, Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic– 633
Neogene crustal evolution, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum
basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 633–645.
634 Roeder and Chamberlain
INTRODUCTION
In central Colombia (Figure 1), the Eastern Cordillera
rises out of the Atlantic initial embayment, which is the
depositional site of one of the largest hydrocarbon source
rock bodies on earth (Shirley, 1992). By restoring the fill
of this rifted embayment and by involving the crust in
balancing efforts along an Andean cross section, it may
be possible to decide among three different geologic
interpretations.
Our preferred interpretation involves Neogene upper
crustal and supracrustal low-angle thrust imbrication
above a cratonic lithosphere. The allochthonous crust
exhibits at least 170 km of crustal overlap on an east-
vergent (frontal) imbricate thrust system and involves
30–60 km of internal compression and back-thrusting. It
shows a crustal volume deficiency despite a 40-km
(+8 km) deep Moho root. We see the volume deficiency
as inherited from the Mesozoic Atlantic-type rifting and
not as the product of a late Andean episode of upper
crustal foreland upthrusting. However, early Andean
foreland upthrusting at a future site of the present
Eastern Cordillera is possible.
These tectonic results are consistent with Andean
subduction of the steep or steepening type during the
Neogene, with Neogene volcanism, and with the
Neogene trend of Andean crustal thickening crossing the
Mesozoic Atlantic embayment. In this paper, we use the
term Dahlstromian to refer to a structural geometry and
tectonic rheology developed for subsurface exploration
of fold and thrust belts (e.g., Bally et al., 1966; Dahlstrom,
1969), critically reviewed by Ramsay and Huber (1987)
and formally named by Roeder (1991).
The present study adds a third interpretation by using
the database and selected parts of the geologic theory
used in two competing and complementing published
cross sections (Colletta et al., 1990; Dengo and Covey,
1993). It is also based on a field reconnaissance in 1982
with H. Doust (The Hague) and J. Kirkpatrick (Denver)
and on an introduction to Andean structure in 1982 by R.
Butler (Columbia, SC).
THREE TECTONIC MODELS
As shown in many cross sections (De Cizancourt,
1933; Campbell and Bürgl, 1965; Campbell, 1974;
Estrada, 1982; Butler, 1983), the Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia is a bivergent fan of thrusts toward the Middle
Magdalena and Oriente lateral foredeeps. It coincides
with a 9–12-km-thick Jurassic and Cretaceous depo-
center. A standard cross section 200 km long between the
Magdalena river and the Oriente lowlands near Aguazul
and Cusiana (Figure 2) crosses this fold and thrust fan at
a site covered by quadrangle mapping (Ulloa and
Rodriguez, 1978; Renzoni et al., 1983).
Mapped in great detail and over long distances, strike-
slip faults are a major constituent of Andean tectonics in
the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. In the present
context, however, wrench faults are virtually ignored.
The arguments developed in the present paper are
500 km C
M
P
(3)
(1)
(4)
B
(2)
Q
Figure 1—Location map of northwestern South America,
including Colombia and parts of Panama, Venezuela,
Ecuador, and Peru. Light gray, Guyana shield; dark gray,
Andean orogenic elements, with thrust faults at edges.
Indexed cross sections are from (1) Colletta et al. (1990),
(2) Valderrama (1982), and (3) Meissnar et al. (1976);
(4) Peru-Chile trench. Cities: P, Panama; M, Maracaibo; C,
Caracas; B, Bogota; Q, Quito.
consistent with major wrench faulting and can be
presented without the wrench faults. However, our
results should be modified in the future to incorporate
the effects of wrench faulting.
In Figure 2, we juxtapose three major competing and
in part speculative interpretations of the standard cross
section. All three versions are valid geologic achieve-
ments, and their review, even at their incompletely docu-
mented state, can help in guiding the major investments
needed in sub-Andean hydrocarbon exploration. We
have standardized and simplified the graphic appear-
ance of the three versions, and to each section we have
added a best guess of the present crustal thickness.
We have extrapolated the Moho position 650 km to
the north from the trans-Andean geophysical profile of
Colombia and Ecuador (Case et al., 1973) by using trends
shown on the Bouguer gravity map of Colombia
(Bermudez et al., 1985) and using an assumed confor-
mity between a northward-decreasing Bouguer anomaly
and a northward size reduction of the Moho root (Ocola
et al., 1975; Meissnar et al., 1976). The flank dips of the
Moho root are constrained by flexural load models of the
Oriente and Middle Magdalena foredeep basins.
In all three sections in Figure 2, the 36-km-deep Moho
root implies an excess crustal depth of 19 km and an
excess crustal area of 1500 km2. As in other orogens, the
excess area can be explained by magmatic addition
(James, 1971) or by crustal overlap (Giese et al., 1982;
Mattauer, 1986). The choice between these alternative
explanations is not apparent from direct local observa-
tion. However, in the three parts of Figure 2, the juxtapo-
sition of upper crustal silhouettes and the Moho root
design shows varying degrees of conformity.
 Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution 635

(a) COLLETTA ET AL. (1990)

50 KM
(b) DENGO AND COVEY (1993)

50 KM

(c) ROEDER AND CHAMBERLAIN (1994)

50 KM
Figure 2—Three versions of a standard cross section of the Eastern Cordillera, central Colombia. Black, Cretaceous–
Paleogene sedimentary rocks; white, Jurassic; gray, upper crust and predeformed Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks. An
estimated best-fit curve of the Moho seismic velocity discontinuity has been added. (a) Redrawn after Colletta et al. (1990),
extended downward to include the base of the brittle upper crust and estimated Moho position. (b) Redrawn after Dengo and
Covey (1993), with the base of the brittle upper crust and estimated Moho position added. (c) Prepared for present paper,
obtained by applying a mobilistic interpretation of Neogene tectonics to the cross section by Dengo and Covey (1993).

The eastward-sloping Moho segment beneath the
Magdalena Valley is a result of the projection of the
Moho root along strike. Its connection with the second
Moho deep beneath the Central Cordillera is not docu-
mented. This aspect is a point in favor of the crustal
thrust model (Dengo and Covey, 1993).
First Tectonic Model: Inverted Rift Basin
and Upthrusts
Figure 2A illustrates the interpretation by Colletta et
al. (1990) in a redrawn form. Colletta et al. (1990) have
explained the Eastern Cordilleran bivergent fan as a
compressional inversion of an extensional basin complex
and its rift fill. Fault blocks of pre-Jurassic rocks mapped
by Colletta et al. (1990) are shown to 12.5 km below
basement top. To facilitate the comparison of all three
interpretations, we have extended the faults downward
at a constant angle as mapped. At a geotherm of
24°C/km, the base of the fault blocks represents the
brittle–ductile transition just prior to fault displacement.
Dips and displacements of the faults reflect an upthrust
style (Harding and Lowell, 1979; Bally et al., 1985) of low
strain, inverting steeply dipping rift flanks and strike-slip
faults. As is typical for inverted rift fill (Bally et al., 1985),
faults are assumed or observed to steepen downward.
Many of the faults shown are assumed to have
initiated as rift flanks and extensional normal faults.
Between compressionally reactivated faults or upthrusts,
upper crustal panels dip toward the the orogenic center
more steeply than the asumed best-fit Moho. Disre-
garding unmapped strain, the shortening by reverse
faulting shown in this cross section is 29 km.
Integrated over a width of 130 km, this bulk strain is
equivalent to a negative elongation of 18%, and it would
thicken the 10-km-thick undeformed lower crust to 12
km. Applied to the total crust and disregarding erosion,
the bulk strain represents an excess cross-sectional area
of 650 km2, about half of the excess area of the Moho
root. This mismatch is purely geometrical because it is
poorly constrained and because it disregards important
geologic aspects of rift formation and inversion. The
mismatch, therefore, is only a weak argument against the
tectonic model of Colletta et al. (1990).
Second Tectonic Model: Low-Angle
Thrusting Followed by Foreland Basement
Upthrusts
Figure 2B is a new display of the interpretive cross
section of Dengo and Covey (1993). This is the most
advanced and best documented of the three interpreta-
tions shown. Its authors propose a Neogene succession
of two groups of events affecting a Mesozoic passive
636 Roeder and Chamberlain
extensional margin, its sedimentary prism, and its
oceanward-thinning crust. Andean subduction transmits
part of its compression into an eastward-vergent
supracrustal low-angle thrust fault. This thrust propa-
gates through the Mesozoic sedimentary strata as a
complex bundle of ramping, back-thrusting, and
upward-soling Dahlstromian thrust faults (Suppe, 1983;
Roeder, 1991). After an estimated 105 km of emplace-
ment (determined by line balancing and snip restoring),
the upper crustal thrust system is overprinted by steeply
dipping basement-involved foreland upthrusts. These
late Andean structures bring up the basement, show
strike slip, and are the sites of observed and historical
seismicity.
The Oriente foredeep is explained only in part by
upper crustal overlap load, but most of the steep west dip
in the foothills segment of the upper crust is left unex-
plained. The mountainward dip of the Magdalena basin
floor is explained by Dahlstromian tectonics in the upper
crust. The basin floor is the bedding system of a hanging
wall ramp transported on top of a footwall flat. This
crustal doubling may form a transition to the thick crust
beneath the Central Cordillera (not shown in Figure 2).
Kinematic or orogenic successions of transcrustal low-
angle thrusting succeeded by upper crustal foreland
detachment are common not only in the Andes (Jordan
and Allmendinger, 1986) and the North American
Cordillera (Miller et al., 1992) but also in the Alps
(Trümpy, 1980) and other collision belts (Dewey et al.,
1986). This would support the kinematic interpretation
by Dengo and Covey (1993). However, we suggest a
different interpretation of this succession of styles.
The interpretation by Dengo and Covey (1993) is
consistent with a Talwani-type Bouguer gravity model
closely fitting the available data. However, there is poor
conformity between the upper crustal blocks and the
assumed best-fit Moho.
Third Tectonic Model: Crustal Thrusts
Prograde Eastward and Load a Cratonic
Foreland
Figure 2C shows our proposed interpretation. It is
closely based on the surface geology as presented by
Dengo and Covey (1993), and it has been developed with
additional data, procedures, and speculation to be
discussed in the following pages.
We have assumed (Hatcher and Hooper, 1992) that
upper crust can be involved in low-angle thrusts, and we
have modified some key details in the cross section by
Dengo and Covey (1993). We have also fitted a re-
designed thrust architecture into the space outlined by
the load-deflected crust of the Oriente basin. We have
assumed that the tilt of the Magdalena basin is due to an
elastic line load flexure and have achieved conformity
between the thrust architecture and the assumed best-
fitting Moho. We interpret the back-thrusting in the top
part of the thrust stack as synkinematic wedge thick-
ening during uphill emplacement along a density
gradient between crust and mantle.
REFLECTION SEISMIC DATA: ORIENTE
FOOTHILLS
Figure 3 is based on seismic data suggesting that the
eastern mountain front of the Cordillera Oriental
(Colombia) is part of a fold and thrust belt and not part
of a basement upthrust province. The figure is a repro-
portioning, or squash plot, of a reflection seismic profile
shot that has been processed and interpreted by industry
(Triton Colombia proprietary report). The seismic line
crosses the Cusiana trend in the footwall of the Yopal
thrust and is located parallel to the cross section (Colletta
et al., 1990) and offset at an unspecified distance.
The seismic line shows an undisturbed foreland with
about 4 sec (two-way time) of conformable events from
Tithonian–Miocene basin fill, perhaps unconformably
overlying Paleozoic rocks below 4 sec. In the north-
western third, a northwest-dipping series overlies and
truncates an antiformally warped middle unit. The
contact intersects the edge of the line at 3 sec, and it is
clearly a thrust fault in a flat-ramp position. Its surface
trace has been mapped as the Yopal thrust (Hebrard,
1985; Colletta et al., 1990). At its base, the antiformally
warped middle unit also truncates reflections belonging
to the foreland series. This contact can be interpreted as a
ramp-on-ramp thrust fault.
The ramp top of this thrust fault does not visibly
break the topographic surface. Most likely it merges with
a blind top detachment at about 1.5 sec. Figure 3 does not
show, but would be consistent with, a coherent foreland
reflector at the base of the detached series. Based on this
interpretation, the Oriente foothills show a minimum of 8
km of thrust displacement and a structural style diag-
nostic for detached fronts of fold and thrust belts (e.g.,
Mitra, 1986, 1992; Bally et al., 1985; Sobornov, 1991; Vann
et al., 1986).
RIFT TECTONICS
Rift systems worldwide (Williams et al., 1989;
Letouzey, 1990; Ziegler, 1990) confirm the geologic
validity of the thermal and isostasy-based model of two-
phased rift subsidence known as the McKenzie model
(McKenzie, 1978; Le Pichon and Sibouet, 1981). The
tectonics of rift systems are an essential support for our
palinspastic estimates and hence for our tectonic model.
Thus, rift tectonics are summarized in Figure 4 and as
follows:
1. A synrift phase of extension leads to isostasy-
driven subsidence, intracrustal or translithospheric
low-angle extensional detachments, and graben
structures with diagnostic synrift fill of sedimen-
tary and/or magmatic rocks. The amount of synrift
subsidence depends on the extensional strain (β),
the original thickness of the rifted sialic crust, and
the density of the rift fill. At infinite (β) extension,
such as at an ocean–continent interface with
normally thick sialic crust, an average synrift fill
 0

TM
TM 5 KM
L 1

L C
C M L 2
M CB C
CB G M
G CB 3
G
CS
4

PAL
BSMT
5

Figure 3—Reflection seismic profile across the east front of the Eastern Cordillera near the oil field of Cusiana (Colombia). Hand-made line tracing after unpublished
data acquired in 1982 by Triton Colombia, Inc., displaying a predrilling geologic interpretation by Anonymous of Triton, Inc. Vertical scale is in seconds two-way time.
Shaded lines with letters are stratigraphically identified seismic reflectors. TM, Guyabo (Miocene); L, near top of Leon (Oligocene); C, near top of Carbonera
(Oligocene); M, near top of Mirador (Eocene); CB, near top of Cuervos-Barco (Paleocene); G, near top of Guadalupe (Upper Cretaceous); CS, Upper Cretaceous; PAL,
perhaps Paleozoics; BSMT, near top of crystalline basement.
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution
637
638 Roeder and Chamberlain
POSTRIFT, THERMAL SUBSIDENCE, LOAD-DEFLECTED FILL
SYNRIFT ZONE
OF LOW SHEAR AND HALF-GRABENS
PRERIFT LITHOSPHERE
DETACHED HANGING WALL FLANK
50 KM H + V
Figure 4—Schematic cross section of a site of McKenzie-type extension or longhorn basin, developed from a calculated load
flexure and a snip restored transcrustal low-angle shear. Black, postrift sedimentary rocks; gray, crust. See discussion in
the text.
thickness of 8.5 km is predicted by the McKenzie
model. At an intracratonic rift with 1.5 (β) exten-
sion, a 2-km-thick synrift fill will accumulate.
2. Restoration of the rift-induced thermal anomaly is
driven by the amount of thermal dispersivity that
is specific for silica (Oxburgh and Turcotte, 1974;
Turcotte and Schubert, 1982). It causes subsidence
at an exponentially decaying rate with a time
constant of 62.8 Ma. The amount of subsidence
depends on the time point and span of thermal
subsidence observed and on the density of the
sediment fill, which typically consists of a passive
margin series. The stratigraphic record shows the
exponentially decaying subsidence rate. At a 120-
Ma ocean–continent interface, 6 km of thermal
subsidence fill (or passive margin fill) is predicted
by the McKenzie model.
Polyphase Rifting
Complex plate configurations in young oceans
commonly generate more than one rift tectonic event.
The subsidence effects of successive events will overlap
and generate errors in predicting thicknesses of actually
deposited stratigraphic units. This may explain why the
thickness of the Eastern Cordilleran Cretaceous substan-
tially exceeds the thickness predicted by the McKenzie
model. To apply the McKenzie model appropriately to
the Cretaceous depocenter of the Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia, it is important to decide if any of the discor-
dant stratigraphic units are rift fill or overlapping
sediment aprons deposited during phases of thermal
decay. This decision will be based more on stratigraphic
analysis and less on precise numerical applications.
Younger synrift tectonics may dissect the passive
margin apron of a slightly older thermal subsidence
event. In this setting, the second-phase synrift fill may
have a postrift lithology. Polyphase rifted passive
margins may accumulate a multitude of the predicted
postrift fill. Extensional passive margin successions
much thicker than 6 km are common. With enough
control of thickness and ages, their stratigraphic record
may show the diagnostic pattern of stacked cuspate
SYNRIFT ZONE
OF HIGH SHEAR AND TECTONIC DENUDATION
PRERIFT LITHOSPHERE
LOAD-DEFLECTED FOOTWALL FLANK
subsidence curves. However, stratigraphic control is
needed to identify synrift and postrift deposits.
Longhorn Basin Geometry
Figure 4 shows an important two-dimensional aspect
of the strictly one-dimensional and Airy-type McKenzie
model as discussed. Subsidence during the rift and
postrift phases regionally affects slabs of lithosphere by
flexurally loading them. The effect of flexural loading
generates a basin shape informally called longhorn or
steer’s head basins.
Thermal subsidence takes place during tectonic quies-
cence. It acts as a line load (Heiskanen and Meinesz,
1958), affecting not only the rift site but also the quiescent
forelands of the rift with a predictable exponential decay
in the dimension of distance away from the rift. Thermal
subsidence basins or longhorn basins are sag shaped
with a depocenter over the rift site and a zero edge at a
distance proportional to the elastic wavelength of
cratonic lithosphere. This distance is commonly between
100 and 500 km from the rift site (Watts and Ryan, 1976).
We interpret the Tithonian–Paleocene succession of the
Eastern Cordillera to be a pre-Andean longhorn basin.
Figure 5 is a segment of the restored cross section by
Colletta et al. (1990) with a vertical exaggeration of 400%.
A silhouette at the top of Figure 5 shows the section as
published (Colletta et al., 1990). Our selected segment
covers the area between the Oriente foothills and the
Comichoque thrust near Tunja. It includes the strati-
graphic succession of Tithonian–Paleocene/Maas-
trichtian age, with local pockets of Jurassic strata. Colletta
et al. (1990) have interpreted the thickness variations as
caused by syn- or predepositional block faults.
Our reinterpretation of the standard cross section of
the Eastern Cordillera is based mainly on a different
interpretation of the rift tectonics. The Jurassic deposits in
the Magdalena valley area are described as fluvial
gravels, wadi fill, and rhyolitic volcanic rocks (e.g.,
Butler, 1983; Arango et al., 1976; Renzoni et al., 1983). As
shown in Figure 6, we interpret these deposits as synrift
fill. We explain the Tithonian–Maastrichtian succession
as shallow water to subtidal and open marine deposits
 Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution
COCUY BASIN - CRETACEOUS FILL
(a) TO SCALE
(b)
VERT EXAG 400 %
20 KM
Figure 5—Stratigraphic cross section of the Cretaceous in
the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. (A) Redrawn at 100%
(silhouette) and (B) at 400% vertical exaggeration, shaded
with unidentified stratigraphic boundaries (after Colletta et
al., 1990). Sites of abrupt changes in thickness are inter-
preted as rift walls affecting synrift deposits (Colletta et al.,
1990) or as thrust faults affecting a postrift succession
(present paper).
(e.g., Campbell and Bürgl, 1965; Arango et al., 1976;
Butler, 1983). We therefore interpret the Tithonian–Maas-
trichtian stratigraphy as the stacked and telescoped
postrift (or thermal subsidence) part of a longhorn basin.
The finite thickness of the Tithonian–Maastrichtian
succession is assumed equivalent to the sediment-loaded
thermal subsidence, with an error introduced by
ignoring variations in water depth of deposition.
With a definition of its elastic load deflection, we can
quantitatively restore the thrust telescoping of Andean
age. The deflection depends on the rigidity of the lithos-
phere and is expressed in its elastic half-wavelength,
which is a distance across strike of the deflection. The
longer the half-wavelength, the greater the implied
paleogeographic and restorable distances.
For the Andean foredeep load, a half-wavelength of
400 km is constrained between the Moho root near Tunja
and the basement outcrops near the Guaviare River
(Arango et al., 1976). For the longhorn basin, subsurface
data in the closer foredeep realm (Valderrama, 1982)
suggest a telescoped half-wavelength of 200–300 km. The
elastic rigidity of the South American lithosphere
probably did not change significantly between the
Tithonian and Neogene. However, we have based our
restoration on a conservative flexural half-wavelength of
230 km because it is probably a composite of several
rifting events. This half-wavelength is an estimate at the
low end of the geodynamic range, not a documented
number.
PALINSPASTIC RESTORATION
For our restoration of the Tithonian–Maastrichtian
depocenter (Figure 6), we began by plotting out a 230-
km-long, 9.3-km-deep line-loaded elastic flexure. We
then arranged the segments identified as fault blocks in
the inversion model (Colletta et al., 1990) by sliding them
along the flexure so that their thickness would fit the
639
deflection. This approach suggests that the eastern part
of the Eastern Cordillera is underlain by three major low-
angle thrust faults with 44, 18, and 45 km of minimum
thrust overlap. Although this method is inadequate for
precise conclusions, it is consistent with the reflection
seismic data (Figure 3). It confirms the conclusion that
the eastern front of the Eastern Cordillera of central
Colombia has been involved in major low-angle
thrusting. We now incorporate crustal data into this rein-
terpretation and arrive at additional conclusions about
the structural style.
CRUSTAL CONFIGURATION
Surface geology and Cretaceous basin evolution
imply an orogenic shortening of 140–170 km across the
Eastern Cordillera. This bulk strain should be expressed
in the shape of the crust, even if there is no seismic record
of Moho stacking. The crustal structure of the northern
Andes is only vaguely known (Ocola et al., 1975;
Meissnar et al., 1976; Bermudez et al., 1985). The effects of
Tithonian rifting on the crustal base may contribute to
additional vagueness. Our flexural load modeling is
consistent with a 35–40-km-deep Moho root.
Flexural Load Models
The shape of the Andean crust and the amount of
thrust overlap can be constrained if the depth of the
Moho root and the original crustal thickness are known.
In the study area, Moho depth and original crustal
thickness are unknown, but estimates can be made. The
constraining argument comes from tracing the elastic
deflection of the crust under the composite orogenic load
(Turcotte and Schubert, 1982; Royden and Karner, 1984).
The geometric aspects of the elastic deflection can be
used in constructing structural cross sections.
Figure 7a is a simplified cross section of the
Oriente–Rio Meta basin (Valderrama, 1982). It includes
some well control, some intrabasinal tectonics (not
discussed here), and a poorly controlled zero edge of
deflection and/or sedimentation near the Rio Guaviare
(labeled B). This cross section (Valderrama, 1982)
suggests a bimodality of crustal curvature, amplified
here by a vertical exaggeration of 400%. At distances
greater than 100 km southeast of the orogenic front, the
Llanos basin floor is nearly flat. Closer to the orogenic
front, the basin floor appears more strongly flexed and it
attains a mountainward slope of 6°. Part or all of this
increased flexure may be due to an erroneous accommo-
dation of telescoped thickness data. However, by
rigorous emulation of the basin shape by Valderrama
(1982) and by honoring the data in well 2 (La Gloria), we
can show that the bimodal curvature is not an artifact.
Figure 7b shows one successful and several unsuc-
cessful flexure emulations. The left (northwestern) end
bracket of the diagram represents the deflected depth of
the Moho root. The top of the vertical bar in the center of
the diagram represents the base of the Cretaceous
implied by well 2 (La Gloria).
640 Roeder and Chamberlain

A B C D E
55 KM 30 KM 18 KM 45 KM 8 KM

V. E. = 400 %

50 KM (H, NOT V)

A: PESCA THRUST CRETACEOUS FILL REINTERPRETED

B: SANTA BARBARA THRUST AS LINE-LOADING POSTRIFT SERIES
C: GUAICARAMO THRUST AFTER COLLETTA ET AL. (1990)
D: YOPAL THRUST

Figure 6—Stratigraphic cross section of Eastern Cordilleran Cretaceous data in Figure 5, from Cocuy basin, Colombia. Data
are palinspastically arranged along a numerically defined line-loaded flexure. The horizontal distances inserted between the
columnar and shaded segments are interpreted as distances lost during Andean fold and thrust tectonics.

(a)
1 2 3 4 5 A B

5 KM
100 KM
(b)

EMULATION WITH ELASTIC LOAD FLEXURE

SOLID: COMPOSITE BEAM, DASHED: SIMPLE BEAMS

Figure 7—Two cross sections of eastern Colombian Llanos basin and adjacent Eastern Cordillera. (a) Structural cross
section with four times vertical exaggeration (redrawn after Valderrama, 1982). Gray, Tertiary foredeep; black, Cretaceous
postrift; white, Jurassic and Paleozoic basement; A, possible site of zero deflection near Rio Guaviare; B, possible site near
mapped edge of Guyana shield. Well 2 is La Gloria. Internal tectonics of Valderrama (1982) are not shown. (b) Simulation of
basin structure from Valderrama (1982) with line-loaded flexural beams having different rigidities and maximum deflections.
See discussion in text.

A successful model is shown in two black lines. It
honors the shallow flat Llanos basin floor and assumes
an edge of zero deflection near point A in the shallow
and poorly controlled basin. The successful model also
honors the Cretaceous base of well 2, as well as a crustal
deflection of 12.5 km near Tunja in the Eastern
Cordillera. We have achieved the successful emulation
by adding two flexures. Combining several flexures is
geologically admissible as a form of polyphase deforma-
tion because of the viscous aspects of the physical model
(Karig et al., 1976).
The first of the added flexures consists of a long wave
flexure of a rigidity D = 1.7 × 1024 Nm. It is equivalent to
a flexural length of 400 km, and it suggests a lithospheric
elastic thickness of 50 km. The second of the added
flexures is a short-wave flexure of 2.6 × 1023 Nm, which
is equivalent to a flexural length of 250 km and an elastic
thickness of 26 km. All other possible flexure parameters
(including two of them in Figure 7b shown by dashed
lines) lead to curvatures of the foreland basement top
which miss one or two of the required three control
points.
Structural Implication of the Flexural Load
Model
Geologic reality is certainly more complex than our
numerical emulation of load flexure, but we have used
the flexure model in building the structural cross section.
Differentiating the flexural load equations suggests
numerically that the foreland slope beneath the Eastern
Cordillera dips mountainward at 4.2°–4.5°. Following
Lyon-Caen et al. (1985), the implied rigidity suggests an
Andean load overlap on the order of 100 km.
The long-wave flexure reflects a cratonic lithosphere
with a small end load, such as a quiescent passive
margin succession. The flexure does not show the
presence of the Andes or a major crustal subduction.
Maps by Valderrama (1982) show a northeastward and
divergent strike of the long-wave deflection.
The short-wave flexure is similar to the flexure
implied by the postrift succession of the longhorn basin.
Its implied crustal thickness is that of crust directly
underlain by asthenosphere. This setting is equally
possible in extensional and compressional regimes (Bird,
 Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution
TUNJA - 1
Figure 8—Structural cross section of allochthonous parts of the southeastern half of the Eastern Cordillera, located at the
site of the cross section of Colletta et al. (1990) (Figure 2A). Black, Cretaceous–Paleogene; white, Upper Jurassic and
contents of buried Bogota basin; gray, Paleozoic rocks and upper crust. Cross section follows interpretation by Dengo and
Covey (1993) but admits some modifications.
1979; Brown et al., 1992). As in other passive margin
edges, it could have survived the Tertiary and Andean
load deflection. However, the maps (Valderrama, 1982)
show that its strike is Andean. Therefore, either its origin
is Andean or Neogene, or the Andean orogenic belt
locally follows the trace of a Mesozoic lithospheric scar.
Eastern Cordillera: Present Structure
Figure 8 shows a portion of our reinterpretation of the
cross section by Dengo and Covey (1993). Critical details
of it are based on the arguments developed in the
foregoing pages.
At the assumed crustal thickness of 18 km (not shown
in Figure 8), a simple doubling with modest thrust
overlap could explain the proposed best-fit Moho root.
The supracrustal imbrication of 175 km suggested by the
longhorn model fits the flexural space only if the crust
has been severely thinned during the Jurassic extension.
To satisfy the gravity field (Dengo and Covey, 1993), we
assume that imbrication has concentrated on the upper
crust and on detachment between upper crust and
mantle (Bird, 1979; Mattauer, 1986; Isacks, 1988).
The concepts of thrust wedge dynamics (Davis et al.,
1983) suggest that the Moho overlap may be located at
the base of the imbricate stack and that it ties in with the
Foothills detachment at the base of the Mesozoic
sediments (Figure 2). The footwall of this Moho overlap
is the load-deflected Llanos lithosphere. The hanging
wall of the Moho overlap is a complex imbricate stack
that evolved out of the jumbled and block-faulted center
of the former longhorn basin.
The cross section in Figures 2 and 8 shows three
crustal slices of the C type (Hatcher and Hooper, 1992)
which may emerge at the surface along strike to the
north and to the south. Only the top slice shows signifi-
cant back-thrusting. The imbricate structure of upper
crust, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic sedimentary strata
suggests that the sediment panels between the C-type
slices are westward dipping. This generates more thrust
overlap and deeper pockets of sediments. This also
generates additional space beneath the Arabuco
anticline. We are therefore showing this structure as a
duplex associated with the crystalline front as commonly
realized in orogenic belts (Roeder, 1989). In the assumed
Arabuco duplex, we have drawn the Cretaceous as
641
UNETE - 1 MIRADOR - 1 A LA GLORIA
50 KM
imbricated beneath a roof thrust sheet composed of
Jurassic rocks above crystalline or Paleozoic rocks.
The foothills are shown with the bed-parallel refolded
detachment by Dengo and Covey (1993) at the base of
the Neogene section involved in the Zapatosa syncline or
equivalents. In the cross section, this thrust is shown to
merge with a frontal thrust that has emplaced basement
or Paleozoic rocks over Cretaceous. From east to west,
the foreland succession below the frontal thrust contains
the Cusiana structure or equivalent, an emergent group
of slabs forming salient mountain ranges and outliers,
and a large buried thrust sheet with thick Cretaceous.
This slice is only implied by the shape of the Zapatosa
syncline, and it is a structural petroleum prospect.
The shape of the Bogota basin has been assumed from
Dengo and Covey (1993), but we have added a west-
ward tilt. Its fill is shown with the Jurassic signature, but
it could also consist of Cretaceous, as suggested by
Dengo and Covey (1993).
Andean Geodynamics
A complete geodynamic interpretation of the Andes
of Colombia would explain the amount of crustal and
sedimentary imbrication, the origin of this compression,
and its timing relative to plate tectonic events. Such an
interpretation is not possible with present data and
understanding. However, the speculative and unusual
subsurface interpretation in the present paper may be
served by a discussion of its geodynamic significance.
This discussion may also help in exploring other Andean
segments and other foreland fold and thrust belts.
In our view, the prethrusting distance across the
Eastern Cordillera is constrained by the restored width of
the Tithonian–Paleogene longhorn basin. This implies
large overlap on major thrust faults. The commonly
exposed pre-Mesozoic rocks suggest that basement or
upper crust and Paleozoic tectonite are largely involved
in the thrust slices.
Estimated Strain of Tithonian Rift
To illustrate the postrift pre-Andean configuration of
the standard cross section, we have prepared a vaguely
line-balanced snip restoration (as described by Roeder,
1991), shown in Figure 9. This restoration suggests that
642 Roeder and Chamberlain

X' 50 KM

50 KM

Figure 9—Snip restoration of cross section in Figure 2C to pre-Andean, post-Cretaceous state, in two segments with overlap
of central part, joining at X and X'. Black, Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary rocks; shaded, Paleozoic rocks and upper
crust; solid and dashed line, Moho. Foothills imbrication above Oriente foreland crust has remained unrestored for clarity. In
the computer-aided snip restoration, arbitrary graphic fragments are detached, translated, and rotated by simple shear. The
snip restoration then is cosmetically modified to restore graphic coherence.

the Eastern Cordillera is underlain by the upper crustal
shards of a Wernicke-type extensional structure
(Wernicke, 1985). Possibly, the two separate crustal slabs
overlying the eastern foreland are remnants of repeated
events of low-angle extensional detachment. The poorly
constrained position of the Moho suggests a mantle
upwarp, which is appropriate for an extensional center.
The restoration suggests that a restored length of 200
km is affected by extensional strain (β) of about 2 and
ranging from 0 to 3. This lengthening would be consis-
tent with an extensional bulk strain on the order of
67–100 km.
STRUCTURAL STYLE OF EASTERN
CORDILLERA
In the Eastern Cordillera of central Colombia,
numerous outcrops of pre-Mesozoic tectonite are located
within a field of very thick Mesozoic strata and are
affected by thrust faults and several major mapped
strike-slip faults, not formally included in the present
analysis. The dip-slip components of Andean tectonics in
the Eastern Cordillera may be interpreted in two ways,
and a choice is not possible from direct observation at
present. Either they reflect the preserved shoulders of
Mesozoic rift structures, or they suggest that the late
Andean thrust transport was preceded by an event of
foreland upthrusts and mid-crustal detachment as
described from Andean segments of flat plate subduc-
tion (Isacks and Barazangi, 1977; Isacks, 1988; Jordan et
al., 1983). There is some indirect support for the interpre-
tation as foreland upthrusts. Dengo and Covey (1993)
invoke a late Andean architecture of foreland upthrusts
and a steep, abrupt fault limiting the Dahlstromian
foothills architecture.
As is understood at present (Isacks and Barazangi,
1977; Isacks, 1988), upper crustal detachment and
foreland upthrusts occur exclusively with flat plate
subduction and absence of volcanism. These conditions
are not evident in central Colombia.
In our own interpretation, foreland upthrusts may
have occurred in an early Neogene event of flat plate
subduction. Parts of the Central Cordillera are deformed
in a style known from thin crust with a steep geotherm
(Isacks, 1988). An architecture of Mesozic and older
metasedimentary rocks involved in polyphase folding
and soaked in post-kinematic granitoids is displayed on
many Colombian geologic maps of the Central
Cordillera. Figure 10 shows a schematic cross section of
common style elements in flat plate subduction. The
most internal, or subductionward, part of this orogen
shows polyphase folds detached in the asthenosphere
below thin crust and lithosphere, described as type F
basement structure (Hatcher and Hooper, 1992). Toward
the external front, there are crustal thrust slabs described
as type C basement slabs, also detached in the litho-
sphere but with thicker, cooler upper parts. Farthest out
is a field of foreland upthrusts detached in the lower or
middle crust.
COLOMBIAN ANDES: LITHOSPHERIC
CONFIGURATION
Figure 11 is a composite lithospheric cross section of
the Andes in central Colombia. It shows a compilation
and interpolation of the crustal and lithospheric data
available from the Andes in central Colombia. The cross
section shows the Peru-Chile subduction near its
northern end (Meissnar et al., 1976). The complex slab of
the Panama-Carnegie plate mosaic has an estimated
elastic thickness of 28 km obtained from bathymetric
data (Lonsdale, 1978). A thermally defined base of litho-
sphere is given at 70 km (Meissnar et al., 1976). The
Wadat-Benioff zone is in the “steep” category of the
bimodal system (Isacks and Barazangi, 1977). The Andes
may be underlain by a rising asthenospheric body if the
 Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic–Neogene Crustal Evolution 643

TYPE F BASEMENT
ARCHITECTURE
TYPE C BASEMENT SLAB
FORELAND UPTHRUSTS

STRUCTURAL STYLE OF BASEMENT TECTONICS REFLECTS

GEOTHERM AND LITHOSPHERIC THICKNESS 100 KM

Figure 10—Sketch cross section of cratonic edge of an Andean orogen with flat plate subduction. Black and white,
supracrustal rocks; dark gray, crust; light gray, upper mantle; white dashed lines, brittle and plastic detachment surfaces.

WESTERN CORDILLERA CENTRAL CORDILLERA EASTERN CORDILLERA

TRENCH COAST CAUCA MAGDALENA CUSIANA
350 KM OFFSET

100 KM

BASE THERMAL LITHOSPH. ?

TOP OF CRUST
MOHO
100 KM
BASE OF FLEXURAL LITHOSPHERE

BASE OF THERMAL LITHOSPHERE

Figure 11—Schematic cross section of Andes and Peru-Chile subduction in central Colombia through latitudes 2°–4° N,
located as (3) in Figure 1 and based on Figure 2C (and on Case et al., 1973; Meissnar et al., 1976; Bermudez et al., 1985).
Black and white, supracrustal rocks; dark gray, crust; black line, Moho; light gray, upper mantle, with two definitions of the
base of lithosphere.

steepening took place during the Neogene. Its wall
pressure along a horizontal density gradient is assumed
(Le Pichon, 1983) to power the compression and root
formation in the Eastern Cordillera. However, this is not
supported by hard data. Also, the available density
gradient is only the minute and contested difference
between asthenosphere and lithosphere (of 0.05–0.1
g/cm3). More likely, therefore, sub-Andean thrusting is
powered by flow pressure in the rising and spreading
asthenosphere as it is pushed up ahead of deeper
material displacements.
Figure 11 shows undulations of the Moho at a half-
wavelength of 100 km or less. Therefore, an elastic load
origin of this Moho curvature is unlikely. More likely,
these roots are the result of crustal thrust faulting, as
shown in the cross section.
Figure 11 also shows the crust to contain a wide belt of
accreted terranes in white, gray, and black, based on
interpretations (Bourgeois et al., 1985; McCourt and
Aspden, 1985). Farther east, it shows the same succession
of flat slab styles as in Figure 10. Did the Eastern
Cordillera evolve from a field of foreland upthrusts? This
is possible and likely, but not proven.
Acknowledgments Our interpretation has been reviewed
and criticized by Mark Golborne, Scot Krueger, and Angela
Thompson. This paper has received improvement through
professional reviews and explanations by Jean Letouzey (Rueil-
Malmaison) and Mark Cooper (Calgary). It has also received
support from ARCO International and the German Research
Foundation (DFG). We thank them all.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
D. Roeder
Institut für Lithosphärenforschung
Justus Liebig–Universität, Senckenbergstr. 3
D-35390 Giessen
Germany
R. L. Chamberlain
Blue Eagle Exploration Inc.
625 Green Road
Salisbury, North Carolina 28147
U.S.A.
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes,
Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis

Peter B. Jones
International Tectonic Consultants Ltd.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Abstract

R ecent hypotheses of the Miocene–Pliocene structural evolution of the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes in
Colombia have proposed a divergent fan model combining a system of southeast-verging, basement-
rooted thrust faults beneath the eastern edge of the Cordillera with a system of northwest-verging thrusts
rooted in the basement beneath its western edge. However, structural relationships within the western thrust
system indicate that its faults are superficial posttectonic gravity-driven features. This leads to an alternative
hypothesis for the evolution of the Colombian Andes, which has significant structural, stratigraphic, and
temporal implications for hydrocarbon exploration.
In the new model, the Eastern Cordillera and Perija Andes are interpreted as elements of a single
southeast-verging thrust sheet with minor imbrications. Initially, this thrust sheet moved east-southeastward
as a blind thrust sheet with triangle zone (buried thrust front) geometry, creating the continuous uplifted area
of the Eastern Cordillera, Santandar massif, and Perija Andes. The overthrust sheet was subsequently trans-
ported “piggy-back” farther southeast to its present location by emplacement of the underlying Merida
Andes thrust system, for a total shortening of approximately 185 km. According to the new model, the
incipient leading edge of this overthrust sheet was offset by an oblique lateral ramp. After deformation, the
resultant lateral step in the footwall was accommodated by normal fault movement in the overthrust sheet,
forming the Bucaramanga fault, with an apparent strike-slip offset of 210 km.

Resumen

H ipótesis recientes relativas a la evolución estructural experimentada durante el período Mio-Pliocénico

por la Cordillera de los Andes Orientales en Colombia, han sugerido un modelo de abanico divergente
que combina un sistema suroriental de fallas de caballamiento que originaron en el fundamento, ubicadas bajo
el límite oriental de la Cordillera, con otro sistema de fallas proyectado hacia el noroeste, situadas en funda-
mentos bajo el límite occidental. Sin embargo, las relaciones estructurales encontradas en el interior del sistema
de fallas occidentales indican que las mismas poseen características superficiales, originadas por desplaza-
mientos gravitacionales de la corteza terrestre. Esta situación permite formular una hypótesis alternativa para
explicar la evolución de los Andes Colombianos, lo cual pose importantes implicaciones estructurales, estrati-
graficas y temporales aplicables a la exploración de yacimientos de hidrocarburos.
En el nuevo modelo, la Cordillera Orientale y los Andes de Perija son considerados como elementos de una
falla única, situada en la dirección sureste, y ubicada en depósitos sedimentarios que exhiben un traslapo
mínimo. Inicialmente, la falla se desplazó en la direccion esta - sureste, como una falla escondida (de frente
subterráneo), creando la zona de elevacíones continuas que contiene la Cordillera Oriental, el Macizo de
Santandar, y los Andes de Perija. El cuerpo de roca que estaba ubicado sobre la falla fueron subsecuentemente
transportados más hacia el sureste, a su actual ubicación, por la intrusión del sistema de fallas subterráneas de
los Andes de Mérida, produciéndose una modificación de cerca de 185 kilómetros. De acuerdo con el nuevo
modelo, el borde inicial de esta capa, ubicada sobre la falla, fué afectado por una distorsión lateral oblicua. Con
posterioridada a la formación de esta distorsión, la discontinuidad producida en la pared rocosa fué compen-
sada por el movimento natural experimentado por la corteza situada sobre la falla, formandóse así la fractura
de Bucaramanga, con un desplazamiento aparente de 210 kilómetros.

Jones, P. B., 1995, Geodynamic evolution of the eastern Andes, Colombia—an alternative 647
hypothesis, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South
America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 647–658.
648 Jones
INTRODUCTION
Hypotheses concerning the manner and estimates of
the extent of Miocene–Pliocene deformation of the
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, (Figure 1) have varied
considerably. Irving (1975) attributed the formation of
the Cordillera to vertical uplift, and his cross sections
show all faults within or flanking the Cordillera dipping
at 60° or greater. Cross sections by Butler and Schamel
(1988) also show steeply dipping faults along the east
and west margins of the Cordillera, implying mainly
vertical uplift of 5–20 km. Laubscher (1987), who invoked
low-angle thrusting as the mechanism of uplift, calcu-
lated, on the basis of the uplifted volume of the Eastern
Cordillera, that southeastward horizontal displacement
of about 150 km had taken place along low-angle thrusts.
Although recent interpretations of the structure have
involved low-angle thrusts (Lausbscher, 1987; Colletta et
al., 1990; Dengo and Covey, 1993), these authors have
postulated the presence of basement-rooted southeast-
verging thrust faults beneath the eastern edge of the
Cordillera, combined with northwest-verging thrust
faults, also rooted in the basement in a fanlike configura-
tion. They correlate the northwest-vergent thrust system
with northwest-vergent thrust faults that crop out in the
eastern part of the Magdalena Valley, which parallels the
western slope of the Eastern Cordillera. Estimates of the
total minimum horizontal movement of this bilateral
combination range from 100 km (Colletta et al., 1990) to
150 km (Dengo and Covey, 1993).
This paper is expanded from an oral presentation
Figure 1—Location map showing
tectonic elements of the
Colombian and Venezuelan
Andes described in the text.
Location of the cross section in
Figure 11 is shown by the double
line. The dashed box outlines the
area of Figure 5.
(Jones, 1993). It describes three interrelated critical factors
that affect both the amount of movement and the
manner in which it occurred, with major implications for
the petroleum geology of the region. The first is the
evidence that the west-verging thrusts in the Magdalena
basin are superficial gravity-driven structures, conse-
quent upon but otherwise irrelevant to the basic struc-
tural evolution of the Andes. The second is the existence,
on varying scales, of buried thrust fronts or triangle zones
(Gordy et al., 1977; Jones, 1982, 1987; Teal, 1983; Morley
1986; Vann et al., 1986), where thrust slip is not trans-
mitted toward the foreland but rather absorbed along
one or more detachment zones, uplifting the overlying
sequence, somewhat in the manner of a horizontal
igneous intrusion. This process has been demonstrated
along the foreland margins of almost all Phanerozoic
thrust and fold belts. The third factor is an alternative
interpretation of the nature of the Bucaramanga fault.
GRAVITY-DRIVEN STRUCTURES
Geometry of a Gravity-Driven Slip Sheet
Gravity-driven structures range in size and area from
outcrop-scale structures to entire deformed belts. They
occur where there is sufficient topographic relief to
provide a driving force and the rocks are incompetent
enough to facilitate slippage. Dip slopes of layered sedi-
mentary rocks provide ideal conditions for down-dip
sliding. Most of the movement is within less competent
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis
Figure 2—Diagram of gravity-collapse structures.
(Redrawn from Harrison and Falcon, 1936.) Examples of
these structures on different scales have been described in
the Colombian Andes by Julivert (1970). The slip sheet in
this diagram has an emergent thrust front in contrast to the
slip sheet in Figure 3, which has a buried (triangle zone)
thrust front.
stratigraphic units, parallel or subparallel to the bedding.
Gravity-driven structures include cascade folds, flaps,
and slip sheets (Figure 2). Slip sheets may form synclines
striking parallel or subparallel to dip slopes flanking
major uplifts (Julivert, 1970; Jones, 1988, 1990).
The toe (lower end or leading edge) of a slip sheet has
a thrust front that may be exposed (Figure 2) or buried at
depth, with a frontal triangle zone (Figure 3) involving
one or more blind thrust faults. From the thrust front, the
basal thrust follows the bedding beneath the synclinal
axis and up the slope to the head area (Figure 3). Grabens
and other associations of normal faults and omission of
section are normal features of the head of a gravity slide
(Graham, 1981, Jones, 1990), distinguishing a slip sheet
from a folded thrust of tectonic origin. Anticlinal struc-
tures in the eastern part of the Magdalena Valley may
overlie toe structures similar to those in Figure 3.
Section missing at the head of a slip sheet may be due
to a small fault perpendicular to bedding (Figure 4a) or
to a major fault subparallel to bedding (Figure 4b). If the
fault consistently follows one stratigraphic unit, the inter-
pretation in Figure 4b is far more reasonable and
provides a link to toe structures. The fault in Figure 4a is
relatively trivial.
A combination of plunge and topography may result
in a synclinal slip sheet on the flank of an uplift having
the V-shaped outcrop pattern of a plunging syncline. One
649
limb corresponds to the head of the slide, striking parallel
to the edge of the uplift. The other limb is oblique to the
uplift and includes the overthrust sector and thrust front.
Because of the plunge, the thrust in the oblique limb is
emergent near the fold axis (Figure 2), becoming buried
away from the axis and down the plunge (Figure 3).
Gravity-Driven Slip Sheets in the
Magdalena Valley
A belt of north-plunging synclines extends along a
450-km stretch along the eastern side of the Magdalena
Valley from the Bucaramanga fault to the constriction of
the valley southwest of Bogota (Figure 1), which marks a
boundary between subbasins. A tectonic map of a sector
of the northern part of the belt (Figure 5) illustrates the
characteristic pattern. In previous interpretations of the
structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Laubscher, 1987;
Colletta et al., 1990; Schamel, 1991; Dengo and Covey,
1993), the west-verging thrusts underlying the western
limbs of these synclines were interpreted as basement-
rooted tectonic features (Figures 5a, 6a). Geometry
negates this interpretation and suggests their reinterpre-
tation in the manner of Figures 5b and 6b, which incor-
porates the slip sheet geometry of Figures 2, 3, and 4b,
and does not require any direct basement involvement.
Section missing along the eastern limbs of the synclines
indicates low-angle normal faulting at the head areas of
gravity-driven slip sheets.
The Las Salinas thrust fault (Figure 5) underlies Upper
Cretaceous Umir shale in the western flank of the most
northerly of these synclines, the Nuevo Mondo syncline
(Figure 5b). In the eastern flank of the syncline, the
Lebrija fault also follows the Umir shale (Ward et
al.,1977). It can be correlated with the Las Salinas fault
along the bedding of the Umir shale (Figure 5b). Several
workers (e.g., Schamel, 1991) have traced this major east-
dipping bedding-parallel thrust fault southward into a
minor bedding-perpendicular fault that extends along
the eastern edge of the Magdalena Valley and follows the
trace of the Upper Cretaceous shale unit along the
common eastern flank of several synclines (Figure 6a).
However, the geometric constraints previously outlined
Figure 3—Cross-section of a
slip sheet with a buried (triangle
zone) thrust front, northern Tien
Shan mountains, Xinjiang,
China, about 250 km west of
Urumchi. Multiple thrusts in the
toe of the slip sheet pass up
into normal faults at its head.
This structure lies at the
northern (trailing) edge of the
south-vergent Tien Shan thrust
system. (From Jones, 1990.)
Similar structures and pro-
cesses have been described by
Graham (1981) and Gramond
(1993) at leading edges of uplifts
in the French Alps.
650 Jones
Figure 4—Alternative interpretations of the same outcrop
data. (a) Small extensional fault subperpendicular to
bedding of a dip slope. Slip of the fault is approximately
equal to the stratigraphic offset across it. Compared to the
amount of fault movement involved in producing the major
structure on whose flank the fault occurs, such a fault is
insignificant. (b) The extensional fault subparallel to
bedding has the same stratigraphic offset as in part (a) and
may be misinterpreted in that way. However, slip subpar-
allel to bedding can accommodate a major thrusting
downslope as in Figure 3.
do not support this style of interpretation or correlation.
At its northern end, the Lebrija fault swings northwest
parallel to the Bucaramanga fault, as does the axis of the
Nuevo Mondo syncline, and both pass beneath Quater-
nary valley fill.
The reinterpretation shown in Figure 6b, involving a
fault parallel and therefore common to the opposing
flanks of a syncline, can be applied to most of the other
synclinal structures in the eastern part of the Magdalena
Valley. Clearly, the gravity sliding shown in Figure 6b
could occur within the hanging wall syncline of Figure
6a, but while the gravity-sliding model could account for
the structures in Figure 5 in their entirety, the tectonic
thrusting of Figure 6a alone cannot.
The pattern of north-plunging synclines is remarkably
consistent and repetitive (Figure 5). A northeast-
southwest cross section along the axes of the synclines
(Figure 7a) resembles a cross section across a typical
thrust belt and indicates a sequence of emplacement of
slip sheets from higher (north) to lower (south). This
sequence may be related to southward propagation of
the Merida Andes beneath the Eastern Cordillera during
the latest stage of formation of the Eastern Cordillera,
uplifting the northern area first, close to the Bucara-
manga fault. Regardless of where it was located, an east-
west cross section through the synclinal belt would look
like Figure 7b, intersecting two or more plunging slip
sheets at different levels, the deeper ones having buried
thrust fronts with triangle zone geometry and the upper
ones with emergent thrust fronts.
Small-scale gravity-driven structures in the Eastern
Cordillera have been described by Julivert (1970). They
include flap structures, cascade folds, and synclinal slip
sheets (Figure 2) similar to but much smaller than the
Nuevo Mondo and other regional synclines. The struc-
tural relief along the eastern side of the Magdalena basin
is about 10–12 km (Irving, 1975), and the present physio-
graphic relief is about 3 km. Although there is consider-
able variation, this structural relief created dip slopes
along the eastern side of the Magdalena Valley with
westward dips of 10°–40°, angles that are more than
adequate for large-scale gravity sliding westward,
possibly generating still unrecognized flap structures
and cascade folds in addition to slip sheets.
Although the Cesar Valley (Figure 1) has not been
examined in the same detail, it is probable that rootless
west-verging thrust structures observed on seismic
profiles across the eastern part of the valley are also the
result of westward gravity sliding down the trailing edge
of the Perija overthrust sheet.
BLIND THRUSTING IN COLOMBIA-
VENEZUELA SECTOR OF EASTERN
ANDES
The second of the three interrelated factors bearing on
the geodynamics of the Eastern Cordillera is the presence
of buried thrust fronts (Morley, 1986), passive roof duplexes
(Banks and Warburton, 1986), or triangle zones (Gordy et
al., 1977), alternative terms for the same structure. They
occur along the foreland margins of most of the world’s
mountain belts. In a buried thrust front, blind thrusting is
accommodated along an upper detachment or passive
roof thrust (Jones, 1982; Banks and Warburton, 1986),
sometimes referred to as a back-thrust. The section above
the detachment surface is differentially uplifted and
folded in harmony with the structures in the underlying
thrust duplex. If syntectonic erosion through the upper
detachment prevents continued blind thrusting,
continued compression may be accommodated by thrust
faults arising from the upper detachment either as
foreland-vergent emergent thrusts or as hinterland-
verging back-thrusts (Banks and Warburton, 1986; Vann
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis 651

Figure 5—(a) Regional structure, Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia, showing a suite of north-plunging synclines. (From
Taborda, 1965; Schamel, 1991.) (b) Same area with gravity slide interpretation of synclines along the eastern edge of the
basin. Note the correlation of the Las Salinas thrust with the Lebrija normal fault. High ground is indicated by horizontal
pattern. Location of map area is shown in Figure 1.

et al., 1986). It is not known whether such faults reached
the surface or flattened in a higher detachment level at
the time of their emplacement that has subsequently
been removed by erosion.
Buried thrust fronts have been recognized along long
stretches of the eastern margin of the Andean chain from
Tierra del Fuego to Venezuela, including the Perija
Andes in Venezuela and Colombia (Audemard, 1993),
Cordillera de la Costa, Venezuela (Bell and Jones, 1993),
and Merida Andes (Urbina, 1993). A foreland-dipping
monoclinal mountain front characteristic of buried thrust
fronts extends along most of the eastern margin of the
Eastern Cordillera. In some sectors of the foothills,
thrusts such as the Guicarama, Yopal, and Cusiana
thrusts in the Llanos foothills may represent reactivation
of the originally buried thrust front, rooted in the Upper
Cretaceous shale section that provided the upper detach-
ment zone for the original blind thrusting.
NATURE OF THE BUCARAMANGA
FAULT
The third element in this tectonic reappraisal involves
the Bucaramanga fault, a regional linear near-vertical
fault that extends from the Caribbean coast of Colombia
southeastward for over 500 km and dies out in the
Eastern Cordillera. Topographic and geologic maps
show an obvious displacement of the Cesar Valley
relative to the Magdalena Valley across the Bucaramanga
fault. This has led most authors (e.g., Dengo and Covey,
1993) to attribute this offset to left-lateral strike-slip fault
movement of about 210 km. A major problem inherent in
this interpretation is that geologic maps (Ingeominas,
1988; Colletta et al., 1990; Schamel, 1991) show that the
offset appears to die out completely in a southeastward
direction within the Eastern Cordillera over a distance of
only 75 km. It is not possible for that amount of strike-
slip movement to die out over such a short distance.
Even if some of that movement was accommodated by
west-verging thrusts within the Cordillera, as suggested
by Dengo and Covey (1993), most of the movement is
still unaccounted for. However, interpretation of the
Bucaramanga fault as a normal fault (Figure 8) accom-
modating the vertical displacement of an underlying
lateral ramp eliminates that problem. Movement on the
fault would be mainly vertical, 10 km or less, an amount
that can die out along strike over a short distance. The
apparent offset is a function of the shape of the original
Perija–Eastern Cordillera overthrust sheet, and the
amount of apparent offset corresponds to the length of
the original lateral ramp.
652 Jones
Figure 6—Subsurface relationships implicit in the different
interpretations of Figure 5. (a) Cross section through a
typical syncline according to Schamel (1991). This subsur-
face interpretation, which involves a northwest-vergent
thrust rooted in a mid-crustal detachment is not compatible
with the consistent presence of faults in the eastern flank
of synclines in Figure 5a. It is also clear that if there were a
southeast-dipping fault cropping out in the southeastern
limb of the syncline, it could not merge with the thrust in
the northwestern flank. Also, according to this model, the
sections southeast and northwest of the fault-bend fold
(i.e., the Eastern Cordillera) would have to lie at similar
structural levels. In the Magdalena Valley, however, Creta-
ceous and older rocks in the Cordillera are more than 10
km higher than their equivalents beneath the Magdalena
Valley. (b) This interpretation accounts for the consistent
presence of a fault in the southeastern limb of each
syncline that can be correlated directly with the thrust in
each northwestern limb. The underlying southeast-vergent
thrust rooted in the mid-crustal detachment can be related
directly to thrust emplacement uplifting the Eastern
Cordillera.
A NEW MODEL FOR THE STRUCTURAL
EVOLUTION OF THE EASTERN
CORDILLERA
Elimination of west-verging thrusts in the Middle
Magdalena Valley from the tectonic model permits a
simpler model of the tectonic evolution of the eastern
Andes of Colombia, involving southeastward thrusting
instead of the earlier divergent fan models. This model
treats the Eastern Cordillera and Perija Cordillera as
elements of a single continuous thrust sheet whose
leading edge includes two frontal ramps connected by a
lateral ramp (Figures 9, 10). The geodynamic develop-
ment of the orogen is illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 10a shows the configuration of the Perija–
Eastern Cordillera thrust sheet prior to movement. In
Figure 10b, movement is shown to be southeastward,
above the frontal ramps and oblique to the lateral ramp.
This resulted in uplift of the Santandar massif along with
the Eastern Cordillera and Perija Andes. Although both
of these ranges are thrust faulted internally, these faults
are relatively small compared to the 50–60 km of
movement required to create the uplifts as a whole. The
second stage of movement (Figure 10c) arose from
emplacement of the Merida Andes beneath the
combined Perija–Eastern Cordillera thrust sheet, carrying
it southwestward a further 90 km. It is possible that as it
propagated southward, the sole thrust of the Merida
Andes passed upsection into a bedding plane in the
same Upper Cretaceous shale interval that formed the
glide horizon beneath the Eastern Cordillera. Extrapo-
lated southward, the footwall ramp of the Merida Andes
could have been joined with the footwall ramp of the
Eastern Cordillera sole thrust subjacent to the eastern
side of the Magdalena basin.
Figure 11 is a series of retrodeformable cross sections
showing the tectonic development of the Eastern
Cordillera. They are based on the cross section by
Colletta et al. (1990). They were simplified to show how
the same surface structures could be produced with east-
dipping thrusts only. Figure 11b illustrates the effect of
blind thrusting in the initial stages of development of the
Eastern Cordillera–Perija thrust sheet. The sole thrust
follows a mid-crustal detachment (Figure 6), ramping
upward to a detachment in Upper Cretaceous shales.
This section has different names in different localities,
including Umir (northern Magdalena Valley), Villeta
(southern Magdalena Valley), and Monserrate (Llanos
foothills). Southeastward movement of the blind thrust
sheet between these two detachment surfaces (Figure
11b) continued until erosion removed the cover and
exposed the upper detachment, breaching the under-
lying thrust duplex.
Blind thrust duplexes or triangle zones are typically
overpressured (Suppe, 1985), and removal of that over-
pressure inhibits the blind thrusting process. With the
upper detachment inactive, continued compression was
taken up by thrusts in the Llanos basin, which may have
been related to movement of the Merida Andes. The
aggregate slip of these thrusts was too small to have
moved the Eastern Cordillera by more than a few tens of
kilometers. However, if the bulk of southeastward
displacement occurred through blind thrusting, then the
Llanos basin thrusts (such as the Yopal and others)
added their slip to the preexisting and much greater
displacement of the initial blind thrust sheet. Rooted in
Upper Cretaceous shale, it is possible that these thrusts
pass westward and northward into the sole fault of the
Merida Andes.
Syntectonic erosion of the uplifted shallow section
means that it was in a tensional environment above the
original footwall thrust ramp, a condition that favored
westward-vergent gravity sliding above the ramp along
the eastern edge of the Magdalena Valley. Figures 5 and
7 show how each slip sheet plunges beneath the one to
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis
the north of it, suggesting that they are progressively
younger to the south. The initial movement may have
been triggered by the last stages of movement of the
Bucaramanga fault, which marks the northern limit of
the slip sheets. Another factor causing the north-south
sequence of emplacement may be the progressive
southward propagation of the Merida Andes thrust
system, uplifting the Eastern Cordillera and transporting
it farther to the southeast. It may not be coincidental that
the present summit of the Eastern Cordillera–Perija
mountain chain overlies the southward projection of the
Merida Andes.
Following the model just described, it is possible to
determine the amount of horizontal displacement of the
eastern edge of the Cordilleran thrust sheet by
measuring the distance in the direction of tectonic
transport (northwest-southeast) from the top of the ramp
on the eastern side of the Magdalena Valley to the
present buried thrust cutoff of the Paleozoic–Lower
Cretaceous section at the front of the Eastern Cordillera,
a distance of about 150 km. This does not take into
account the thrusting within the Eastern Cordillera itself,
which may involve an additional amount of shortening
along a number of thrusts, including the Chiveta, Cormi-
choqua, and Santa Barbara faults (Colletta et al., 1990) or
the Boyaca, Soapaga, and Chameza faults (Dengo and
Covey, 1993). Thus, this model suggests a total hori-
zontal displacement of about 185 km, an amount that is
within the range obtained by previous workers, although
by a very different and simpler tectonic process.
Comparison with the Lewis Thrust Sheet of
the Canadian Cordillera
The structure of the Colombia-Venezuela sector of the
eastern Andes is similar to that of the Lewis thrust sheet
653
Figure 7—(a) Diagrammatic
strike cross section along the
synclinal axes of Figure 5,
showing the repetitive pattern of
slip sheet emplacement and rela-
tionships between successive
slip sheets within the southward-
deepening Magdalena basin.
Although the cross section
resembles that across a typical
thrust belt, movement is mainly
out of the plane of the diagram
(westward). (b) Typical cross
section showing the association
of buried and emergent thrust
fronts in the Magdalena basin.
Each emergent thrust front
passes down-plunge northward
into a buried thrust front in the
west limb of each syncline,
creating a north-plunging
anticline in the overlying section.
Location of the longitudinal
cross section is indicated by the
vertical dashed line.
Figure 8—Diagram showing how horizontal offset can be
produced by either normal or strike-slip fault movement.
However, strike-slip movement must extend beyond the
region of offset or be accommodated in some way. Normal
fault movement is relatively small and can vary over short
distances
and associated structures in the southern Canadian
Cordillera but on a larger scale (Figure 12). The Lewis
thrust is subhorizontal to gently folded over a wide area
and has thrust Proterozoic clastics and carbonates more
than 60 km eastward over Mesozoic clastics (Gordy et al.,
1977). The overthrust sheet was subsequently trans-
ported piggy-back another 50 km southeastward by
thrusting in duplex structures beneath it and within the
foothills belt ahead of it.
The Lewis thrust sheet includes a major lateral ramp
that offsets the Clark and Flathead ranges, analogs of the
Eastern Cordillera and Perija Andes. Beneath it is the
south-plunging end of the Livingstone thrust sheet, a
small-scale analog of the Merida Andes. West of the
Lewis thrust is the Flathead normal fault system, which
parallels the Lewis thrust front. Over most of its course,
654 Jones

the subjacent foothills structures, the Cordillera Orientale

thrust sheet moved a total of 185 km, but the narrow sub-
Andean foothills thrust belt ahead of it suggests that the
contribution from foothills thrusting was relatively small.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROCARBON

Figure 9—Geometry of a lateral ramp within an overthrust
sheet. Movement oblique to the strike of the lateral ramp
produces transpressional structures at the leading edge of
the oblique sector of the thrust sheet. Following
movement, tensional stress above the footwall lateral ramp
may cause normal faulting in the hanging wall. (Modified
from McClay, 1992.)
the Flathead fault dips westward, generally subparallel
to bedding, except where it follows the underlying lateral
ramp of the Lewis thrust and dips steeply southward. In
that sector, it resembles the Bucaramanga fault on a
smaller scale, with apparent strike-slip offset between the
Fernie and Flathead basins, small-scale analogs of the
Cesar and Middle Magdalena basins, respectively.
Unlike the Lewis thrust sheet, which moved about 60 km
and was transported piggy-back an additional 50 km by
EXPLORATION
Mesozoic Facies Distribution
This model of thrusting of the Eastern Cordillera has
consequences for the predeformation distribution of
sedimentary facies in Lower Cretaceous and older sedi-
mentary rocks. The thick Lower Cretaceous section in the
Magdalena Valley is absent from the Llanos foothills,
where Upper Cretaceous strata rest on Paleozoic or older
rocks. Previous geodynamic models of the Eastern
Cordillera, involving smaller amounts of movement on
the Eastern Cordillera sole thrust, allow a limited range
of possible facies models and locations of the eastern
edge of the sub–Upper Cretaceous section. The new
model is compatible with an eastern limit anywhere
between the Magdalena Valley and the western edge of
the Llanos basin, beneath the Eastern Cordilleran over-
thrust sheet. One of the possibilities is shown in Figure
11, in which a faulted eastern boundary to the Lower
Cretaceous basin is shown. It is also possible that the
ramp for thrust emplacement of the Eastern Cordillera

Figure 10—Sketch maps to show the tectonic evolution of the Colombian Andes. The marker (+) in the lower right corner of
each panel indicates a fixed reference point. (a) Before movement, showing the Perija and Eastern Cordilleran sectors
connected by a lateral ramp. Arrows indicate direction of movement. (b) East-southeastward movement of the combined
thrust sheet oblique to the lateral ramp, producing a transpressional structural environment northeast of the Santandar
Massif and a tensional environment above the footwall lateral ramp. (c) Southeastward transport of the combined sheet by
the underlying Merida Andes thrust system to its present position.
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis 655

Figure 11—Kinematic model of the evolution of the Cordillera Orientale. These computer-synthesized balanced cross
sections were created on equal horizontal and vertical scales but have been compressed 5:1 horizontally for space reasons.
(a) Before movement, showing location of major faults. The normal fault in the Lower Cretaceous is speculative, inserted to
suggest a range of possibilities of the configuration of the Lower Cretaceous basin. (b) Blind thrusting stage, with buried
thrust front (triangle zone geometry) at the leading edge of the advancing blind thrust sheet. Erosion through the uplifted
roof section breached the upper detachment zone within the Upper Cretaceous shale. Loss of overpressure forced transfer
of displacement to the foothills thrusts. (c) Present configuration. Nature of Llanos foothills front is uncertain. Slip sheet in
the Magdalena Valley has created the Cimitarra syncline and San Fernando anticline to the west of it.
656 Jones
Figure 12—Comparison of (a) the Colombia Andes and (b) the southern Canadian Cordillera. In the Canadian example, the
Flathead and Clark ranges are analogs of the Perija and Eastern Cordilleras, respectively. The Livingstone Range is
analogous to the Merida Andes. Gravity sliding occurs in both regions. Dashed lines indicate structural trends. (From Gordy
et al., 1977; Ingeominas, 1988.)
thrust sheet was formed by inversion of the earlier fault.
It is also possible that the Lower Cretaceous section is
truncated gradually eastward by the Upper Cretaceous
unconformity.
Structural Traps
Structural traps in the Magdalena basins occur in
strike-slip fault related structures as well as in thrusted
Cretaceous and Tertiary strata. The thrust-related struc-
tures can be divided into two types according to the
proposed model: those overlying east-verging thrust
faults, such as the Dina and San Francisco fields of the
Upper Magdalena Valley, and those associated with
west-verging gravity slides. Although the latter should
have a lower hydrocarbon potential because of their late
formation and limited catchment area, several major
accumulations occur in the western limbs of synclines
(Schamel, 1991), including the Provincia field in the
Nuevo Mondo syncline.
Low-Angle Normal Faults in the
Magdalena Valley
If westward gravity sliding is responsible for some of
the structures in the Magdalena basin, wells drilled
through some parts of the synclinal slip sheets should
encounter low-angle normal faults downthrown to the
west, with consequent omission of section. This appears
to have happened in the Colorado field (Figure 13),
where the Tertiary Chorro Formation directly overlies a
variety of older rocks. In the original interpretation of
this structure (Taborda, 1965), the contact between the
Chorro and the underlying Cretaceous section was inter-
preted as an angular unconformity. However, this does
not explain why the upper section is tightly folded while
the lower section is not, a reversal of the usual relation-
ship across an angular unconformity. If the folding were
restored to a horizontal predeformation state, the under-
lying section would be restored from its present gently
tilted state to a tightly folded predeformation condition,
which is difficult to accept. If that Cretaceous-Tertiary
contact is a low-angle normal fault, the relationships are
more easily reconciled.
CONCLUSIONS
Evidence of a posttectonic gravitational origin for
northwest-vergent thrust faults in the Magdalena Valley
questions the validity of existing bilateral thrust models
of the Eastern Cordillera and leads to the proposal of a
 Geodynamic Evolution of the Eastern Andes, Colombia—An Alternative Hypothesis
Figure 13—East-west cross section through the Colorado
field, Magdalena basin. In this interpretation, a low-angle
normal fault downthrown to the west replaces the angular
unconformity originally interpreted to lie at the base of the
Chorro (Taborda, 1965). The reinterpretation explains why
the Tertiary Chorro-Real section above the break is folded,
while the underlying Jurassic–Cretaceous Giron through
the Rosa Blanca section is not, a reversal of normal uncon-
formable relationships. Location of cross section is given
by CF in Figure 5b. (Modified from Taborda, 1965.)
new model for its geodynamic evolution. According to
the new model, the Eastern Cordillera and Perija
Cordillera were formed by southeastward movement of
a single regional thrust sheet with minor imbrications.
Initially this sheet moved upward above a ramp
extending from a mid-crustal level to the widespread
Upper Cretaceous shale unit, which it followed south-
eastward as a blind thrust sheet, causing delamination
between the overlying and underlying sections at its
leading edge. The present offset between the two
Cordilleras arose, as did the offset between the
Magdalena and Cesar valleys, from the presence of a
lateral ramp within this thrust sheet. Like the frontal
ramps that it connects, the lateral ramp extended
upward from a glide horizon within the basement as far
as the Upper Cretaceous shales of the Umir Formation,
an interval of over 10 km. Movement of the Bucara-
manga fault, mainly vertical, occurred within the
hanging wall of the overthrust sheet in response to the
underlying footwall lateral ramp. Subsequent southeast-
ward movement of the southward-propagating Merida
Andes thrust sheet carried the Perija–Eastern Cordillera
thrust sheet farther southeastward, producing the
present configuration of Perija, Merida, and Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 12).
Westward gravity sliding in the Middle Magdalena
Valley began close to or at the end of the deformation
process, at the junction of the Magdalena Valley and
Bucaramanga fault. The gravity slides may be associated
with the latest movement of the Bucaramanga fault.
Subsequent westward-directed slip sheets occurred
progressively farther south along the eastern edge of the
valley, perhaps triggered by southward propagation of
the southeast-vergent thrust system underlying the
Merida Andes.
657
Figure 14—Block diagram illustrating the results of south-
eastward thrusting of the combined Perija–Eastern
Cordillera thrust sheet, gravity sliding in the Magdalena
Valley, and vertical movement of the Bucaramanga fault.
The footwall ramp of the Eastern Cordillera–Perija
thrust sheet now underlies the eastern flanks of both the
Magdalena and Cesar basins. The flat underlies the
Eastern Cordillera, Santandar massif, and Sierra de
Perija, and the tip lines of the thrust system, typically
buried, lie east of the Eastern Cordillera, Perija, and
Merida Andes.
The effects of this new model on the hydrocarbon
potential include possible changes in relationships
among source and reservoir facies, migration paths,
stratigraphy, and structural traps in the Magdalena
Valley and Llanos foothills.
Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges
fruitful discussions with A. W. Bally, G. Cathyl-Bickford, J. W.
Kerr, and J. K. Lentin and constructive criticism by AAPG
critical readers. Support for the study came from International
Tectonic Consultants Ltd.
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 Basin Development and Tectonic History of the
Llanos Basin, Colombia

M. A. Cooper
F. T. Addison
R. Alvarez
A. B. Hayward
S. Howe
A. J. Pulham
A. Taborda
BP Exploration (Colombia) Ltd.
Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract

T he Llanos basin lies east of the Eastern Cordillera in northeastern Colombia. Basin development
commenced with a Triassic–Jurassic synrift megasequence related to the separation of North and South
America in the Caribbean. Basin development continued in the Cretaceous as a back-arc megasequence behind
the Andean subduction zone. Marine deposition was abruptly terminated during the early Maastrichtian due
to final accretion of the Western Cordillera.
The accretion of the Western Cordillera created the pre-Andean foreland basin megasequence
(Paleocene–early Miocene), which covered the Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Llanos basin. This
megasequence is dominated by fluviodeltaic strata. The overlying Andean foreland basin megasequence
commenced with deformation in the Central Cordillera and Magdalena Valley. The Andean foreland basin
megasequence also includes the Guayabo Formation, which is a classic molasse sequence shed from the devel-
oping mountains of the Eastern Cordillera as deformation moved eastward into the Llanos foothills. The defor-
mation in the Llanos foothills is a combination of inversion of preexisting extensional faults and thin-skinned
thrusting.

Resumen

L a Cuenca de la Llanos se encuentra localizada al oriente de la Cordillera Oriental en el nororiente de

Colombia. El desarrollo de la cuenca comenzó con una megasecuencia de “synrift” Triasica-Jurasica
relacionada con la separación de Norte y Suramerica en el Caribe. El desarrollo de la cuenca continuó durante
el Cretácico con una megasecuencia de “back-arc” en frente de la zona de subducción de los Andes. La sedi-
mentación marina terminó abruptamente durante el Maestrichtiano temprano debido a la acreción final de la
Cordillera Occidental.
La acreción de la Cordillera Occidental dió origen a una megasecuencia pre-andina de antepaís (Paleoceno
a Mioceno Inferior) la cual cubrió el Valle del Magdalena, la Cordillera Oriental y la Cuenca de los Llanos. Esta
megasecuencia está dominada por sedimentos fluvio-deltaicos. La megasecuencia andina de antepaís supraya-
cente comenzó con la deformación en la Cordillera Central y el Valle del Magdalena. La megasecuencia andina
de antepaís también incluye la Formación Guayabo la cual es una clásica molasa proveniente de la erosión de
la naciente Cordillera Oriental a medida que la deformación se movió hacia el este en el piedemonte de los
Llanos. La deformación en el piedemonte de los Llanos es una combinación de inversión de las fallas exten-
sionales pre-existentes y cabalgamientos de escamación delgada.

Cooper, M. A., F. T. Addison, R. Alvarez, A. B. Hayward, S. Howe, A. J. Pulham, and 659

A. Taborda, 1995, Basin development and tectonic history of the Llanos basin,
Colombia, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South
America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 659–665.
660 Cooper et al.

INTRODUCTION
The physiography of Colombia is dominated by the
Andes mountains in the western half of the country and
by the Amazon-Orinoco basin in the east. The
Colombian Andes are split into three ranges—the
Western, Central, and Eastern Cordilleras—which to the
south merge into a single range in Ecuador. To the east of
the Eastern Cordillera is Los Llanos, an elevated
savannah that is part of the catchment area for the Rio
Orinoco (Figure 1). Major work that has been done on
the stratigraphy, tectonics, and regional tectonic setting
of Colombia include Hettner (1892), Hubach (1957),
Bürgl (1961), Etayo-Serna (1979), Fabre (1983), McCourt
et al. (1984), Pilger (1984), Aspden and McCourt (1986),
Ben Avraham and Nur (1987), Megard (1987), Pardo-
Casas and Molnar (1987), Burke (1988), Butler and
Schamel (1988), and Montgomery (1992).
The major tectonic events that have influenced the
development of the Llanos basin are all closely tied to the
development of the active margin of western South
America. The regional structural evolution is divisible
into eight major events:

1. Triassic–Early Cretaceous—Rift basins developed

as a result of the separation of North and South
America as the Caribbean opened (~235–130 Ma);
this is the synrift megasequence.
2. Barremian–Maastrichtian—A prolonged period of
episodic extension occurred on a series of exten-
sional faults (e.g., the Guaicáramo fault system)
along with passive regional subsidence in a back-
arc basin setting (~125–74 Ma); this is the back-arc
megasequence.
3. Maastrichtian–early Paleocene—The final event in
the accretion of the Western Cordillera caused
uplift and erosion of the Central Cordillera (~74–65
Ma); this is the onset of the pre-Andean foreland
basin megasequence.
4. middle Eocene:—An early compressional deforma-
tion event affected the Magdalena Valley and the
western margin of the Eastern Cordillera (~49–42
Ma) due to an increase in convergence rates of the
Nazca and South American plates (Pardo-Casas
and Molnar, 1987; Daly, 1989).
5. late Eocene–late Oligocene—A prolonged period of
subsidence and localized normal faulting occurred
in response to flexure of the lithosphere in the
foreland basin created by the deformation load of
the Western and Central Cordilleras (~39–29 Ma).
6. late Oligocene–early Miocene—Deformation in the
Cauca and Magdalena valleys caused continued
subsidence in the Llanos basin (~29–16.5 Ma).
7. middle Miocene—A phase of rapid subsidence
occurred as deformation, uplift, and erosion
commenced in the Eastern Cordillera and estab-
lished the foreland basin depocenter in the Llanos
foothills (~16.5–10.5 Ma); this is the Andean
foreland basin megasequence.
8. late Miocene–Recent—The latest phase of compres-
sion and inversion associated with the formation of
Figure 1—Map of major tectonic provinces and sutures in
Colombia.
the frontal fold and thrust belt of the Eastern
Cordillera (10.5 Ma–present day).
The aim of this paper is to present a brief review of the
basin development, chronostratigraphy, and structural
style of the Llanos basin and Llanos foothills to provide a
regional context for the recently discovered Cusiana
giant field.
REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHIC
FRAMEWORK AND BASIN EVOLUTION
The basin stratigraphic model has been developed on
the basis of published data and the log, core, seismic, and
outcrop data acquired by BP during regional studies of
the Llanos basin and exploration of the Llanos foothills.
The chronostratigraphic summary of the Llanos basin
(Figure 2) is based on a sequence stratigraphic scheme
originally developed for the Cusiana field and adjacent
areas of the foreland. This stratigraphic scheme was
subsequently extended throughout the Llanos basin by
careful correlation of the well logs and using available
biostratigraphic data. Comparison of the sequence
stratigraphy with the conventional industry lithostrati-
graphic scheme for the Llanos basin is illustrated in
Figure 3.
The sedimentary rocks in the Llanos foothills and
Llanos basin were deposited in a basin that evolved from
a back-arc basin in the Late Cretaceous to a foreland
basin in the early Tertiary and whose depocenter moved
 Basin Development and Tectonic History of the Llanos Basin, Colombia 661

Figure 2—Chronostratigraphic summary diagram for the Llanos basin and foothills based on well and outcrop data. The sea
level curve of Haq et al. (1987) has been adjusted to the BP time scale.

progressively eastward throughout the Tertiary. The
resulting stratigraphy is a highly punctuated succession
of Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary strata, representing
periodic marginal deposition in major contemporaneous
depocenters to the west and north. The stratigraphic
record becomes more complete westward in the Eastern
Cordillera and the Magdalena Valley, although Tertiary
rocks are only sparsely preserved in the Eastern
Cordillera because of late Miocene and Pliocene uplift
and erosion. The following basin evolution model has
been developed on the basis of available published infor-
mation and by integrating recent BP well, seismic, and
outcrop data.
Rocks older than the Late Cretaceous include a succes-
sion of Paleozoic metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
that have only been penetrated in a few wells in the
Llanos. Triassic–Lower Cretaceous rocks are absent in
the area except for possible small, localized synrift
sequences. Upper Cretaceous strata thus generally rest
directly on Paleozoic basement.
Upper Cretaceous deposition of the back-arc megase-
quence was initiated in Cenomanian time (98–91 Ma)
during a regional transgression that drowned the
exposed Paleozoic rocks of the Llanos region and
resulted in deposition of a series of basal, shallow marine
and shoreline Cretaceous sandstones, which progres-
sively onlapped farther eastward onto the Guyana shield
(Figure 2). These sandstones are depositional sequence
K50 (Une Formation equivalent) (Hubach, 1931).
In the Turonian–early Coniacian (91–88 Ma), global
sea level rise (Haq et al., 1987), combined with anoxic
upwelling conditions, resulted in deposition of a succes-
sion of marine mudstones, cherts, and phosphates
(Figure 2). These sediments formed an excellent marine
source rock (sequence K60, Gacheta Formation) (Miller,
1979) in the Llanos area. This sequence is the equivalent
of prolific source rocks such as the Villeta Shale
Formation in the Upper Magdalena Valley (Beltrán and
Gallo, 1968) and the La Luna Formation of the Middle
Magdalena Valley and western Venezuela.
Sequence K60 deposition was terminated by a fall in
relative sea level in the Coniacian–early Santonian (88–85
Ma). The Llanos foothills area was on the eastern margin
of the basinal system. Sequences K70 and K80 (which
equate approximately with the Guadalupe; Hettner,
1892) were deposited at this time and represent two
major cycles of eastward shoreline progradation, aggra-
dation, and retrogradation. They are dominated by high-
662 Cooper et al.

TYPE LOG SIGNATURE sequence K80 is a shale unit that has been mistakenly
PROPOSED CONVENTIONAL
FORMATION
identified as the Maastrichtian–Paleocene Guaduas
AGE SEQUENCES GAMMA RESISTIVITY
RAY NAMES Formation (Figure 3) (Sarmiento, 1992) in some of the
0m FARALLONES
earlier wells in the Llanos foothills (e.g., Medina-1).
Recently acquired data by BP has conclusively dated
these youngest Cretaceous rocks in the foothills as
Campanian.
PLIOCENE
500 m The final accretion event in the Western Cordillera

UPPER
commenced at the end of the Cretaceous. A relative drop
in sea level, probably linked to the onset of compression
to the west, resulted in a fundamental change in the
T90 nonmarine deposition of the pre-Andean foreland basin

GUAYABO
1000 m

megasequence. Sequence T10 is not present in the Llanos

basin and foothills, being represented by a hiatus of
LATE

about 20 m.y. that spans the Cretaceous–Tertiary

LOWER
boundary.
1500 m
Renewed deposition commenced about 60 Ma in the
late Paleocene in response to a far-reaching transgres-
sion. The Barco Formation (Notestein et al., 1944) forms
the basal transgressive part of sequence T20, which was
2000 m
T80 laid down on a major unconformity surface. It mainly
MIDDLE
MIOCENE

comprises sandstone-rich estuarine deposits. Marine

LEON

influence is strong throughout the Barco Formation in

the Cusiana field area in the Llanos foothills, but at the
2500 m top of the formation there is a relatively abrupt upward
transition into more heterolithic coastal plain and alluvial
plain deposits. T20 sandstone deposition ended as the
T70 C1
late Paleocene transgression weakened and a relative
EARLY

3000 m highstand in sea level was established (~59 Ma). During

C2
CARBONERA

the subsequent regression, the regional shoreline

C3 gradually shifted westward. The sediments laid down
T60 C4
during this sea level highstand were muddy lower
C5 coastal plain deposits (Los Cuervos Formation)
T50 3500 m
(Notestein et al., 1944). In the Llanos, a hiatus of up to
C6 20 m.y. separates sequences T20 and T30 and appears to
OLIGOCENE C7 correlate with a similar unconformity in the Middle
T40 Magdalena Valley.
4000 m
C8 Deposition in the area was renewed in the
LATE
EOCENE T30 MIRADOR middle–late Eocene (~39 Ma). Deposition of sequence
LOS CUERVOS
PALEOCENE
T20 BARCO
T30 (Mirador Formation) (Notestein et al., 1944) began in
GUADUAS response to a far-reaching transgression that came out of
CAMPANIAN K80 4500 m
U. GUADALUPE the foreland basins to the west and north. Initial T30
L. CRETACEOUS

GUADALUPE SHALE
SANTONIAN K70
CONIACIAN-
TURONIAN K60 5000 m
CENOMANIAN-
ALBIAN
K50
Figure 3—Comparison of stratigraphic schemes for the
Llanos foothills and Llanos basin. The symbols in the
sequences column are the same as in Figure 5. The
symbols in the stylized resistivity log column indicate the
depositional environments and are the same as in Figure 2.
energy, quartz-rich shoreface sandstones supplied from
the Guyana shield to the west and exhibit a widespread
distribution across the Llanos basin and foothills. The
Campanian K80 sandstones form the oldest proven
commercial reservoir unit in the foothills. At the top of
L. GUADALUPE
deposition included marine-influenced, sand-rich, valley
fill deposits that passed upward into muddier coastal
GACHETA plain sediments. Continued transgression eventually
SHALES
submerged this middle Mirador alluvial plain and estab-
lished a shallow marine shelf across the Cusiana area.
UNE
Offshore muds and sandy bioturbated shoreface progra-
dational cycles punctuated by sand-rich fluvial and
estuarine valley fill deposits comprised latest Eocene
deposition, forming the upper part of the Mirador
Formation. All of the coarser grained sandstones in the
Mirador Formation in the Llanos foothills are extremely
mature quartz arenites.
After sequence T30 deposition, four major cycles of
marine-influenced lower coastal plain deposition
occurred in the Llanos basin and foothills (sequences
T40–T70). These sequences are ~34–16.5 Ma and are
traditionally termed the Carbonera Formation (Notestein
et al., 1944). These cycles are bounded by widespread
maximum flooding surfaces. Each cycle consists of a
 Basin Development and Tectonic History of the Llanos Basin, Colombia 663

mud-dominated highstand systems tract followed by a N

ºW 6º
thin, forced retrogradational systems tract, and ending 72
with a sand-prone transgressive systems tract that culmi- Tamara-1
nates with the maximum flooding surface. The
sequences are thus not true sequences in the sense of PAZ DE
Mitchum et al. (1977), but are genetic stratigraphic units ARIPORO

YOPAL FAUL T SYS TEM

in the sense of Galloway (1989). Type 1 sequence bound-
aries (Mitchum et al., 1977) have not yet been recognized.
The units can be correlated throughout the Llanos basin N
6º
and show a gradual increase in the sand percentage as
Pauto-2
the Guyana shield provenance area is approached. RI O P A UTO
In the middle Miocene, the global rise in sea level

M
coincided with the first significant deformation and º

SYSTE
72 'W
uplift in the Eastern Cordillera and hence with a signifi- 30
cant loading event that tectonically enhanced the relative
rise in sea level and the highstand systems tract that

NUNCHI A SYNC LINE

resulted (T80 mudstone, Leon Formation) (Notestein et

F A ULT
RI
O T OCARIA
al., 1944). Evidence for partial emergence of the Eastern
Cordillera is that sequence T80 becomes more sand
prone in the western part of the foothills, suggesting that 72
ºW
there was a supply of coarse clastics derived from the
west.
The final depositional episode in the Llanos was the
El Morro-1

YOPAL
N

GUAICARAMO
deposition of about 3000 m of coarse continental clastics
in sequence T90 (Guayabo Formation) (Hubach, 1957)
from ~10 to 2 Ma ago. This last phase of deposition

YOPAL FAULT
N
5º
marks uplift of the Eastern Cordillera immediately west
of the foothills and migration of the foreland basin axis to
the current location of the Eastern Cordillera foothills
(Figure 2). Deposition of this molasse unit caused rapid Cupiagua-1

late stage burial of the Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary

Cusiana-2A
stratigraphic section in the foothills and Llanos basin.
LINE OF SECTION

ºW Cusiana-4
73 RIO CUSIANA
Leticia-1
STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION AND STYLE CUSIA NA AN TICLINE

The boundary between the Eastern Cordillera and CHITAM CUSIANA F A LT

RIO E NA
U
the Llanos foothills is the Guaicaramo fault system
(Figure 4). The foothills are about 15–20 km wide and are
separated from the foreland to the north and south of the 72
º
'W
area by the inverted Cusiana-Yopal fault system. In the 30
N
central part, the inversion faults lie beneath the thin- 5º

skinned Yopal fault system (Figure 4), which detaches in

the lower part of sequence T40. The earliest documented
0 5 10 15 20 km
extension on the Cusiana-Yopal fault system occurred in
the Late Cretaceous during deposition of sequence K80
LIN E

(upper Guadalupe Formation). This is based on the Medina-1

IO ANTIC

differences in thickness of K80 measured in the Cusiana GUAYABO

field wells and wells in the immediate foreland (e.g., LEON
GU A V

Leticia-1). It is likely, however, that the fault trend had an

earlier extensional history during Early Cretaceous CARBONERA
rifting and back-arc subsidence, given the dramatic thick- MIRADOR +
ening of the Lower Cretaceous strata from the foreland CRETACEOUS
toward the Eastern Cordillera (Hebrard, 1985; Ulloa and ANTICLINE
Rodriguez, 1981). Extension continued episodically from SYNCLINE
Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene time (sequence T80, THRUST FAULT
Leon Formation) and was punctuated by hiatuses and
tectonic quiescence. The extensional movements on the
Cusiana fault system can be seen on seismic data and are Figure 4—Surface geologic map of the Llanos foothills
also demonstrable from the thickness of the sequences in showing major structures and the location of the cross
the foreland wells as compared to wells within the section and wells referred to in the text.
664 Cooper et al.
NW
Guaicaramo
Fault System
Figure 5—Cross section through the Cusiana field in the Llanos foothills. See the “proposed sequences” column in Figure 3
for the key to the stratigraphic units.
hanging wall of the fault. This phase of extension on the
Cusiana fault system accommodates the flexure of the
lithosphere in response to the load imposed by the
regional compressional deformation.
As deformation in the Eastern Cordillera migrated
eastward, the foothills became involved in the frontal
fold and thrust belt (R. Herrera, 1971, personal commu-
nication; Colletta et al., 1990). Relatively simple
compression along a WNW-ESE trending azimuth
caused inversion along the Cusiana-Yopal fault system
(Figure 5).
The thin-skinned Yopal fault, which detaches within
sequence T40, overrides the Cusiana fault to the north
and buries the branch line with the latter fault. To the
west of these frontal inversion structures is a system of
major regional synclines. The western limbs of the
synclines are elevated by a series of structures that
involve the Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary sedi-
mentary sequences. These structures can be modeled as a
series of basement involved or thin-skinned (Gacheta
Shale, K60 detachment) duplex horses (Figures 4, 5),
largely based on the evidence of fault repetition of the
Mirador in the El Morro-1 well.
The recent paper by Dengo and Covey (1993) contains
a cross section through the Unete-1 well that implies a
deeper detachment for the Yopal fault than is evident
from our studies of the foothills (Figure 5), which are
based on an extensive seismic and well database. The
other difference in the work by Dengo and Covey (1993)
is the absence of inversion on the basement-involved
Cusiana-Yopal fault system.
SE
Cusiana-4 Cusiana-2A Leticia-1
Cusiana
Yopal Fault Fault
0 5 10 Km
CONCLUSIONS
The tectonic history of the region records an initial
phase of localized Triassic–Jurassic rifting followed by an
Early Cretaceous back-arc basin that became less active
by the middle Cretaceous. In the Late Cretaceous, the
collision of the Western Cordillera initiated the foreland
basin megasequence that has dominated to the present
day.
The tectonic evolution strongly influenced strati-
graphic development of the basin. The back-arc mega-
sequence is characterized by marine strata that are more
basinal to the west. The collision event in the Late Creta-
ceous reestablished continental and coastal plain envi-
ronments throughout the basin. The pre-Andean
foreland basin megasequence shows strongly cyclical
sediment patterns with the alternation of continental,
coastal plain, and marginal marine environments. This is
interpreted to be the result of the highly peneplained
Guyana shield hinterland, which had a low paleoslope
gradient and was thus susceptible to rapid flooding and
regression. This in turn allowed the rapid migration of
facies belts within the systems tracts. The main Andean
deformation phase caused inversion of preexisting exten-
sional faults and thin-skinned thrust structures.
Acknowledgments We wish to thank BP Exploration
(Colombia) Ltd. for permission to publish this work, Michel
Coudèyre of Total for the type log signatures used, and Andres
Tovar for drafting the figures.
 Basin Development and Tectonic History of the Llanos Basin, Colombia
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
M. A. Cooper
PanCanadian Petroleum Ltd.
150 9th Ave S.W.
P.O. Box 2850
Calgary, Alberta T2P 2S5
Canada
F. T. Addison
R. Alvarez
A. B. Hayward
S. Howe
A. J. Pulham
A. Taborda
BP Exploration (Colombia) Ltd.
Carrera 9A, 99-02, Bogotá
Colombia
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the
Eastern Venezuelan Ranges

H. Passalacqua Y. Gou
F. Fernandez Beicip
Cedex, France
Intevep, S.A.
Caracas, Venezuela F. Roure
IFP
Cedex, France

Abstract

T he eastern Venezuelan Coast Ranges result from oblique convergence along the South
American–Caribbean plate boundary, expressed at the surface by the El Pilar dextral strike-slip fault. A
crustal-scale, balanced NNW-SSE cross section has been constructed across this major transfer zone that links
oceanic subduction of the Lesser Antilles with continental subduction of the Andes. It shows a major discrep-
ancy between the cover and basement lengths, which can be explained by tectonic inheritance from the
Tethyan margin and an initially thinned crust and basement tilted blocks. The section, interpreted down to the
Moho, is constrained by magnetic and gravimetric profiles. A major gravimetric low along the axis of the
Maturín basin shows the progressive northward deepening of the Moho. Positive magnetic anomalies on the
southern flank of this basin probably result from shallow basaltic intrusions along the thinned part of the pale-
omargin or from crustal heterogeneities. A high-density intracrustal wedge is needed to fit the gravimetric
high north of the Serranía; the solution requires a deep crustal root beneath the belt and a northward-dipping
South American Moho. The results of successive gravimetric and magnetic modeling studies are compared
with the present-day seismicity of the South American–Caribbean plate boundary. Shallow seismicity is
restricted to the eastern part of the El Pilar fault, whereas deep focal mechanisms pick out a northwestward-
dipping subduction slab off the northeastern Venezuelan and Trinidad coasts.
A consistent geodynamic model involving northward-dipping subduction of at least 70 km of South
American continental lithosphere is thus proposed for the area. The El Pilar fault is a shallow structure that
branches at depth on an intracrustal backstop and at the surface transfers the lateral motion required to balance
the northward-dipping subduction in an oblique convergence regime. Petroleum generation was initiated in
the early stages of the flexural evolution of the eastern Venezuelan basin, and early generated oils migrated
over long distances from the inner parts of the belt toward the Orinoco to fill the traps of the Faja Petrolífera.
Tectonic overburial also induced a late stage petroleum generation, with shorter migration of oil toward the
frontal structures (the El Furrial and Orocual trends).

Resumen

L a Serranía del Interior resulta de la convergencia oblicua a lo largo del borde de las placas Suramericana
y del Caribe, que se expresa en superficie por la Falla de El Pilar, de rumbo deslizante dextral. Para este
trabajo se construyó una sección balanceada hasta la corteza a partir de información de superficie y subsuelo, a
través de esta zona de transferencia que une la subducción oceánica de las Antillas Menores con la subducción
continental de Los Andes. La sección geológica en cuestión, se extiende desde la Falla de El Pilar hasta el Rio
Orinoco con rumbo NNW-SSE, cruzando el cinturón de cabalgamientos de la Serranía del Interior, volcados
hacia el sur y la Cuenca de antepaís asociada, la cuenca de Maturín. La geometría actual de esta sección
muestra una discrepancia notable entre las longitudes del basamento y de la cobertura sedimentaria, que se
puede explicar por una herencia tectónica del margen del mar de Tethys y por una corteza inicialmente
delgada y bloques de basamento basculados. La sección geológica, interpretada hasta el Moho, fue controlada
por perfiles magnéticos (transformados al polo) y gravimétricos. El mapa de anomalía de Bouguer muestra un
mínimo de grandes proporciones que se extiende a lo largo del eje de la Cuenca de Maturín, delineando la
profundización progresiva del Moho por debajo de la zona de estudio. El flanco sur de esta Cuenca está carac-
terizado por anomalías magnéticas producidas probablemente por intrusiones basálticas muy someras en la

Passalacqua, H., F. Fernandez, Y. Gou, and F. Roure, 1995, Crustal architecture and strain 667
partitioning in the eastern Venezuelan Ranges, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J.
Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 667–679.
668 Passalacqua et al.

porción más delgada del paleo-margen o por heterogeneidades en la corteza. Para modelar el alto gravimétrico
al norte de la Serranía fue necesario introducir una cuña de alta densidad; esta solución requiere una raíz
profunda en la corteza por debajo del cinturón de cabalgamientos y el Moho de la Placa Suramericana profun-
dizando hacia el Norte. Los resultados de la sucesivas aproximaciones del modelaje gravimétrico y magnético
se comparan con la sismicidad actual del borde de placas Suramerica-Caribe. En el sector Este de la Falla de El
Pilar la sismicidad es superficial, mientras que mecanismos focales profundos sugieren la presencia de una
placa que subduce al NE de las costas de Venezuela y Trinidad.
Se propone entonces un modelo geodinámico consistente cuya característica principal es una subducción
hacia el Norte de al menos 70 km de litósfera continental de la placa Suramericana (principalmente manto intra
continental y partes de la corteza inferior). La Falla de El Pilar es una estructura superficial que se bifurca a
profundidad en una cuña intracortical y en la superficie transfiere el movimiento lateral necesario para
balancear la subducción hacia el Norte en un régimen de convergencia oblicua. La generación de hidrocarburos
comenzó en las etapas tempranas de la evolución flexural de la Cuenca Oriental de Venezuela, y esos hidrocar-
buros migraron largas distancias hasta la Faja Petrolífera del Orinoco. La sobrecarga tectónica indujo también
una segunda generación, con migraciones mas cortas hacia las estructuras del frente de deformación (alinea-
ciones de El Furrial y Orocual).

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGIC AND GEOPHYSICAL

Oblique convergence is a common phenomenon
along plate boundaries and usually results at the surface
level in the juxtaposition of a major strike-slip
(transform) fault and a doubly warped (V-shaped)
orogenic belt. This is the case in California where the
active San Andreas dextral fault is closely associated
with the Transverse Ranges (Sylvester and Smith, 1976;
Wentworth and Zoback, 1989), in the Pyrenees with the
North Pyrenean sinistral fault (Choukroune et al., 1989;
Roure et al., 1989), and in the Alps with the Insubric line
(Laubscher, 1988; Roure et al., 1990). Deep seismic
profiles have recently been recorded in such terranes
(Lemiski and Brown, 1988; Choukroune et al., 1989;
Roure et al., 1990) and show the deformation of the conti-
nental lithosphere at depth along the plate boundary.
Similarly, analogous experiments have been attempted
to simulate the effects of oblique convergence on the
architecture of fold and thrust belts and to help under-
stand how a constant balance is maintained between
frontal or deep accretion and superficial strike-slip
motion (Soula, 1984; Malavielle and Cobb, 1986). These
concepts can be applied to other orogenic belts where
deep seismic profiles have yet to be recorded. For
example, the eastern Venezuelan Coast Ranges result
from oblique convergence at the South American–
Caribbean plate boundary. This in turn resulted in the
development of the El Pilar dextral strike-slip fault in the
north and the Maturín basin in the south (Maresch, 1974;
Ladd, 1976; Schubert, 1981; Beck, 1984; Speed, 1985;
Stephan et al., 1986; Pindell and Barrett, 1988).
The object of this paper is to propose a consistent
geodynamic model for the area. To address this
objective, a crustal-scale balanced cross section was
compiled from available surface and subsurface data in
the eastern Venezuelan Coast Ranges and was
constrained by magnetic and gravimetric profiles. The
results of these successive models were compared with
the present-day seismicity of the South American–
Caribbean plate boundary.
BACKGROUND
Dynamics of Eastern Venezuela
The Venezuelan Coast Ranges outline a major transfer
zone between the westward-dipping B-subduction of the
Atlantic oceanic lithosphere beneath the Lesser Antilles
volcanic arc and the westward-dipping A-subduction of
the South American continental lithosphere beneath the
Andes (Figure 1) (Weeks et al., 1971; Pérez and
Aggarwal, 1981; Kellog and Bonini, 1982; Stein et al.,
1982; Wadge and Burke, 1983; Schubert, 1984; Burke et
al., 1984; Beck, 1986; Westbrook and McCann, 1986). At
the surface, its eastern part is characterized by the occur-
rence of a major transform fault, the dextral El Pilar fault
(Schubert, 1979; Vierbuchen, 1984) (Figures 1, 2).
A south- to southeast-verging fold and thrust belt is
developed south of the El Pilar (Serranía del Interior),
and a related Neogene flexural basin (Maturín basin)
separates the Mesozoic surface outcrops of the Vene-
zuelan Coast Ranges from the basement of the Guyana
shield, which crops out south of the Orinoco River
(Figure 1) (Creole Petroleum Corporation, 1965; Potié,
1989). Northwest-southeast oriented strike-slip faults
(from west to east, the Urica, San Francisco, and Los
Bajos faults) fragment the Serranía into various blocks
(Wilson, 1968; Rosales, 1972; Munro and Smith, 1984).
Southwest-northeast (Pirital) or WSW-ENE (El Furrial
and Orocual) oriented thrust fronts limit the extent of the
allochthon to the south (Figures 1, 2, 3). A detailed
description of this thrust system is given elsewhere
(Roure et al., 1994).
North of the El Pilar fault, outcrops are restricted
onshore to the Paria and Araya Península and offshore to
Margarita island (Figure 2). They show either highly
metamorphosed rocks of sedimentary origin or ophiolitic
rocks derived from the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene
partial closure of the Tethyan ocean. They were affected
by the early deformation of the South American passive
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges 669

Figure 1—Location map showing tectonic setting of northern Venezuela. Box shows study area.

Figure 2—Tectonic setting of eastern Venezuela and present seismicity. SFF, San Francisco fault. (Modified after Fernández
and Pérez, 1974; Burke et al., 1984; Speed, 1985; Bouysse and Westercamp, 1990.)
670 Passalacqua et al.
Figure 3—Geologic map of the Serranía (simplified after Creole Petroleum Corporation, 1965). A–A' locates the modeled
section, and B–B' indicates the part imaged by seismic.
margin (Vignali, 1979; Wadge and MacDonald, 1985;
Chevalier et al., 1985, 1988) (Figure 3). Recent offshore
extensional structures are superposed on older compres-
sive structures between the mainland and Margarita
Island (Case, 1982; Schubert, 1982; Biju-Duval et al., 1983;
Robertson and Burke, 1989).
The El Pilar fault and its western extension, the San
Sebastián fault (Figure 1), connect with the Lesser
Antilles frontal thrust to the east and with the Boconó
fault in the Venezuelan Andes to the west. Well
expressed at the surface by the morphologic depression
of the Cariaco and Paria gulfs, the present activity of the
El Pilar fault is also reflected in hydrothermal activity
and in seismicity with focal depths shallower than 12 km
(Fernández and Pérez, 1974; Kafka and Weidner, 1981;
Wadge and Hudson, 1986; Giraldo, 1990).
Elsewhere, recent shallow seismicity is restricted to
the Los Bajos fault which separates the Serranía del
Interior from Trinidad in the east. South of the El Pilar
fault and west of Trinidad (in the study area), only
diffuse seismicity is presently observed. Deep focal
mechanisms related to the Lesser Antilles arc extend
northwestward off the Trinidad and eastern Venezuelan
coasts (Figure 2) (Wadge and Shepherd, 1984; Speed,
1985; Westbrook and McCann, 1986; Bouysse and
Westercamp, 1990).
Calc-alkalic volcanic activity related to oceanic
subduction is well expressed in the Lesser Antilles, but
progressively dies out southwestward, the last morpho-
logic expression of the arc being found on Margarita
Island. North of Margarita, an extending back-arc basin
is developed (the Grenada basin) which separates the
still active Antilles arc from a fossil arc (the Aves Ridge)
(Figure 1) (Biju-Duval et al., 1978; Bouysse, 1988).
Major Tectonostratigraphic Units and
Terranes of the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges
South of the El Pilar fault, the recognized Mesozoic
allochthonous units of the Serranía del Interior, as well as
the substratum of the Maturín foreland basin, are
composed of Cretaceous–Paleogene sequences of the old
Tethyan passive margin (Burke, 1988; Eva et al., 1989;
Fourcade et al., 1991). The Mesozoic sequence exposed in
the Serranía and extensively drilled in the foreland rests
directly on top of Precambrian basement to the south
near the Orinoco River, but is detached from its pre-
Cretaceous substratum in the north. It becomes progres-
sively thicker northward, reaching a thickness of 3 km in
the allochthon (Potié, 1989).
Although they never crop out and have not yet been
drilled in the area, sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic–
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges
Jurassic age are inferred on the basis of seismic data to
extend at depth beneath the Maturín basin, northward
to the Serranía del Interior, and beneath either evapor-
ites or coal measures along which the remaining sedi-
mentary cover has been detached (Roure et al., 1994)
(Figures 4, 5).
The Maturín foreland basin is filled with synorogenic
terrigenous deposits, mainly deep water turbidites of the
lower Carapita Formation (lower–middle Miocene) and
nearshore to continental facies of the upper Carapita, La
Pica, Morichito, Las Piedras, and Mesa formations
(upper Miocene–Plio-Quaternary), which reach a
thickness of 5 km in the axis of the basin (Figure 5).
North of the El Pilar fault, various tectonostratigraphic
units (terranes) have been recognized, some of them
deriving from the South American paleomargin and
others directly from the ancient Tethyan ocean (Upper
Jurassic ophiolite from Margarita Island). Unlike the
autochthon of the Maturín basin or the allochthonous
units of the Serranía, these rocks were metamorphosed in
671
Figure 4—Seismic profile of
the southern part of the
transect showing the Pirital
high and Morichito basin,
which separate the Maturín
basin from the outcrops of
the Serranía. See Figures 3
and 5 for location.
Late Cretaceous or Paleogene time and have probably
traveled far along the transform Caribbean–South
American plate boundary (Sykes et al., 1982; Dewey and
Pindell, 1985; Erlich and Barrett, 1990). In fact, the first
foredeep deposits of both the Maturín basin and the
Serranía are no older than late Oligocene or early
Miocene, attesting to the Neogene age of the tectonic
inversion of this part of the margin. This suggests an
allochthonous origin for the older metamorphic rocks
north of the El Pilar. Since deformation of the margin and
closure of the Tethyan ocean is supposed to have
occurred earlier in the west, all these suspect terranes
propably originated from a single ancient orogen that
was first emplaced in the west before being dissected
and remobilized during the oblique convergence regime
of Neogene age.
Only relatively young deposits (late Pleistocene Mesa
Formation) escaped the compressive deformation, which
is now active only in eastern Trinidad (Kugler, 1953;
Salvador and Stainforth, 1968; Persool, 1990).
672 Passalacqua et al.
Geologic and Geophysical Data Used to
Constrain the Models
In addition to published geologic maps of the Serranía
and numerous exploration wells in the Maturín basin, a
large number of conventional seismic profiles have been
recorded between the outcrops of the Serranía del
Interior and the Orinoco River, allowing good calibration
of the geologic section across the area. Using this
excellent set of data, we were able to construct a regional
depth section between the Caribbean coast and the
Guyana shield, across the El Pilar fault and related struc-
tures. The line discussed here is located in the Bergantín
block, between the Urica and San Francisco strike-slip
faults, and runs across Mount Turimiquire, the highest
peak of the Serranía (Figures 3, 4, 5). Its southern part,
from the Orinoco to the Morichito basin, is well
constrained by seismic lines (Figure 4), whereas its
northern part across the Serranía del Interior has been
carefully investigated by field surveys (Figure 5). Using
Locace software (Moretti and Larrére, 1989), we have
balanced and restored this cross section to one possible
preorogenic configuration (Figure 6).
Since deep reflection or refraction seismic profiles are
not yet available for the area, we decided to better
constrain the deep interpretations by using gravimetric
and magnetic modeling, especially for those parts of the
sections that are not imaged by conventional seismic
profiles. This includes the regional attitude of the Moho
and the first-order structure of the Serranía del Interior.
Gravimetric and magnetic surveys have been recorded
in the past, resulting in good quality regional maps,
which are available in numerical data banks (Figures 7,
8). These files were used here to compile gravimetric and
magnetic curves along the western profile (Figure 9),
which were then used to constrain the modeling and fit
the calculated curves with the measured ones.
The most obvious feature on the gravimetric map is
the occurrence of a regional anomaly doublet: an
important low on the axis of the Maturín basin is
observed, directly adjacent to a gravity high imaged
Figure 5—Geologic cross
section interpreted on the
basis of seismic and well
data from Maturín basin,
Pirital high, and Morichito
basin and on field surveys
from Serranía.
north of the Serranía trend. Southward, a more diffuse
positive anomaly is found along the northern border of
the Guyana shield and may reflect a flexural bulge
(Figure 7). The magnetic profile is also characterized by
anomalies on the southern flank of the Maturín basin.
CRUSTAL-SCALE, BALANCED CROSS
SECTION FROM EL PILAR FAULT TO
ORINOCO RIVER
Transport Direction and Orientation of the
Section
Far-traveled “suspect” terranes are found north of the
El Pilar fault, but they cannot be restored to their initial
positions that were out of the section. Nonetheless, even
if the area has been affected by oblique convergence,
most of the deformation observed south of the El Pilar
fault attests to a NNW-SSE direction of transport for the
emplacement of the allochthonous units. In the Maturín
basin, the El Furrial and Orocual frontal thrusts effec-
tively trend WSW-ENE. In the Serranía, the Bergantín
and Caripe blocks have probably been just slightly
rotated counterclockwise during thrust emplacement, as
indicated by the dextral motion recorded by the Urica
and San Francisco faults and by the general southwest-
northeast trend of the Pirital out-of-sequence thrust
(Roure et al., 1994) and related folds. Unfortunately, no
paleomagnetic data are yet available to quantify this
lateral displacement.
The modeled section is northwest-southeast trending
and parallel to the main transport direction, except north
of the El Pilar fault where cross section balancing was not
attempted. Due to the slight rotation observed for the
Bergantín and Caripe blocks, a certain amount of lateral
motion may have occurred along the Pirital thrust or the
San Francisco fault, but it is probably of small amplitude
and has not been taken into account in the present
restorations.
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges 673

Figure 6—(A) Crustal-scale balanced cross section from the El Pilar fault to the Guyana shield (present geometry). See
Figure 3 for location. A seismic profile of the southern part of the cross section is shown in Figure 4, and a more detailed
geologic interpretation is given in Figure 5. (B) Crustal-scale balanced cross section of initial geometry.

Figure 7—Gravimetric map showing the most relevant tectonic elements. A–A' is the modeled section.
674 Passalacqua et al.
Shortening of the Sedimentary Cover and
Basement Involvement
The change observed in the seismic image below 2–3
sec (two-way time) in the Pirital allochthon has been
interpreted as indicating pre-Cretaceous basement
involvement along this out-of-sequence thrust, which is
bounded on the west side by a transfer zone, the Urica
fault (Roure et al., 1994). Similarly, we have assumed that
the San Francisco fault, with a surface geometry similar
to that of the Urica fault, also involved pre-Cretaceous
strata at depth and can be divided into two segments: in
the west, a northwest-southeast trending segment acting
as a tear fault with a dextral-normal throw and, in the
center, an ENE-WSW trending segment accounting for a
southward-directed thrust front with only minimum
transverse displacement.
By analogy with the younger Pirital thrust, we
consider that other out-of-sequence thrusts in the Serranía
could also be basement-involved structures. In our initial
sections, we assumed that basement and Paleozoic–
Jurassic sedimentary sequences were essentially
involved in the shortening along the Pirital thrust with a
north-south offset greater than 20 km, but also with a
smaller offset along the San Francisco fault and other less
well expressed structures.
In both profiles, initial sections and restorations
accounted for about 45 km of shortening in the basement
and 90 km in the sedimentary cover. We later tried to
reduce the discrepancy observed beween basement and
cover shortening by modifying the Cretaceous cut-offs
beneath the thrusts and by thickening the sedimentary
sequence in the initial sections. Nonetheless, we still had
a big gap on the restored sections between the length of
the Cretaceous cover and the length of the Paleozoic or
basement. This anomaly can, in fact, be related to the
precompressive history of the margin and can be
corrected by taking into account the probable occurrence
of extensional structures linked to a Late Jurassic rifting
event.
We finally reduced the discrepancy between the
amounts of basement and cover shortening by intro-
Figure 8—Magnetic map of
the northern part of the study
area (total intensity, reduced
to the pole).
ducing early (pre-Cretaceous) normal faults that are
sealed by the Cretaceous. In these new inital geometries,
the thickness of Upper Jurassic synrift sedimentary rocks
changes laterally between two successive faults.
Therefore, most compressive structures involving the
basement probably reactivate Late Jurassic half-grabens,
and as a result, the actual amount of basement short-
ening is given by adding the amount of the Late Jurassic
extension to the 45 km first measured.
Additional Causes of the Missing
Basement
We increased the amount of basement shortening by
taking into account the probable occurrence of Late
Jurassic normal faults that involve basement. Instead, we
could have reduced the amount of cover shortening by
considering the effects of possible early gliding and
widening of the Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary
cover in a precompressive stage, using the seismically
interpreted salt or evaporitic sole as an extensional (or
gravitational) detachment level. Such a salt-related
geometry is common along passive margins where evap-
orites occur, such as in West Africa (Gabón) and the Gulf
of Mexico (Wu et al., 1990).
The amount of basement and cover shortening was
similar along the section, considering that the South
American continental crust was thinned northward
during the Late Jurassic rifting event. Two contrasting
solutions could explain the amount of shortening: 45 km
when neglecting precompressive basement extension
and 90 km when neglecting any precompression gravity
gliding of the Cretaceous–Paleogene cover. A median
value of 70 km is more realistic. In all solutions, however,
the present length of the section (and of the South
American Moho) is quite different from the initial one
(about 70 km for the median solution). This gap can be
explained by an equal amount of northward-dipping
subduction of parts of the South American lithosphere,
including the infracontinental upper mantle and possibly
even parts of the lower crust (the remaining parts being
accreted or stacked in a deep crustal orogenic wedge).
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges
Figure 9—(A) Geologic model along profile A–A'. Note the
intracrustal indenter (backstop) and the northward-dipping
Moho. (B) Magnetic model. (C) Gravity model. For B and C,
the measured curve is in black and the calculated curve is
dotted.
GRAVIMETRIC AND MAGNETIC
MODELING
Numerous gravimetric and magnetotelluric surveys
have been conducted locally (Wong et al., 1982;
Fernández and Passalacqua, 1990; Martín and Espinoza,
1990; Orihuela and Franklin, 1990; Passalacqua et al.,
1990). However, only a few modeling studies have been
attempted to constrain the deep geometry of the belt.
These previous models (Bonini, 1978; Potié, 1989) tried to
explain the gravimetric low observed on Bouguer
anomaly maps by a crustal root located beneath the axis
of the Maturín basin and the gravimetric high north of
the Serranía by a relatively shallow Moho in this area.
Nevertheless, these previous models are inconsistent
with the geodynamic evolution of the flexural basins
recorded by deep seismic profiles around the world. In
most cases, the crustal root is located beneath the uplifted
areas (which here is the Serranía), and the foreland basin
related to the bending of the lithosphere (due to the
loading effects of the allochthon) actually corresponds to
a progressively deepening Moho (Watts and Talwani,
1974; Rey et al., 1990; Lillie, 1991). Therefore, in the initial
geologic model used here, we have inferred both a
flexure of the Moho and a crustal root beneath the
Serranía.
Potié (1989) has also proposed a model with a
northward-dipping Moho in which a shallow ophiolitic
body was assumed in the section beneath the Cretaceous
sedimentary cover south of the El Pilar fault in order to
balance the high positive gravimetric anomaly in the
Serranía. However, this hypothesis is unlikely. There is
no way to obduct any ophiolite here before deposition of
the Cretaceous strata, at a time when the South American
675
Table 1—Densities and Susceptibilities Used for Modeling
Density Susceptibility
Layer (g/cm3) (cgs 106)
Foredeep 2.25 0
Passive margin 2.50–2.55 0
Rift-prerift deposition 2.65 100
Ophiolite 2.75 300
Metamorphics 2.75 300
Upper crust 2.70–2.80 0–3500
Lower crust 2.95 2000
High-density wedge 3.00 1500
margin evolved in an extensional regime. Therefore, in
addition to the deepening Moho, we also introduced in
our model a high-density wedge to simulate the
backstop that is known to occur in every accretionary
wedge, which should help to compensate for the
deepening of the mantle.
For gravimetric modeling, specific densities were
attributed to each significant lithology: the mantle, the
lower crust, the middle and upper crust (crystalline
basement), the Paleozoic and Jurassic sedimentary
substratum, the Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary
cover, and the Neogene terrigenous sequences (Table 1).
However, we changed the initial section substantially to
fit reasonably with the calculated and measured gravi-
metric curves (Figure 9)—especially underneath the
Serranía—by modifying the shape and size of the high-
density body, as well as the thickness of the pre-Creta-
ceous sedimentary rocks.
The introduction of magnetic modeling (curves
rotated to the pole) provided additional constraints to the
model. High susceptibilities (Table 1) have been postu-
lated in the upper crust on the southern side of the
Maturín basin, where the crust was already significantly
thinned during the rifting episodes. Basaltic intrusions or
sills have been encountered in some exploration wells in
the nearby Guárico basin. Additional heterogeneities in
the crust could also be the cause of local anomalies, since
greenstones or amphibolites crop out locally in the
Guyana shield. By means of these various hypotheses,
we obtained a good fit between the observed and calcu-
lated curves for both gravity and magnetism.
GEODYNAMIC MODEL FOR THE
EASTERN VENEZUELAN RANGES
Continental Subduction and Oblique
Convergence
The present seismic activity of the area provides
evidence for the occurrence of a northwestward-dipping
subducted slab off Trinidad and the eastern Venezuelan
coast. Laterally connected to the oceanic subduction of
the Lesser Antilles, this slab may be partially composed
of continental lithosphere since part of the allochthonous
676 Passalacqua et al.
units found in the fold and thrust belt on Trinidad are
fragments of the ancient passive margin of the South
American craton and are therefore of continental origin.
The present-day precise geometry of the continent–ocean
boundary between the Atlantic ocean and the South
American craton is still under discussion due to the thick
overlying strata of the Orinoco submarine fan (Speed,
1985; Burke, 1988). This important limit definitely lies
east of the Venezuelan border (Figures 1, 2). According to
our restorations and modeling studies, the same kind of
continental subduction must have been active to the west
during the Neogene. The last compressive event
recorded in the Serranía-Maturín transects was sealed by
the upper Pleistocene Mesa Formation.
In view of our balanced sections, the minimum length
of the South American subducted continental slab must
have reached 70 km. The slab itself was probably more
extensive since this continental subduction followed an
earlier oceanic one that was necessary to consume most
of the ancient Tethyan ocean which bordered the South
American continental margin to the north (with only
some small obducted fragments now preserved along
the El Pilar fault) (Fourcade et al., 1991)
Relationships Between the El Pilar
Strike-Slip Fault and Deep Structure
Present seismicity indicates only shallow focal mecha-
nisms along the El Pilar fault and near northwest-
southeast trending strike-slip faults such as the Los Bajos
fault (Figure 2). Similarly, both paleomagnetism and
transport direction markers show a western origin for
the tectonic units found north of the fault, whereas all the
allochthons of the Serranía farther south result from a
slight southward displacement of initial fragments of this
part of the South American margin.
In the Pyrenees and the Alps, the North Pyrenean
fault and the Insubric line, respectively, are strike-slip
faults known to extend only to intermediate depths
before branching on top of a deep crustal indenter
(Laubscher, 1988; Daignières et al., 1989; Choukroune et
al., 1989). In the same way, the El Pilar fault is here
assumed to overlie a high density mid-crustal wedge
that acted as a backstop during migration of the defor-
mation toward the south. Compressive deformation at
the front of the wedge (Serranía and Maturín fold and
thrust belt) is mainly southward-directed, whereas the
motion at the rear of the backstop is either strike-slip (the
El Pilar dextral fault and related faults) (Jamison, 1991) or
extensional (offshore northward-facing normal faults).
Strain Partitioning along the South
American–Caribbean Plate Boundary
A major component of strain partitioning is thus
defined along the El Pilar fault, where continental
subduction induces decomposition of the oblique motion
vector into two components. At the surface, one can
observe almost pure strike-slip motion north of the El
Pilar fault and almost pure north-south shortening south
Figure 10—Strain partitioning and geodynamic model of
the eastern Venezuelan Coast Ranges. Strike-slip motion is
restricted to surface areas located north of the El Pilar fault
and to the intracrustal indenter. In contrast, only north-
south shortening occurs south of the El Pilar in the
allochthon, whereas northward-dipping subduction affects
the distal part of the South American lithosphere.
of the fault. At depth, strike slip motion is restricted to
the backstop (intracrustal indenter), whereas northward-
dipping subduction affects the underlying remnants of
South American lithosphere (Figure 10).
However, this Venezuelan example of strain parti-
tioning is not unique. Analog examples of oblique
convergence (Malavielle and Cobb, 1986) attest to the
common connection between shallow normal or strike-
slip faults and deeper thrust planes whose merging front
remains almost parallel to the shallow structures. In
southeastern Asia (Fitch, 1970) and in the Western
Canadian Cordillera (Mattauer and Collot, 1986; Van den
Driessche, 1986), oblique motion along the plate boun-
dary is equally divided into two components between
frontal accretion in a σ1 regime perpendicular to the
margin and strike-slip motion parallel to the margin. The
same balance between a well-developed fold and thrust
belt and a large parallel strike-slip fault is known to occur
in California along the San Andreas fault (Mocent and
Suppe, 1987). Both the stress regime (σ1) and the deep
geometry of this system are now well studied
(Wentworth et al., 1984; Wentworth and Zobak, 1989),
providing excellent examples for comparison with the
eastern Venezuelan margin. Nonetheless, only future
deep seismic profiles will be able to establish the depth
where the El Pilar fault branches out on top of the
backstop and fold and thrust system, probably not much
deeper than 12 km, on the basis of the present shallow
seismicity (Figures 2, 7).
Composition of the High-Density Wedge
In addition to the problem caused by the high density
required to fit the gravity anomaly, the composition of
the deep crustal indenter is difficult to constrain. In the
Pyrenees, where two continental lithospheric plates
 Crustal Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges
interact (the Iberian plate to the south and the European
plate to the north), it is known that the brittle European
upper mantle acts as a backstop that progressively
wedges the ductile Iberian lower crust out, forcing the
thrusts to propagate southward. In the Alps, the upper
mantle of the hanging wall (the Apulian or African plate)
probably helps to decouple the middle crust of the
subducted plate (the European plate), but the composi-
tion of the indenter itself is probably constantly modified
by the stacking (underplating) of fragments of European
lower crust which cannot be subducted.
In eastern Venezuela, where no continental block is
known to occur north of the El Pilar fault, the roots of the
early island arc system that developed above the ancient
oceanic subduction zone (Aves–Lesser Antilles arcs)
could have participated in the formation of the backstop.
Nevertheless, it cannot be ignored that fragments of the
South American lithosphere itself (either upper mantle or
thinned lower crust) may also have contributed to the
construction of the indenter. Only a small portion of the
thinned crust may have been subducted.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite the fact that deep seismic reflection and refrac-
tion profiling in the eastern Venezuelan Coast Ranges is
only in the planning stages, the present integrated
geologic and geophysical interpretation helps to constrain
a geodynamic model of oblique convergence. Like the
North Pyrenean fault in the Pyrenees or the Insubric line
in the Alps, the El Pilar fault is assumed to overlie a high-
density mid-crustal wedge that acted as a backstop
during migration of the deformation toward the south. A
minimum of continental subduction occurred until the
late Pleistocene and is still active in Trinidad. At present,
the composition of the crustal wedge remains conjectural;
it could be made up of either Caribbean or South
American lower crust and/or upper mantle.
After Late Jurassic rifting, the South American passive
margin started to be deformed in the west, where the
Tethyan oceanic crust first disappeared. While the Lesser
Antilles or Aves arcs and related oceanic subduction
zones migrated eastward, an oblique convergent regime
was progressively initiated along the margin. This
oblique convergence was the site of intense strain parti-
tioning, with coeval transpression and thrusting in the
south, and strike-slip or transtension to the north of the El
Pilar fault, a near-surface expression of the South
American–Caribbean plate boundary.
Distinct episodes of petroleum generation and
migration took place during this complex geodynamic
evolution of the Eastern Venezuelan basin (see Gallango
and Parnaud, 1995, for details):
• In the early stages of the flexural evolution (prior to
the formation of the frontal structures such as the
El Furrial or Orocual trends), early generated oils
probably migrated over long distances from the
inner part of the belt toward the Orinoco to fill the
traps of the Faja Petrolífera.
677
• The El Furrial and Orocual trends were formed
later, providing closer traps for the oil generated
north of the present Pirital high, at a time when the
Cretaceous source rocks were still immature in
these external units.
• More recently, the tectonic overburial of the
external units (related to the Pirital basement-
involved structure) has induced the maturation of
the Cretaceous source rocks south of the Pirital
high, allowing a very young but short migration of
oil toward the frontal structures.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
H. Passalacqua
F. Fernandez
Intevep, S.A.
Apartado postal 76343
Caracas 1070-A
Venezuela
Y. Gou
Beicip
B.P. 213, 92502
Rueil-Malmaison
France
F. Roure
IFP
B.P. 311,92506
Rueil-Malmaison
France
 Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela

François Parnaud Maria Angela Capello

Yves Gou Irene Truskowski
Jean-Claude Pascual Herminio Passalacqua
Beicip-Franlab Intevep, S.A.
Petroleum Consultants Caracas, Venezuela
Rueil-Malmaison, France

Abstract

T he sedimentary basins of western Venezuela contain large volumes of oil. However, most of the large
structures have already been produced. Exploration for new reserves of light and medium oil now
depends on integrated studies that lead to a more comprehensive basin evaluation. This paper presents an
integrated account of the Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure basins of western Venezuela. It is a fully inte-
grated study but focuses on the genetic and seismic stratigraphy of more than 600 wells, reference outcrops,
and 4000 km of reflection seismic data.
Six unconformity-bounded supersequences record the dynamics of Mesozoic–Cenozoic basin evolution
from extension to collision. Supersequence A was deposited during an episode of Jurassic rifting, and superse-
quence B corresponds to the subsequent Early–Late Cretaceous passive margin. Supersequence C marks the
transition to a compressive regime in the Late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Compression resulted from
collision and obduction of the Pacific volcanic arc with the South American plate. Supersequence D records the
development of the late Paleocene–middle Eocene foreland basin in front of the volcanic arc and emplacement
of the Lara nappes. Supersequences E and F are attributed to modification of the foreland basin by late
Eocene–Pleistocene collision of the Panamá arc. The uplifted Serranía de Perijá, Macizo de Santander, and
Mérida Andes partitioned the foreland basin, creating the present Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure basins.
Supersequence B contains the Cretaceous La Luna source rock (sequences K3, K4, K5). The Colón and
Burgüita formations form the principal supersequence C seals (sequence K6). The principal reservoir units
occur in supersequence D, including the prolific Eocene Misoa and Gobernador formations (sequences T1, T2).
Reservoirs of the La Rosa and Lagunillas formations occur in supersequence F and in the Betijoque Molasse.

Resumen

L as cuencas sedimentarias del Occidente de Venezuela contienen inmensas acumulaciones de hidrocar-

buros. Sin embargo, la mayoría de las estructuras grandes ya han sido explotadas. La exploración que
incorpore más reservas de crudo liviano y mediano debe entonces basarse actualmente en estudios integrados
que conduzcan a una evaluación más exhaustiva de estas cuencas. Este artículo presenta una vision integrada
de las cuencas del Lago de Maracaibo y Barinas-Apure, en el occidente de Venezuela. Es un estudio totalmente
integrado y enfocado especialmente a la estratigrafía genética y sísmica de más de 600 pozos, afloramientos de
referencia y alrededor de 4000 km de líneas sísmicas.
Seis supersecuencias, limitadas por discordancias, evidencian la dinámica evolución de las cuencas en el
Mesozoico–Cenozoico, de un proceso de extensión a uno de colisión. La supersecuencia A fue depositada
durante un episodio de apertura de corteza del Jurásico. La supersecuencia B corresponde al margen pasivo
subsiguiente, durante el Cretácico Temprano al Tardío. La supersecuencia C marca la transición a un régimen
compresivo en el Cretácico Tardío y Paleoceno Temprano. La compresión es el resultado de la colisión y
obducción del arco volcánico pacífico al Oeste con la placa suraméricana. La supersecuencia D pone de mani-
fiesto el desarrollo de la cuenca de antepaís del Paleoceno Tardío–Eoceno Medio, al frente del arco volcánico
pacífico, y el emplazamiento de las napas de Lara. Las supersecuencias E y F se atribuyen a las modificaciones
en la cuenca de antepaís debidas a la colisión Eoceno Tardío–Pleistoceno del arco de Panamá. Los levan-
tamientos de la Serranía de Perijá, del Macizo de Santander y de los Andes de Mérida particionaron la cuenca
de antepaís generando así las actuales cuencas del Lago de Maracaibo y Barinas-Apure.
La supersecuencia B contiene la roca madre La Luna de edad Cretácico. Las formaciones Colón y Burgüita
coforman los sellos principales de la supersecuencia C. Las principales unidades reservorio se ubican en la
supersecuencia D, incluyendo a las prolíficas formaciones Misoa y Gobernador del Eoceno. Las formaciones La
Rosa y Lagunillas generan reservorios dentro de la supersecuencia F en la cual se ubica la sedimentación
molássica de la formación Betijoque.

Parnaud, F., Y. Gou, J.-C. Pascual, M. A. Capello, I. Truskowski, and H. Passalacqua, 681
1995, Stratigraphic synthesis of western Venezuela, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and
H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 681–698.
682 Parnaud et al.

INTRODUCTION
Western Venezuela can be divided into several struc-
tural units (Zambrano et al., 1970) (Figure 1): (1) the
Guyana shield or Cuchivero granitic province
(Menéndez, 1968); (2) the Mérida Andes mountain range,
which separates the Barinas-Apure basin to the southeast
from the Lake Maracaibo basin in the northwest; (3) the
Serrania de Perijá in the west, which separates the Lake
Maracaibo basin (east) from the Colombian César-
Ranchería basin (west); and (4) the Serrania de Trujillo,
which separates the Lake Maracaibo basin from the Lara
nappes (Stephan, 1985).
These structural units record a long history of basin
evolution (Figure 2). The earliest episode involved the
progressive evolution from extension to a Caribbean–
Tethyan passive margin at the edge of the South
American plate. This evolution spanned late Triassic–
Cretaceous time. It was followed by collision of the
Pacific plate with the South American plate and
building of a Late Cretaceous-Paleocene mountain range
with an associated foreland basin. Collision and
migration of the Caribbean plate since the Paleocene
resulted in the Lara thrust belt and the Eocene foreland
basin. The subsequent Andean orogeny is attributed to
collision of the Panamá arc. This collision also parti-
tioned the Cretaceous passive margin into the post-
middle Miocene Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure
basins.
This geologic history is expressed in a hierarchy of Figure 1—Location of the study area and stratigraphic
depositional sequences. On a large scale, the stratigraphy syntheses of Barinas-Apure and Lake Maracaibo basins.
can be divided into Paleozoic and Mesozoic–Cenozoic Cross sections: A–A' is in Figure 3, B–B' and C–C' in
successions. Jurassic extension records separation of Figure 5, and I–I' and J–J' in Figure 15. Circled numbers
North and South America (Pindell and Erikson, 1993; refer to the locations of these numbered figures.
Parnaud et al., 1994). The Mesozoic–Cenozoic succession
contains a suite of unconformity-bounded sequences that
describe the dynamics of basin evolution along the structural–tectonic modifications (Figure 3). Sedimento-
northern part of the South American plate (Figures 2, 3), logically, the Cretaceous and Paleocene consist of a
as follows: heterogeneous carbonate-siliciclastic association. In
contrast, the Cenozoic is represented mainly by a silici-
• Supersequence A resulted from an episode of clastic sedimentary system.
Jurassic rifting. Dating of the sequence boundaries and the maximum
• Supersequence B corresponds to the Early–Late flooding surfaces was established with available strati-
Cretaceous stage of passive margin development. graphic and biostratigraphic information and by
• Supersequence C was a transitional phase of the comparison with the global sea level charts of Haq et al.
Late Cretaceous–early Paleocene passive margin (1987). We believe that tectonism due to emplacement of
deposition behind the compressive arc. the Lara nappes modified the eustatic signature, particu-
• Supersequence D was deposited in a foreland basin larly in the flexured zones such as those located in front
during the late Paleocene–middle Eocene, when of the deformation and along the zone of lateral ramps
collision and obduction of the Pacific volcanic arc that limit the nappes’ extent along the eastern border of
overrode the South American plate and emplaced the lake.
the Lara nappes.
• Supersequences E and F were related to the late
Eocene–Pleistocene phase of foreland basin subsi-
dence caused by collision of the Panamá arc. This
PALEOZOIC SUCCESSION
episode of deformation was responsible for separa- The sequences deposited during the Paleozoic were
tion of the Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure identified in several areas, in particular, the Guyana
basins. shield, Mérida Andes, Lake Maracaibo basin, and
Serrania de Perijá. A stratigraphic column for the
Internally, these six supersequences comprise a series Paleozoic of western Venezuela has been established
of minor sequences that reflect eustatic processes and (González de Juana, 1980).
 Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela

Figure 2—Geotectonic evolution of Venezuelan supersequences A–F. Symbols: M, Machiques; U, Uribante; T, Trujillo; L, Lake Maracaibo; CC,
Central Cordillera; G, Guajira; P, Paraguana; Ti, Trinidad. (Modified after Pindell and Erikson, 1993.)
683
Figure 3—Stratigraphic chart (see Figure 1, A–A', for location). Legend: 1, continental sandstones and shales; 2, inner to middle shelf carbonates; 3, middle to
outer shelf carbonates and shales; 4, outer shelf to bathyal shales; 5, nearshore regressive sandstones; 6, nearshore transgressive sandstones; 7, phtanites.
 Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 685

The lower Paleozoic in the southern flank of the Mérida

Andes consists of fossiliferous siltstones of the Ordovician
Caparo Formation (Christ, 1927) and the Silurian El
Horno Formation (Martín Bellizia, 1968). The middle
Paleozoic Río Cachirí Group of Liddle (1928) occurs in the
Serrania de Perijá. This group consists of marine shelf
sedimentary rocks that are rich in fauna, such as
brachiopods and pelecypods. The upper Paleozoic in the
Mérida Andes is stratigraphically diverse. The Mucu-
chachí Formation (Christ, 1927) records marine inunda-
tions, the Sabaneta Formation (Oppenheim, 1937) shows
an episode of continental deposition, and the Palmarito
Formation (Christ, 1927) is evidence of a final marine
event. In the Serrania de Perijá, the upper Paleozoic is
represented by two sets. A lower set includes the Caño
del Noroeste, Caño Indio, and Río Palmar formations
which are believed to be equivalent to the Sabaneta
Formation toward the east in the Mérida Andes. A
younger set, containing the Palmarito Formation, is
composed of sandy facies and marine limestones of inner
shelf origin. In the western Venezuelan basins, no well
has thus far reached this stratigraphic level.
Nevertheless, in the subsurface of the Barinas-Apure
basin south of Apure (Elorza zone), a sequence has been
interpreted in seismic sections with a thickness of 2 sec
(about 4500 m). This sequence is characterized by parallel
reflections that are relatively continuous beneath the
Cretaceous section (Figure 4A). Its top corresponds to a
regional unconformity that is well defined by trunca-
tions, while its base is difficult to recognize. A Paleozoic
age is inferred on the basis of regional correlations and
the structural style that affects it. This Paleozoic succes-
sion was subjected to a strong compressive event that
resulted in thrusts and fault-bend folds. These structures
were subsequently peneplaned and unconformably
covered by Mesozoic strata (Figure 4A). The structural
style distinguishes the Paleozoic rocks from the Jurassic
sequences.
In the Lake Maracaibo basin, drilling encountered
metamorphic rocks beneath the Cretaceous. These strati-
graphic levels were considered by González de Juana et
al. (1980) to be possible equivalents of Paleozoic forma-
tions in the central Andean region. Nevertheless, seismic
data do not record a Paleozoic stratigraphy in the Lake Figure 4—Seismic profiles. (A) Paleozoic succession. (B)
Maracaibo basin similar to that interpreted for the Triassic–Jurassic extensional supersequence A. See
Barinas-Apure basin. We believe that this may reflect the Figure 1 for locations.
level of metamorphism.
The hydrocarbon potential of the Paleozoic succession
is poorly known. Alberdi et al. (1994) showed that the Jurassic Supersequence A: Extension
organic matter of the Palmarito Formation samples has a Supersequence A occurs in outcrops of Perijá and
high maturity level, which precludes an accurate evalua- Mérida Andes and in the subsurface of the Lake
tion of its real initial hydrocarbon potential. Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure basins. In Perijá, superse-
quence A forms the La Ge Group (Hea and Whitman,
1960) and includes the Tinacoa (Liddle et al., 1943),
Macoíta (Hedberg and Sass, 1937), and La Quinta
MESOZOIC–CENOZOIC SUCCESSION (Künding, 1938) formations. These formations reflect sedi-
The Mesozoic–Cenozoic succession results from the mentation in continental environments that were locally
Jurassic rift phase attributed to the fragmentation of sourced by volcanic material such as volcanic ashes. In the
Pangea and from the Cretaceous–Tertiary phase of Mérida Andes, this Jurassic supersequence is identified as
collision between Pacific and South American plates the La Quinta Formation, which was also deposited in a
(Figure 2). continental setting with conspicuous red sandstones.
686 Parnaud et al.
In the subsurface of the Barinas-Apure basin, it is
difficult to identify supersequence A in seismic sections
without well control. However, southwest of the Barinas
basin, where outcrops show a significant development of
this Triassic–Jurassic sequence, some seismic lines
display a 1-sec-thick (3000-m) sequence beneath the
Cretaceous (Figure 4B). The base of the supersequence is
obscure, but its top is expressed as a strong unconform-
ity. Its seismic signature consists of discontinuous reflec-
tions of variable amplitudes. The structural style of these
intervals is generally characterized by normal faults that
bound small half-grabens.
In the subsurface of the western part of Lake
Maracaibo basin, west of the Icotea structural trend, a
half-graben is observed in seismic sections and has an
eastward-dpping basin-forming fault. The base of super-
sequence A is not recognized, but its upper surface is
marked by truncated reflections. Wells indicate that this
sequence corresponds to the La Quinta Formation.
Because of an apparent absence of source rocks and
poor reservoir characteristics, supersequence A has little
hydrocarbon potential. There is no production from
Jurassic levels in the study area.
Cretaceous Supersequence B: Passive
Margin
At the beginning of the Cretaceous, a marine trans-
gression caused inundation of the Guyana shield. This
transgression is correlated to the eustatic changes that
occurred worldwide and lasted until Cenomanian–
Campanian time (Figure 2). Sporadic volcanic material
within the La Luna Formation suggests the presence of a
volcanic arc toward the west, implying subduction of the
Pacific plate. The apparent reduction of fault-controlled
subsidence, the overall transgressive deepening of the
basin, and the stratigraphy suggest that Cretaceous
supersequence B was deposited as a passive margin
terrace wedge behind a volcanic arc. The passive margin
phase ended with collision of the Pacific arc and the
South American plate and flexural subsidence of
foreland basins.
During this period of passive margin development,
several sequences were deposited (Figure 3). Together
they formed the terrace wedge of supersequence B. The
structural style is characterized by steeply dipping
reverse faults of post-Cretaceous age. Structural
inversion of older normal faults are interpreted from
seismic data (Figure 5, C–C’).
In general, it is difficult to differentiate these passive
margin sequences seismically, except for local reflection
truncations (e.g., onlaps and downlaps) in an otherwise
continuous supersequence B with persistent subparallel
reflections. The internal seismic sequence boundaries
separate six depositional sequences, K0 through K5, as
discussed below.
Neocomian–Barremian Sequence K0
In the Early Cretaceous, a thick sequence of conti-
nental sediments was deposited in three troughs: the
Machiques trough in Perijá, the Uribante trough in
Táchira, and the Barquisimeto trough in Trujillo. In
addition to these troughs, this sequence forms a wide-
spread cover, except in the southwestern part of Apure.
Hedberg (1931) initially described sequence K0 in the
Negro River area (Serrania de Perijá), and it was later
named the Río Negro Formation (Hedberg and Sass,
1937). It marks the basal continental component of the
Cretaceous passive margin basin. Although it is wide-
spread, its age is poorly constrained; available evidence
suggests a Neocomian–Aptian age. Seismic resolution is
insufficient to establish the upper bounding surface with
confidence.
This Lower Cretaceous sequence has a low hydro-
carbon potential. Source rocks are unknown, and
although it has a high sandstone content, reservoir char-
acteristics are generally believed to be poor.
Aptian Sequence K1
Continental Rio Negro deposition was terminated by
a Cenomanian–Campanian marine transgression that
flooded the Guyana cratonic platform (Figure 2). This
transgression was episodic as evidenced by a back-
stepping suite of depositional sequences, the first of
which has an Aptian age (Figure 3). The Aptian Apón
sequence (K1) (Sutton, 1946) is characterized by shallow
marine shelf sedimentation and displays lateral facies
changes. Toward the east (Mérida Andes), littoral sand-
stones form the basal part of the Peñas Altas Formation
(Renz, 1959) (Figure 6). This sequence consists of three
parts (Figure 3):
• The lower part is interpreted as a transgressive
systems tract (TST) and comprises several retro-
gradational parasequences. This TST corresponds
to the Tibú Member and was deposited in an inner
shelf environment where littoral bioclastic bars
developed.
• The middle part forms the maximum flooding
surface (MFS) and include the Machiques Member
and its laterally equivalent, the Guáimaros
Member. Both were deposited in middle shelf envi-
ronments with several intercalations of shallower
deposits. Based on previous work, an interval rich
in Orbitolina texana is equated with the middle
Aptian event (the 111-Ma MFS of Haq et al., 1987).
• The upper part of this sequence is characterized by
a highstand and progradation. This regressive part
is the Piché Member of the Lake Maracaibo zone,
which was deposited in an inner shelf environ-
ment. In the Mérida Andes, the central part of the
Peñas Altas Formation was deposited in a littoral
setting in which bars developed.
In the Lake Maracaibo succession, reflection seismic
data does not clearly distinguish this sequence from
other Cretaceous units. Nevertheless, its base does show
local onlaps and its top shows weak truncations. The
internal geometry of sequence K1 is marked by three
high-amplitude reflectors (Figure 7A). The thickness of
this sequence varies up to 300 m, but it is absent in the
Barinas-Apure basin (Figures 5, B–B’, and 6). The
 Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela

Figure 5—(Top) Tectonostratigraphic cross section B–B' of Barinas-Apure basin. (Bottom) Tectonostratigraphic cross section C–C' of Lake
Maracaibo basin. See Figure 1 for locations.
687
688 Parnaud et al.
Figure 6—Paleogeography of the Aptian depositional
sequence K1. Legend: 1, Lara nappes, actual position; 2,
positive areas; 3, nearshore clastics; 4, inner shelf carbon-
ates and shales; 5, middle shelf carbonates and shales; 6,
thickness contours in feet.
estimated sedimentation rate is about 25 m/m.y.
The Aptian depositional sequence has good hydro-
carbon potential in the western part of the Lake
Maracaibo basin. The Machiques source rock is rich in
type II organic matter (Alberdi et al., 1994). The reservoir
intervals are believed to have dissolution and fracture
porosity.
Albian–Lower Cenomanian Sequence K2
The second major marine transgression took place
during the Albian, invading the entire study area from
the Serrania de Perijá to the southeastern limit of the
Barinas-Apure basin and toward the Guyana shield
(Figure 2). This depositional sequence (K2) includes the
Lisure (Rod and Maync, 1954), Maraca (Rod and Maync,
1954), La Puya (Renz, 1959), lower Capacho (Sievers,
1888), Aguardiente (Notestein et al., 1944), and basal
Escandalosa (Renz, 1959, S and R members) formations.
This sequence has a threefold subdivision (Figure 3):
• The lower part is a transgressive systems tract that
was internally built by retrograde parasequences.
During this TST, the Lisure Formation was
deposited in a middle shelf environment. At the
same time, transgressive sands of the Aguardiente
Figure 7—Seismic profiles. (A) Aptian depositional
sequence K1 showing onlaps and truncations. (B) Eocene
supersequence D showing top and base bounding uncon-
formities. Columns: 1, depositional sequences; 2, superse-
quences. See Figure 1 for locations.
Formation were deposited in an inner shelf setting
with fringing shoreline facies (Figure 8).
• The middle part corresponds to the maximum
flooding surface (the 97-Ma MFS of Haq et al.,
1987) developed in the S Member of the Escan-
dalosa Formation in the Barinas-Apure basin. In
the Lake Maracaibo basin, this MFS is absent due to
erosion (Figure 9). There the shales of the S
Member were deposited in an open marine middle
shelf environment.
• The upper part of the sequence is a progradational
highstand systems tract. It is related to the regres-
sive sandstones of the R Member in the Escan-
dalosa Formation and was deposited in a shallow
littoral environment with shoreline, barrier bar,
and coastal lagoon sedimentation. The lateral
equivalent in the Lake Maracaibo area is absent
due to erosion.

Figure 8—Paleogeography of the Albian–lower Ceno-
manian depositional sequence K2. Legend: 1, Lara nappes,
actual position; 2, positive areas; 3, nearshore clastics; 4,
inner to middle shelf carbonates and shales; 5, thickness
contours in feet.
In Perijá and Lake Maracaibo, Canache et al. (1994)
identified a hiatus of early Cenomanian age between
sequence K2 and the overlying upper Cenomanian strata
of sequence K3 (Figures 3, 9). Erosion has partially
truncated the Albian sequence. We attibute this hiatus to
collision of the Pacific volcanic arc with South American
continental crust and to flexural deformation in front of
the applied load. A foreland basin is located west of
Serrania de Perijá, and an associated forebulge occurs in
the Perijá and Lake Maracaibo areas. Forebulge uplift
resulted in emergence, restricted deposition, and erosion
of the upper part of sequence K2 during the early Ceno-
manian. This is reflected in a regressive wedge in the
Mérida Andes and in deposition of the highstand regres-
sive Escandalosa Sandstone. Following this event, a new
trangression flooded the entire area. This transgression
probably resulted from renewed compression and
regional flexural downwarping. Basinal accumulation of
shaly calcareous facies of the La Luna Formation
initiated late Cenomanian sedimentation.
In Barinas seismic sections, identification of the
sequence K2 is generally tenuous. However, there are
some onlaps of the transgressive systems tract (Aguardi-
ente Formation) and local downlap of the highstand
systems tract (R Member of Escandalosa Formation)
associated with a gentle unconformity at its top. Seismic
Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 689
Figure 9—Paleogeography at top of Albian–lower Ceno-
manian depositional sequence K2. Legend: 1, Lara nappes,
actual position; 2, positive areas; 3, nearshore clastics; 4,
inner shelf sandstones and carbonates; 5, middle shelf
carbonates and shales.
data from the Lake Maracaibo area also shows basal
onlaps (Figure 7A), as well as an irregular upper surface
that we interpret as a paraconformity.
This sequence, which is regionally persistent (Figure
8), has a thickness varying up to 600 m. Estimated sedi-
mentation rates are 50 m/m.y. in the southern part of the
Mérida Andes and 12 m/m.y. in the shelf zone.
The hydrocarbon potential of sequence K2 lies in the
Lisure reservoirs with their fracture porosity and in
sandstone reservoirs in the Aguardiente (TST) and
Escandalosa (R Member, HST) formations that preserve
intergranular porosity.
Upper Cenomanian–Lower Campanian
Sequences K3, K4, and K5
Foreland downwarping following deposition of Early
Cretaceous sequences resulted in episodic late Ceno-
manian–early Campanian transgression and three back-
stepping depositional sequences: K3, K4, and K5 (Figure
2). These sequences are present in the Serrania de Perijá
and Lake Maracaibo basin as the La Luna Formation and
the Tres Esquinas Member (Stainforth, 1962), in the
Mérida Andes as the Capacho (upper Seboruco and
Guayacán members; Sievers, 1888) and La Luna forma-
tions, and in the Barinas-Apure basin as the Escandalosa
(P and O members; Renz, 1959) and Navay (La Morita and
690 Parnaud et al.
Figure 10—Paleogeography of upper Cenomanian–lower
Campanian depositional sequences K3, K4, and K5.
Legend: 1, Lara nappes, actual position; 2, positive areas;
3, nearshore clastics; 4, internal to middle shelf sand-
stones and carbonates (Guayacan Member); 5, outer shelf
to upper bathyal carbonates and shales; 6, thickness
contours in feet.
Quevedo members; Kehrer, 1938; Renz, 1959) formations.
Several maximum flooding surfaces are recognized.
The upper Cenomanian interval at the base of the La
Luna Formation is not obvious. Haq et al. (1987) docu-
ment their 92-Ma MFS as a prominent event. In contrast,
the next MFS at the base of the La Morita Member is well
defined in the Barinas-Apure basin (equivalent to the
88-Ma datum of Haq et al., 1987). The third MFS occurs
in the Tres Esquinas Member in the Lake Maracaibo
basin (79-Ma datum of Haq et al., 1987). The highstand
systems track of each sequence and the corresponding
sequence boundaries are not precisely determined.
The characteristics of sequences K3, K4, and K5 are as
follows:
• Volcanic ash beds at the base of the La Luna
Formation suggest the presence of the Pacific
volcanic arc west of the study area.
• The basin deepens rapidly from inner shelf to
bathyal depths, possibly reflecting eastward
migration of the forebulge toward the Barinas-
Apure basin complex.
• The three transgressive sequences each culminate
in maximum flooding surfaces.
• There are two well-defined facies tracts (Figure 10).
In the west, the middle shelf–bathyal tract contains
calcareous and shaly facies of the La Luna
Formation. Eastward detrital littoral sediments of
the Escandalosa Formation (P member) and Navay
Formation (Quevedo Member) were deposited
(Figure 11).
These sequences were established seismically on the
basis of onlap relationships. However, no particular
internal geometric characteristics were observed (Figure
7A). The thickness of the sequences varies from 150 to
>600 m (Figure 10). Sedimentation rates of 30 m/m.y. in
the southern Andes and 8 m/m.y. in the Maracaibo shelf
area are estimated.
This succession has substantial hydrocarbon potential,
including the exceptional La Luna source rock (Alberdi
et al., 1994) and favorable reservoirs with intergranular
porosities in the Escandalosa (TST) and Navay (Quevedo
Member, HST) formations.
Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Supersequence C:
Passive to Active Margin Transition
In the Late Cretaceous, a new phase in tectonic
evolution was marked by collision of the Pacific volcanic
arc with the South American plate. This collision trans-
formed the passive margin into an active belt, creating a
foreland basin with an associated foredeep to the west
(Perijá area) and a forebulge in the Barinas area. Never-
theless, toward the north and northeast, the passive
margin setting persisted until emplacement of the Lara
thrust belt and nappes. This history indicates a scissor-
type closure of the old passive margin through the Late
Cretaceous and early Paleocene (Figure 2). This transi-
tional phase was also characterized by a regression that
resulted in three depositional sequences, K6, K7, and K8,
as discussed below (Figure 3).
Upper Campanian–Maastrichtian Sequence K6
Regression began at the beginning of the Late Creta-
ceous. Simultaneously, toward the west, the Pacific
volcanic arc collision formed a foredeep within which
shaly facies of the Colón Formation were deposited
(Liddle, 1928). The associated forebulge migrated from
the Lake Maracaibo depocenter to Barinas-Apure, where
arenaceous shoreline facies of the Burgüita Formation
were deposited (Renz, 1959) (Figure 12). Sedimentation
of this sequence (K6) ended in a highstand systems tract
that is expressed in the Mito Juan Formation (Garner,
1926). The lower and upper boundaries of this sequence
are assigned to the late Campanian and late Maas-
trichtian (Figure 3).
Several smaller scale depositional units build the
internal fabric of sequence K6, with indeterminate
flooding surfaces. Generally the shaly units of the Colón
Formation are interpreted as transgressive drapes and
the sandier stratigraphy of the Mito Juan Formation as
highstand progradational depositional systems.

Figure 11—Genetic stratigraphy of Cretaceous succession.
See Figure 1 for location.
In the Barinas-Apure basin, this sequence is poorly
distinguishable on seismic profiles (Figure 13A). It is thin
and has no obvious seismic signature apart from onlap
geometries and truncations beneath the upper bounding
surface. In the central areas, the sequence is deeply
eroded and discontinuous. In the Lake Maracaibo basin,
the base of sequence K6 corresponds to a continuous
strong reflector (Figure 7B). However, its upper surface is
less obvious, except toward the west, where it has trun-
cation relationships (Figure 13B).
Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 691
Figure 12—Paleogeography of upper Campanian–Maas-
trichtian depositional sequence K6. Legend: 1, Lara
nappes, actual position; 2, positive areas; 3, inner to
middle shelf clastics; 4, outer shelf shales and scarce
sandstones; 5, thickness contours in feet.
Internal clinoform geometries indicate local eastward
progradation of the Mito Juan Formation (Figure 13B).
Eroded topsets suggest latest Cretaceous tectonism in the
Perijá area. This depositional sequence is generally more
argillaceous than the previous stratigraphy and conse-
quently less competent. Because of this, the brittle fault
styles of the lower sequences differ from that in the
Campanian–Maastrichtian rocks, where disharmony
occurs. The thickness of the sequence varies up to 900 m
(Figure 12). Sedimentation rates of 65 m/m.y. in the shelf
and 150 m/m.y. in the Perijá foredeep are estimated.
Sandstones of the Burgüita Formation (TST) in Barinas
and the Mito Juan Formation (HST) offer reservoir
potential.
Upper Maastrichtian–Lower Paleocene
Sequences K7 and K8
Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Perijá foredeep
was filled with highstand sediments of the Mito Juan
sequence (K6), which were sourced from the west. The
entire area was affected by erosion above shallowing
basement. A new transgressive episode from the
northeast deposited two subordinate Paleocene
sequences, K7 and K8 (Figure 3). The lower sequence
692 Parnaud et al.
Figure 13—Seismic profiles. (A) Supersequences B and C
showing basement topography and Cretaceous onlaps.
(B) Paleocene fans in the Marcelina Formation (deposi-
tional sequences K7 and K8). Columns: 1, depositional
sequences; 2, supersequences. See Figure 1 for location.
covered the entire shelf and displays marine characteris-
tics, while the upper sequence is essentially deltaic.
The shelf terrace wedge (K7) comprises several forma-
tions. The Guasare Formation (Garner, 1926) consists of
shallow marine deposits in the Lake Maracaibo basin.
The Trujillo Formation (Hodson, 1926) comprises deeper
marine deposits northeast of the lake area, while the
Catatumbo Formation (Notestein, 1944) was built by
deltaic sedimentation toward the south (Figure 14). The
overlying deltaic suite (K8) contains three formations: the
Barco and Los Cuervos formations to the south and the
Marcelina Formation to the north. Toward the northeast,
lowstand facies of the Trujillo Formation (Hodson, 1926)
developed.
We have mapped three sedimentary domains in each
sequence (Figure 14). The first is in the southwest and
consists of sandstones and mudstones of the Orocue
Group (Notestein, 1944) and Marcelina Formation. The
second occurs in the central area, where shallow marine
bioclastic and calcareous sediments of the Guasare
Formation were deposited. The third sedimentary
domain, located toward the north, contains bathyal
sediments of the Trujillo Formation.
Figure 14—Paleogeography of the upper Maastrichtian–
lower Paleocene depositional sequences K7 and K8.
Legend: 1, Lara nappes, actual position; 2, positive areas;
3, continental to deltaic clastics; 4, inner to outer shelf
carbonates and shales; 5, bathyal with turbidites, shales,
and scarce sandstones; 6, thickness contours in feet.
The base of the shelf depositional system in the
Maracaibo basin is characterized seismically by an
erosional surface (Figure 13B). The succeeding deltaic
system has discontinuous and strong amplitude reflec-
tions; its base is marked by onlaps and downlaps and its
top by local truncations. This deltaic sequence thickens
toward the west where it locally forms delta-front fans.
These Paleocene rocks are up to 600 m thick (Figure 14).
An average sedimentation rate of 30–80 m/m.y. is
estimated.
The hydrocarbon potential of these sequences is
restricted to the terrigenous clastics of the Barco
Formation (TST). The carbonaceous rocks of the
Marcelina Formation (HST) are unlikely to offer source
potential as expected (Alberdi et al., 1994).
Upper Paleocene–Middle Eocene
Supersequence D: Collisional Basins
Emplacement of the Lara nappes began north of the
Lake Maracaibo basin at the end of the Paleocene (Figure
2). These nappes gradually encroached eastward,
forming new foreland basins. One of these trends
N 20º W, parallel to the northeastern margin of Lake
 Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 693

Figure 15—(Top) Cross section I–I' showing stratigraphic

relationships among Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary
sequences K7, K8, and T1. (Bottom) Cross section J–J'
showing stratigraphic relationships between middle
Eocene depositional sequences T2 and T3 in the Barinas-
Apure basin. See Figure 1 for locations.

Maracaibo; another is oriented approximately east-west

in front of the nappes. This flexural deformation is
reflected in a suite of transgressive and regressive cycles
of Eocene age. The base and top of supersequence D
correspond to regional unconformities that are expressed
seismically by numerous onlaps and truncations (Figure
7B). Intermittent subsidence and a possible eustatic
overprint resulted in three depositional sequences, T1,
T2, and T3, as discussed below (Figure 3).

Upper Paleocene–Lower Eocene Sequence T1

There are two parts to this upper Paleocene–lower
Eocene Sequence (T1) (Figure 15, I–I'). During the earlier
phase of base level lowering, erosion was followed by
deposition of continental sediments in the southern part
of the Lake Maracaibo basin. Deep marine conditions in
the northern part of the basin resulted in sedimentation
of lowstand turbidites of the Trujillo Formation. In the
second phase, transgression related to shelf flexure in
front of the applied nappe load reached the central part
of the Lake Maracaibo basin. Toward the south, conti-
nental deposition persisted, such as in the Mirador
Formation (Garner, 1926) (Figure 15, I–I'). Another trans-
gression in the early Eocene deposited the stacked Misoa
“C” sandstones (sequences T1-1 to T1-5) (Figure 16).
Depositional sequence T1 culminated in a highstand
systems tract and deposition of the deltaic lower Misoa
“B”(Sequence T1-6; Figure 16).
Figure 16—Genetic stratigraphy of the Misoa Formation.
See Figure 1 for location.
Three sedimentary domains are recognized for
sequence T1 (Figure 17). The first domain in the south-
western and southern parts of the Lake Maracaibo basin
is characterized by continental sedimentation of the
Mirador Formation. An inner shelf to shore zone domain
occurs in the central Lake Maracaibo basin and is
reflected in the sandstone-mudstone Misoa Formation.
The third sedimentary domain in the north consists of
deep marine shales of the Trujillo Formation. The entire
succession is up to 4000 m thick (Figure 17). Sedimenta-
tion rates vary from 190 m/m.y. in the shelf areas to 500
m/m.y. in the foredeep of the lateral ramp of the Lara
nappes.
694 Parnaud et al.

Figure 17—Paleogeography of upper Paleocene–lower

Eocene depositional sequence T1. Legend: 1, Lara nappes,
actual position; 2, positive areas; 3, continental to deltaic
clastics; 4, inner to outer shelf sandstones and shales;
5, bathyal with turbidites, shales, and scarce sandstones;
6, thickness contours in feet.

This upper Paleocene–lower Eocene succession offers

significant petroleum exploration potential, with
numerous sandstone reservoirs in the transgressive and
regressive depositional systems. The deltaic intervals
require detailed analysis to characterize reservoir distrib-
ution.

Middle Eocene Sequences T2 and T3

During the middle Eocene, two major events changed
the configuration of the basin. First, southward encroach-
ment of the Lara nappes resulted in flexural subsidence
of the Barinas-Apure basin shelf and in marine inunda-
tion. Basal sandstones of the Gobernador Formation
were followed by sedimentation of deep water shales of
the Pagüey Formation (Pierce, 1960) (Figure 18). Second,
tectonic loading by the Lara nappes produced a hinge
line along the Lake Maracaibo shelf in the northeastern
sector. There, deposition of the shallow shelf upper
Misoa “B” sediments (Figure 16) was followed by deeper
water conditions and shale accumulations of the Paují
Formation (Tobler, 1922). This earlier sequence (T2)
terminated in a progradational highstand system that
was closely linked to the nappes and fed from the
northeast instead of from the southwest (Figure 19).
Thus, following sedimentation of the basal sandstones of
Figure 18—Eocene genetic stratigraphy. See Figure 1 for
location.
the upper Misoa “B” Formation (Figure 16), shelf flexure
resulted in turbiditic lowstand sedimentation and accu-
mulation of the bathyal Paují Formation. Growth of the
Lara nappes was reflected in a forced northeastward
progradation (upper part of the Paují Formation).
After the highstand progradation of deltaic sediments
of the Cobre Formation in the southern part of the Barinas-
Apure basin, a new transgressive cycle developed. These
“Guanarito Sandstones” (Figures 15, J–J’, and 18) are ill
defined, but may benefit from study of the related Pagüey
Formation which crops out in the Mérida Andes.

Figure 19—Paleogeography of middle Eocene depositional
sequences T2 and T3. Legend: 1, Lara nappes, actual
position; 2, positive areas; 3, inner to middle shelf sand-
stones and shales; 4, outer shelf to bathyal shales; 5,
thickness contours in feet.
The thickness of these middle Eocene sequences T2
and T3 ranges up to 1500 m. Estimated sedimentation
rates are 20 m/m.y. in the shelf area and 150 m/m.y. in
the foredeep. The hydrocarbon potential of these
sequences is due to the thick sandstones bodies of the
Misoa “C” (TST), Misoa “B” (TST and HST), and Gober-
nador (TST) formations.
Upper Eocene–Lower Miocene
Supersequence E: Collisional Basins
Toward the end of the Eocene, the entire area changed
(Figure 2). Positive relief in the east and northeast
separated the continental Lake Maracaibo basin from the
marine basin located in Falcón (Figure 20). Uplifts west
and south of the Serrania de Perijá and the eastern
Colombian Cordillera fed a fluviodeltaic depositional
system. Marine circulation from the east continued to
affect the Barinas-Apure basin. This marine influence
extended to the Lake Maracaibo basin at the end of late
Oligocene–early Miocene time.
Two depositional sequences are recognized (Figures 3,
20, 21). The first (T4) was deposited during the late
Eocene and early Oligocene in two different sedimentary
domains. A deltaic domain in the western part was fed
Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 695
Figure 20—Paleogeography of upper Eocene–Oligocene
depositional sequences T4 and T5. Legend: 1, Lara
nappes, actual position; 2, positive areas; 3, lacustrine to
brackish sandstones, shales, and coal; 4, deltaic with
marine influence, sandstones, and shales.
from Colombia (Carbonera Formation, Notestein, 1944;
and La Sierra Formation, Hedberg et al., 1937). Marine
sediments were deposited in the eastern part of the basin
where it was open to the sea (Arauca Member of the
Guafita Formation; Ortega et al., 1987). The base of this
lower sequence corresponds seismically to an unconfor-
mity (Figure 13A) that represents erosion of the Eocene
from west to east and erosion of the Paleocene section
south of Lake Maracaibo basin. There is seismic evidence
that the Carbonera Formation pinches out. In the
Barinas-Apure basin, the top of this sequence is difficult
to map, although there are local onlap and truncation
boundaries. The sequence thins toward the north where
it disappears (Kiser, 1989). To the south, near La Victoria
field, the geometry of this sequence is that of a transgres-
sive system characterized by onlaps and a highstand
offlapping or progradational system.
The second sequence (T5) was deposited in late
Oligocene–early Miocene time during widespread
marine inundation (León Formation in Lake Maracaibo
basin, Notestein, 1944; and Guardulio Member of
Guafita Formation in Barinas-Apure basin, Ortega et al.,
1987). The base of this sequence is unconformable and
marked by truncations and onlaps. The sequence thins
toward the east of the Lake Maracaibo basin and wedges
out along the Icotea structural trend (Figure 5, C–C’).
696 Parnaud et al.
Figure 21—Genetic stratigraphy showing comparison of
Cretaceous–Tertiary depositional sequences K5, T4, T5,
and T6. See Figure 1 for location.
The thickness of these two sequences varies up to 1100
m and has an estimated sedimentation rate of 50 m/m.y.
Sandstone horizons in this upper Eocene–lower Miocene
succession have reservoir potential, including the Arauca
Member of the Guafita Formation and the Carbonera
Formation. Local source rock intervals have been
described (Alberdi et al., 1994).
Middle Miocene–Pleistocene
Supersequence F: Collisional Basins
During the middle Miocene, large-scale compres-
sional tectonism initiated the Macizo de Santander,
Serrania de Perijá, and Mérida Andes ranges. The
Mérida Andes orogenesis culminated in the Plio-Pleis-
tocene. This mountain building event correlates with two
depositional sequences, T6 and T7 (Figure 3). Deforma-
tion also resulted in partition or isolation of the Lake
Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure basins (Figure 22). Several
angular unconformities in the foothills of the northern
and southern Andes record this tectonic history.
Figure 22—Paleogeography of middle Miocene–Pleis-
tocene depositional sequence T7 related to Andean oro-
genesis. Legend: 1, Lara nappes, actual position; 2,
positive areas; 3, molassic depocenter; 4, lacustrine to
brackish sandstones and shales.
Rapid uplift was accompanied by molasse sedimenta-
tion along the margin of the Mérida Andes range.
Marine sedimentation persisted in the Lake Maracaibo
basin, but it gradually changed to a freshwater paleo-
geography as the marine environment shrank toward
the north. In the Lake Maracaibo basin, a new transgres-
sive phase began during the middle Miocene and
resulted in deposition of the onlapping La Rosa
Formation (Liddle, 1928). This was followed by regres-
sive progradation and contraction of marine influence
(Lagunillas Formation; Hedberg et al., 1937). Molasse
sediments of the Betijoque Formation (Garner, 1926)
were deposited along the Andean range at the same time
(Figure 22). Freshwater paleoenvironments dominated
the center of the Lake Maracaibo basin, as reflected in the
deposits of La Puerta (Garner, 1926 ) and Los Ranchos
(Liddle, 1928). Contemporaneous deposition of the
molasse Parángula and Río Yuca formations occurred in
the Barinas-Apure basin (Mackenzie, 1937).
These sequences locally exceed 5500 m in thickness in
the flexural foredeeps. Sedimentation rates greater than
250 m/m.y. have been estimated, but they decreased to
150 m/m.y. along the foreland ramp. Several sandstone
intervals have reservoir potential, especially the Lagu-
nillas Formation. There are also subordinate reservoir
intervals, such as the sandstones of the Santa Bárbara
Member in the La Rosa Formation.

CONCLUSIONS
This study of the Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure
basins has integrated several disciplines, including
genetic stratigraphy from wells and outcrop sections and
seismic stratigraphy. Data acquired over many years by
different companies have been synthesized; 600 wells
were correleted and 4000 km of seismic lines interpreted.
On this basis, stratigraphic and paleogeographic models
have been developed that relate interaction among the
Pacific, Caribbean, and South American plates and the
way they periodically reorganized.
A new stratigraphic chart has been constructed in a
sequence stratigraphy framework. This analysis empha-
sizes the dynamics of basin subsidence and the tectonic
control of sedimentation. Examples include the turbidite
facies of the Trujillo and Paují formations, which we
attribute to flexural subsidence of the foreland basin and
emplacement of the Lara nappes. Although tectonism
appears to have been the reason for the hierarchy of
unconformity-bounded depositional sequences, eustatic
processes may have been important at times. However, it
is not always possible to separate these components.
The Mesozoic–Cenozoic geologic history of the study
area can be divided into several supersequences
reflecting the history of extension and several episodes of
collision. Six principal stages of basin formation corre-
sponding to six supersequences were recognized and
described. Sequence A accumulated in an extensional
setting. With the cessation of fault-controlled subsidence,
passive margin supersequence B was deposited.
However, the presence of six depositional sequences
(K0–K5) shows that postrift subsidence was episodic.
This postrift margin includes the principal source rocks
(e.g., La Luna Formation). The transition to a collisional
margin and a flexural style of foreland basin subsidence
occurred in supersequence C (three depositional
sequences, K6–K8). Supersequences D, E, and F reflect
multiple stages of compressional subsidence and
collision of the Caribbean and Pacific volcanic arcs. The
Eocene Misoa and Gobernador formations (depositional
sequences T1–T3) contain significant reservoir intervals.
Supersequence F also contains potential reservoir rocks
(e.g., La Rosa and Lagunillas formations). In this super-
sequence, the Betijoque Molasse reflects rapid subsidence
along the orogenic front.
Estimated sedimentation rates reflect the dynamics of
the tectonic and depositional environments. These sedi-
mentation rates represent averages for the entire
platform. The changes observed directly relate to
changes in tectonic subsidence rather than environ-
mental conditions. The lowest rates correspond to
passive margin susidence (10–60 m/m.y.) and the
highest to the compressional phases, especially the time
of encroachment of the Lara nappes (500 m/m.y.).
New biostratigraphy resolves several important strati-
graphic hiatuses (e.g., between the Lisure–Maraca and
the La Luna) in an area that includes the central and
northern Perijá and a large part of the Lake Maracaibo
basin. This particular hiatus is attributed to development
of a forebulge associated with Pacific volcanic arc
Stratigraphic Synthesis of Western Venezuela 697
collision. This forebulge migrated eastward ahead of the
advancing overthrust load in the Barinas-Apure basin
during the Paleocene.
Integration of outcrop, well, and seismic data has
allowed us to resolve some problems. One such problem
was the distribution of the Guafita Formation and its
constituent Arauca and Guardulio members in the
Barinas-Apure basin. Another example is the relation-
ship between sedimentation of the different facies of the
Paují Formation and their geodynamic setting. The basal
part of the Paují Formation is composed of an outer shelf
to bathyal facies tract that reflects flexure of Lake
Maracaibo basement due to the tectonic load of the
nappes. The upper part of this formation is composed of
more detrital facies related to a progradational highstand
system fed from the nappes in the northeast.
Nevertheless, the stratigraphic columns of the
Barinas-Apure and Lake Maracaibo basins require more
work to standardize and interpret the stratigraphy. There
are several important stratigraphic issues that should be
addressed. (1) The systems tracks and bounding uncon-
formities of the Peñas Altas Formation are yet to be
resolved. (2) The precise age and distribution of the
stratigraphic hiatus at the top of the Albian–lower Ceno-
manian should be studied. (3) The evolution, diversity,
and abundance of the late Cenomanian–early Campan-
ian fauna requires attention. (4) Detailed work should
focus on the ages of the Eocene sequences. (5) The rela-
tionship of sedimentation of the Paují Formation to
emplacement of the Lara nappes along its lateral ramp is
not well understood, including definition of the lower
transgressive component of the Lake Maracaibo shelf
and the upper progradational stratigraphy. (6) The strati-
graphic relationships among the Oligocene sequences of
the Lake Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure basins have not
been studied in detail.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the manage-
ment of Intevep, S.A., for permission to publish this paper, as
well as the industry sponsors of this project, Corpoven, S.A.,
Lagoven, S.A., and Maraven, S.A., the operational affiliates of
PDVSA, for financial support and for providing the subsurface
data. We also thank geologists François Roure and Bernard
Colletta (Institut Francais du Pétrole, France) for their
constructive criticisms of the manuscript. This paper has bene-
fitted from the comments of Anthony Tankard, Anthony
Edwards, and Ross McLean. We are grateful for the assistance
of drafting personnel at Intevep, S.A.
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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
François Parnaud
Yves Gou
Jean-Claude Pascual
Beicip-Franlap
Petroleum Consultants
B.P. 213
92500 Rueil-Malmaison
France
Maria Angela Capello
Irene Truskowski
Herminio Passalacqua
Intevep, S.A.
Apartado Postal 76343
Caracas 1070A
Venezuela
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil
Generation and Migration in a Transect of the
Eastern Venezuela Basin

Oswaldo Gallango François Parnaud

Intevep, S.A. Beicip-Franlab
Caracas, Venezuela Rueil-Malmaison, France

Abstract

T he purpose of this two-dimensional computer simulation of basin evolution, based on geologic,

geophysical, geochemical, geothermal, and hydrodynamic data, was to determine the hydrocarbon
generation and migration history of the basin. The modeling covered two geologic sections (platform and
prethrusting) located along the Chacopata-Uverito transect in the Eastern Venezuela basin. In the platform
section, a hypothetical source rock equivalent to the Guayuta Group was used to simulate the migration of
hydrocarbons. The thermal history reconstruction of the hypothetical source rock confirms that it would not
have reached the oil window before the middle Miocene and that the maturity in this sector is due to the sedi-
mentation of the Freites, La Pica, and Mesa–Las Piedras formations. The expulsion of the hydrocarbons took
place mainly into the Oligocene–Miocene reservoir and has not yet reached zones located beyond the
Oritupano field. This implies that the oil in the southern part of the basin was generated by a source rock
located to the north, in the actual deformation zone. For the past 17 m.y., water has migrated from north to
south in this section. In the prethrusting section, the hydrocarbon expulsion started during the early Tertiary
and migrated mainly into Lower Cretaceous reservoirs (El Cantil and Barranquín formations). At the end of
the passive margin stage, hydrocarbons migrated across the Merecure reservoir zone and into the Onado area
before thrusting began.

Resumen

E l propósito del presente estudio fue simular en un modelo computarizado en dos dimensiones, la
evolución de una cuenca sobre la base de datos geológicos, geofísicos, geoquímicos, geotérmicos e
hidrodinámicos, con la finalidad de establecer la historia de generación y migraciòn de los hidrocarburos. El
modelaje abarca dos secciones geológicas (plataforma y pre-corrimiento) localizadas a lo largo del transecto
Chacopata-Uverito de la Cuenca Oriental de Venezuela. En la sección de plataforma una roca madre hipotética
equivalente al Grupo Guayuta fue considerada con la finalidad de simular la migración de hidrocarburos. La
reconstrucciòn de la historia termal de la roca madre hipotética, confirma que esta no alcanzó la ventana de
petróleo antes del Mioceno Medio y que la madurez en este sector es debida a la sedimentación de la forma-
ciones Freites, La Pica y Mesa-Las Piedras. La expulsión de los hidrocarburos tuvo lugar principalmente hacia
el yacimiento Oligo-Mioceno y no alcanzó zonas localizadas más alla del campo Oritupano. Esto implica que el
petróleo en la parte sur de la cuenca fue generado por una roca madre localizada en la parte norte, en la actual
zona de deformación. En los últimos 17 m.a. ,el agua ha estado migrando de norte a sur en esta sección. En la
sección pre-corrimiento la expulsión de hidrocarburos comenzo durante el Terciario temprano y migro princi-
palmente hacia los yacimientos del Cretácico temprano (formaciones El Cantil y Barranquín). A finales del
margen pasivo, los hidrocarburos migraron a través del yacimiento Merecure hasta la zona de Onado, antes de
que comenzaran los corrimientos.

Gallango, O., and F. Parnaud, 1995, Two-dimensional computer modeling of oil genera- 727
tion and migration in a transect of the Eastern Venezuela basin, in A. J. Tankard, R.
Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62,
p. 727–740.
728 Gallango and Parnaud
Figure 1—Location of the Chacopata-Uverito transect
situated in the western part of the Eastern Venezuelan
basin. The 250-km-long section (shaded) runs across the
Maturin subbasin from north to south.
INTRODUCTION
This integrated study of the physical and geochemical
phenomena that occur during the evolution of a sedi-
mentary basin (compaction, fluid movement, heat
transfer, generation, and migration of hydrocarbons)
through the use of a numerical model opens a new era in
hydrocarbon exploration. These models reconstruct the
geometrical evolution of a basin in two dimensions, as
well as the fluid movement patterns, paleopressure,
paleotemperature, hydrocarbon potential, and accumula-
tion throughout geologic time up to the present. These
models are widely used as an exploratoration guide,
especially in deep and frontier basins that require
analysis of all available geologic information in an
attempt to reduce exploration risk. This is why these
computerized methods of predicting possible hydro-
carbon accumulations are becoming increasingly
important.
This paper presents the results of TEMISPACK inte-
grated numerical modeling of the petroleum generation
and migration history along two north-south regional
cross sections located in the western part of the Eastern
Venezuela basin (Figure 1). The purpose of the study is
to establish the time when expulsion of hydrocarbons
began and to which reservoir units they migrated; and to
establish the transformation rate of the kerogen into
hydrocarbons and the remaining oil potential just before
the thrusting began. This modeling is part of a regional
synthesis carried out by Intevep.
The TEMISPACK Program
TEMISPACK is a finite volume model that recon-
structs the history of petroleum generation and migra-
tion along a two-dimensional evolutionary mesh repre-
senting a regional cross section (Burrus et al., 1992). The
aim of the program is to help the explorationist with the
vertical and horizontal integration of the physical and
chemical parameters that influence the evolution of a
sedimentary basin. The principal parameters involved in
this type of modeling are as follows:
• Stratigraphy, including lithologies of basin deposits
• Temperature and heat flow
• Pressures and overpressures associated with the
basin
• Geochemical characteristics of the source rock and
fluids
The program consists of several modules. Backstrip-
ping is used to study the geometric evolution of the
basin. This run is normally done using simple com-
paction via a porosity-depth law, an imposed tempera-
ture gradient, and no geochemical data. A run is used to
calibrate the calculated data with the known data from
the basin, particularly the distribution of reservoir
porosity, pressure and overpressure associated with
those reservoirs, and water flow. These parameters are
lithology dependent. In this study, effective stress–
porosity relationships were reconstructed from wireline
logs and pressure data (RFT, mud density). This module
was used to simulate sedimentary rock compaction with
a single fluid phase (always water) using an imposed
temperature gradient and without geochemical data. A
thermal module was used to calibrate the distribution of
the known temperatures in the basin. The TEMISPACK
program allows an imposed geothermal gradient or heat
flow. This calculation was done with one fluid phase
(water) and without geochemical data.
A maturity run calibrates the maturity observed in the
basin through laboratory geochemical analysis (Tmax,
% Ro) with maturity calculated by TEMISPACK. This
run is done with only one phase (water) using the
maturity of the source rock without migration of fluids
and with an imposed temperature gradient or heat flow,
according to thermal module results. Several module
passes are made to test sensitivity. The calculations are
done with two fluid phases (water and hydrocarbons)
and a temperature gradient or heat flow, according to
thermal model results and the following three options:
(1) without secondary cracking, to obtain migration of all
expelled hydrocarbons as a unique fluid phase and
without any significant phase change during migration;
(2) with secondary cracking, to obtain petroleum
migration only (a convenient way to evaluate the timing
of oil migration and the conditions for preserving oil);
and (3) with primary and secondary cracking, to obtain
gas migration (methane to C5). The oil is cracked in the
source rock prior to any expulsion.
MODELING OF THE PLATFORM SECTION
Parameters
The platform section (Figure 2) was simulated to
calibrate the computerized data against the real well
Figure 2—Generalized north-south structural cross section (Orinoco River to Cumaná) showing the two sections
modeled in this study. (From Parnaud et al., 1995.)
Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin
729
730 Gallango and Parnaud
data, including the following:
• Porosity in the principal reservoirs: the
Oligocene–Miocene reservoir (Merecure and
Oficina formations) and the upper sandstones of
the Mesa and Las Piedras formations (Figure 3)
• Known pressures in both main reservoirs:
Mesa–Las Piedras sandstones and Oligocene–
Miocene reservoirs and associated overpressures
• Aquifer characteristics: Mesa–Las Piedras sand-
stones are the present aquifers in the basin and are
recharged from the north and discharged into the
Orinoco River to the south
The existence of a potential source rock is unknown in
the platform section, unlike in the north where the
Querecual and San Antonio formations of the Guayuta
Group are believed to be prolific. However, to simulate
migration, a hypothetical source rock was assumed at the
extreme north of the section (Figures 4, 5). Points of
reference and porosities for the platform Mesa–Las
Piedras, Oficina, and Merecure formations are show in
Table 1. For reference, pressure data were taken from
existing measurements between the main upper aquifer
(Mesa–Las Piedras sandstones) and the Oligocene–
Miocene reservoir levels of the Merecure and Oficina
formations ( Figure 6).
In the phreatic, water-bearing Mesa and Las Piedras
formations, a slightly higher pressure than the hydro-
static pressure is noticed. The differential pressure
reflects the altitude above sea level of the northern
recharge zone; pressure decreases progressively until
discharge into the Orinoco River. In the Oligocene–
Miocene reservoir located in the northern area near the
deformation front, an important difference in pressure
occurs that is related to tectonic loading by thrust sheets
Figure 3—Generalized
stratigraphy of the study
area showing basin types,
source rocks, and reser-
voirs. (From Parnaud et al.,
1995.)
in the south. This excess pressure diminishes until it
disappears into the Cerro Negro area (Figure 6), where
the Oligocene–Miocene reservoir is directly in contact
with the main upper water-bearing zone (Mesa–Las
Piedras).
Modeling Results
Several runs were carried out to calibrate the calcu-
lated data against the observed pressure, overpressure,
porosity, temperature, organic maturity, and other
thermal indices. Calculation of pressure was done on the
basis of several hypotheses related to north and south
end-members, with and without active water flow.
The boundary conditions that best explain the present
conditions are an open aquifer in the southern area
(Orinoco River) and a closed aquifer in the northern area
just south of the deformation front. This allows the
observed overpressures in the Oligocene–Miocene
reservoir and the almost hydrostatic pressure in the
Mesa–Las Piedras sandstones to be simulated. As seen in
Figure 7, there is excellent correlation between the calcu-
lated and observed overpressures in the sandstones of
the Oligocene–Miocene reservoir in the northern area of
the section, including the near hydrostatic pressure in the
Mesa–Las Piedras sandstones, as well as the Miocene
sandstones in the southern section. In Figure 8, the actual
distribution of overpressures can be observed to
diminish toward the south where there is contact and
equilibrium between the Miocene sandstones and the
water-bearing Mesa and Las Piedras formations. The
porosity calculation done with the TEMISPACK pro-
gram was verified at several control points containing
information about the two main reservoirs (Mesa–Las
Piedras and Oligocene–Miocene) (Table 1). In Figure 9, a
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin 731

Figure 4—Stratigraphy of the platform section.

Figure 5—Present day regional cross section showing the distribution of the seven lithofacies considered in the models.
732 Gallango and Parnaud

Table 1—Formation Porosity Values at Reference Points

Porosity (%)
Mesa–
Sector Las Piedras Oficina Merecure
Onada (km 120) 35 11 9
Oritupano (km 80) 35 15 17
El Salto (km 55) 35 25 29
Cerro Negro (km 30) 35 31 35
South Cerro Negro (km 17) 35 35 35

good correlation between calculated values and

measured values from the wells can be observed.
The water flow study shows vertical migration in low
permeability shales and horizontal migration in the
reservoir levels. Starting about 17 m.y. before thrusting,
water has migrated from north to south toward its
confluence with the Orinoco River (Figure 10). Water
flow is weak in the Oligocene–Miocene reservoir, with
an average speed of 1 km/m.y., but it reaches a much
higher speed at the upper water-bearing Mesa and Las
Piedras formations. Flow rates as high as 1500 km/m.y.
have been documented where the aquifer discharges into
the Orinoco River (Figure 10).
Thermal calibration involved several working
hypotheses in an attempt to calibrate these characteristics
with the maturity data available in wells. A good correla-
tion between simulated and measured well temperatures
was obtained assuming a gradient of 28°C/km or a heat
flow of 46 mW/m2. However, these two values give
extremely high maturity levels, and in order to establish
a good calibration with the maturity obtained from the
organic matter in the wells, a gradient of 22°C/km was
used. A lower heat flow of 42 mW/m2 was derived from
the first run of the simulations.
The historical reconstruction of maturity confirms that
Figure 6—Differentiated pressure zones along the transect
the hypothetical source rock would not have reached the according to original pressure values.
oil window before middle Miocene time (postthrusting)
and that maturity is attributed to Freites, La Pica, and
Mesa–Las Piedras sedimentation. Maturity levels at
present are predicted to be very high (Ro > 3.6%), which
implies that the hypothetical source rock should have
generated and expelled hydrocarbons completely
(Figure 11).
Simulation with a hypothetical source rock laterally
equivalent to the Guayuta Group has several implica-
tions. (1) Expulsion and migration of hydrocarbons
occurred after the middle Miocene, mainly during sedi-
mentation of the La Pica and Mesa–Las Piedras forma-
tions. Expulsion of hydrocarbons took place toward the
reservoir sandstones of Merecure, Oficina, and Lower
Cretaceous formations. (2) At present, migrating hydro-
carbons do not reach as far as the Oritupano area (Figure
12), which suggests that previous migration from the
northern part of the basin located in the deformation belt
must be invoked to explain the occurrence of petroleum
in the south. (3) Migration of hydrocarbons occurred
mainly within the Oligocene–Miocene sandstones Figure 7—Profile showing a comparison of observed and
(Merecure and Oficina formations); however, important computed overpressure (P) values.
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin 733

Figure 8—Computed overpressure distribution (in MPa) at the present time for the platform section. The white area repre-
sents the region of hydrostatic pressure.

saturation occurs in the lowest Cretaceous and older.

(4) An average gradient of 27.2°C/km observed in the
wells varies from 36°C/km in the south to 22°C/km in
the deepest part of the section to the north.

MODELING OF THE PRETHRUSTING

SECTION
Parameters
The prethrusting section was modeled to simulate
hydrocarbon generation and its migration toward the
reservoirs in the southern part of the basin prior to
thrusting in the Oligocene–early Miocene. The model
addresses the structural restoration as well as the strati-
graphic reconstruction obtained from the geologic model
of the transect. In a simulation of this kind, classic cali-
bration with known data in the basin such as porosity
and pressure is not possible because of lack of age
constraints. Nevertheless, to overcome this limitation, a
section in the nondeformed area of the basin was
simulated from the deformation front to the Orinoco
River, where a good calibration of parameters was
achieved. Such parameters were used for the pre-
thrusting section, and especially for the porosity–depth
data from the Merecure reservoir. A normal passive
margin type basin without overpressure was modeled.
Maturity data from several wells along the reconstructed
section permitted a heat flow calibration. From the litho-
Figure 9—Relationship between porosity and depth in the
Oritupano area.
stratigraphic model of the Chacopata-Uverito transect, the
eroded section was estimated in order to reconstruct the
prethrusting section (Figures 3, 13). A reconstruction of the
northern part of Turimiquire was not undertaken because of
the complete absence of surface and subsurface geologic
information due to erosion of the Cretaceous section up to
the Barranquín Formation; this section undoubtedly
contributed to hydrocarbon generation. To simulate this
section with TEMISPACK, a lower Miocene top has been
used as a reference level and an arbitrary age of 10 Ma
assigned to it.
734 Gallango and Parnaud

Figure 10—Water flow (in m/m.y.) in the platform section at the present time.

Figure 11—Vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) distribution in the platform section at the present time.
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin 735

Figure 12—Hydrocarbon saturation (%) in the platform section at the present time. Arrows indicate the principal direction of
hydrocarbon migration.

Figure 13—Reconstructed stratigraphy in the prethrusting section at the end of early Miocene time.
736 Gallango and Parnaud

Figure 14—Reconstructed facies distribution in the prethrusting section at the end of early Miocene time.

Stratigraphic Scale of the Section (a)

Figures 3 and 13 show the stratigraphic scale of the
section. On seismic lines, pre-Cretaceous levels were
assigned to the Jurassic and could reach a significant
thickness (Figure 14). It was randomly divided into four
units that were each assigned a theoretical facies
consisting of a sandstone-shale mix and taking into
account all relevant data from the area (e.g., Espino
graben). As reference, results of platform sections were
used, as well as laboratory and porosity-depth data from
Oligocene–Miocene formations. Pressure data are not
available for calibration for the end of the early Miocene,
but there is no evidence that overpressure was present at
that time. Nevertheless, below 3–4 km, the existence of
overpressure can be anticipated because of the thickness.
The only parameter available to calibrate this section
is the maturity level observed in wells located in the area.
The data assigned to four models or wells (F0–F3)
(Figure 2) were integrated, and the following results (b)
were observed.

Well F0
TEMISPACK and laboratory data do not agree
because much higher maturity values were obtained
from the laboratory data. The results shown in Figure
15a suggest that at the end of the passive margin stage
and just before the onset of thrusting, the sedimentary
column (Querecual–lower Carapita) and the associated
organic matter had not reached the maturity level shown
by these formations today. This suggests that the
maturity level observed at present must have been
acquired after the passive margin stage and that it was
associated with tectonic and sedimentary subsidence Figure 15—Reconstructed vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) distri-
(Miocene–Pleistocene deposits, La Pica, and Mesa–Las bution in the prethrusting section at the end of early
Piedras). Miocene time for (a) well F0 and (b) well F3.
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin
Figure 16—Reconstructed vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) distri-
bution in the prethrusting section at the end of early
Miocene time for well F1.
Wells F1 and F2
Simulated and laboratory results indicate an excellent
correlation for both vitrinite reflectance values and Tmax
(Figure 16). The later implies that present maturity levels
from the studied formations were established before
thrusting and during passive margin subsidence and,
consequently, that the maturity of the Pirital sheet section
was acquired in the early Miocene.
Well F3
There is no correlation between laboratory and
simulated maturity (Figure 15b) in this well. The present
maturity level varies between 1.5 and 2% Ro, while
maturity values reached at the end of the early Miocene
(calculated by TEMISPACK) were no greater than 1.5%
Ro and varied between 1.0 and 1.5% Ro. On this basis, it
is concluded that the sedimentary column and the associ-
ated organic matter attained this high maturity level after
the passive margin stage due to the sedimentation of a
postorogenic formation (the Naricual Formation) or by
the tectonic emplacement and loading of thrust sheets. It
is possible that a higher geothermal gradient occurred
during the development of the passive margin.
The Guayuta Group (Querecual and San Antonio
formations) was identified as a source rock with marine
organic matter (type II). This source rock extends from
the southern edge of the Pirital thrust (177 km) to the
northern part of the section (Figures 13, 14). It consists of
shales and pelagic limestones. The present maturity
levels for the Guayuta Group are variable, with vitrinite
reflectance values of 0.6% Ro being observed in the
southern zone and increasing to 2.0 % Ro in the Serranía
del Interior (R o > 1.3%). With this extremely high
maturity level, the present average TOC ranges from 2.0
to 6.0 wt. %, which indicates that the original TOC was
higher than 6.0 wt. %.
TEMISPACK modeling and high TOC values suggest
an oil potential higher than 20 kg HC/t of rock. Consid-
ering that the northern area was not simulated because
of limited information, very high values of S2 (80 kg/t)
have been estimated to overcome previous limitations.
737
Petroleum density in the subsurface is 30% lower than
at the surface (England et al., 1987), and the low maturity
of slightly biodegraded oil from Oritupano area has a
surface density of 920 kg/cm3 (22° API) (Gallango et al.,
1992). Because of these two factors, a value of 644
kg/cm3 for the oil density in the subsurface was taken
for migration purposes.
Modeling Results
As for the platform section, several models were
performed for the prethrusting section with various
parameters. A porosity-depth law was assumed for the
Merecure Formation on the basis of what is already
known for the platform zone. A normal pressure distrib-
ution and a heat flow of 42 mW/m2 calibrated for the
platform section were used.
In the south, from El Furrial to the southern limit of
the source rock (Figure 15a), maturity was attained after
thrusting and was associated with either tectonic
loading or sedimentation prior to the early Miocene.
This sedimentation includes the upper Carapita, Freites,
La Pica, and Mesa–Las Piedras formations. The maturity
level reached at the end of early Miocene time matches
the present maturity and was acquired before thrusting
in the area corresponding to the Pirital sheet (Figure 16).
In the Serranía del Interior, the high maturity level was
acquired after the early Miocene and may be related to
tectonic loading due to thrusting (Figure 15b). Figure 17
shows the maturity level reached at the end of the early
Miocene throughout the simulated section.
To study hydrocarbon migration, a simulation with-
out secondary cracking was undertaken using the low
gas–oil ratio observed over the entire area (356 m3/m3).
Saturation resulting from maturity, expulsion, and
migration of hydrocarbons leads to several conclusions.
Hydrocarbon expulsion began during the early Tertiary
(Figure 18). At first, expulsion took place toward the
Lower Cretaceous reservoir through the El Cantil
Formation (Figure 18). Migration and expulsion toward
the Merecure reservoir took place at the beginning of the
early Miocene (Figure 19). At the end of the passive
margin stage, the principal migration invaded the entire
Merecure reservoir and may have reached the Onado
area. At lower levels (Barranquín Formation), oil satura-
tion is high. The supposed Jurassic deposit was not
saturated by hydrocarbons. The transformation ratio of
the source rock varied from 10 to 55% at the end of the
early Miocene (Figure 20).
The prethrusting section model produced several
interesting results. The expulsion of hydrocarbons took
place preferentially toward the reservoir levels of the El
Cantil and Barranquìn formations. In a second stage,
migration took place toward the Merecure reservoir
through which hydrocarbons migrated before thrusting
started in the Onado area. The transformation ratio of the
source rock at the end of the early Miocene was in the
range of 10–55%, which implies that an important
remnant potential generator existed for the period
during and after thrusting.
738 Gallango and Parnaud

Figure 17—Maturity (% Ro) of organic matter in the prethrusting section at the end of early Miocene time.

Figure 18—Hydrocarbon saturation (%) in the prethrusting section at the end of Oligocene time.
 Two-Dimensional Computer Modeling of Oil Generation and Migration, Eastern Venezuela Basin 739

Figure 19—Hydrocarbon saturation (%) in the prethrusting section at the end of early Miocene time.

Figure 20—Computed transformation ratio in the prethrusting section at the end of early Miocene time.
740 Gallango and Parnaud
CONCLUSIONS
Computer simulations of oil generation and migration
in the Chacopata-Uverito transect have been carried out
using available porosity, pressure, and maturation data
as constraints. The oil expulsion from the Cretaceous
Querecual and San Antonio source rocks located in the
deformation zone (Pirital sheet and Serranìa del Interior)
began during the early Tertiary. Expulsion was focused
mainly toward the Lower Cretaceous (El Cantil and
Barranquìn formations) and secondarily across the
Merecure reservoir, through which the oil migrated
progressively southward before thrusting. The oil in the
southern part of the basin corresponds to a first genera-
tion that occurred in the Serranía del Interior rather than
in a hypothetical source rock located in the proximity of
the deformation front.
Acknowledgments This paper includes the results of work
financially supported by Lagoven, S.A., Corpoven, S.A., and
Maraven, S.A. The authors are grateful to PDVSA and
Intevep, S.A., for authorizing the presentation and publication
of this paper. Special thanks are due to Jim Allan and Anthony
Tankard for critical reading and suggesting improvements.
References Cited
Burrus, J., E. Brose, G. de Janvry., Y. Grosjean, and J. Oudin,
1992, Basin modelling in the Mahakan Delta based on the
integrated 2D model TEMISPACK: Twentieth Annual
Convention, Proceedings of the Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Jakarta, 20 p.
England, W., A. Mackenzie, D. Mann,. and T. Quigley, 1987,
The movement and entrapment of petroleum fluids in the
subsurface: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v.
144, p. 327–347.
Gallango, O., M. Escandòn, M. Alberdi, F. Parnaud, and J.-C.
Pascual, 1992, Hydrodynamism, crude oil distribution, and
geochemistry of the stratigraphic column in a transect of
the Eastern Venezuelan basin (abs.): GSA 29th Annual
Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, Abstracts with Programs,
p. A214.
Parnaud, F., Y. Gou, J.-C. Pascual, I. Truskowski, O. Gallango,
H. Passalacqua, and F. Roure, 1995, Petroleum geology of
the central part of the Eastern Venezuelan basin, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins
of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, this volume.
Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Oswaldo Gallango
Intevep, S.A.
Apartado de correos 76343
Caracas 1070-A
Venezuela
François Parnaud
Beicip-Franlab
B.P. 213
92500 Rueil-Malmaison
France
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the
Eastern Venezuelan Basin

François Parnaud Irene Truskowski

Yves Gou Oswaldo Gallango
Jean-Claude Pascual Herminio Passalacqua
Beicip-Franlab Intevep, S.A.
Rueil-Malmaison, France Caracas, Venezuela

F. Roure
IFP
Rueil-Malmaison, France

Abstract

T wo main petroleum provinces are described for the central part of the Eastern Venezuelan basin. These
include the southern foreland platform near the Orinoco, with its heavy oil fields of the Faja Petrolifera,
and in the north, the giant El Furrial and related traps in the frontal thrusts of the Serrania. To identify the
petroleum systems and define attractive petroleum plays in this complex foreland fold and thrust belt system,
an integrated geologic model of the area has been built using stratigraphic, structural, reservoir, and geochem-
ical data. The major results of the study are as follows: (1) a reliable stratigraphic synthesis including updated
ages; (2) a coherent structural interpretation in the thrusted zones validated by a balanced north-south cross
section, with relevant new interpretations being the discovery of out-of-sequence thrusts (Pirital thrust) and the
involvement of upper crust in the deformation; (3) the description of reservoir and hydrodynamic models that
emphasize the importance of the major Las Piedras, Oficina, and Merecure reservoirs; and (4) characterization
of three different source rocks of marine and continental origin in the Guayuta Group (two marine sources)
and Carapita Formation (one continental source).
To better understand the petroleum generation in this area—the maturation of potential source rocks,
expulsion, and migration of the hydrocarbons—one- and two-dimensional numerical modeling has also been
attempted in the platform area for times before and after thrusting. This method has given an estimate of
420–1350 billion bbl of generated oil, of which 6–15% have been recognized within the study area.

Resumen

S e describen dos provincias petrolíferas principales en la parte central de la Cuenca Oriental de

Venezuela: En la plataforma de antepaís cercana al Orinoco hacia el Sur, los campos de petróleo pesado
de la Faja Petrolífera; y al Norte el campo gigante El Furrial y las trampas relacionadas en los cabalgamientos
frontales de la Serranía del Interior. Para identificar los sistemas petroleros y definir yacimientos petrolíferos
atractivos en este complejo sistema de cinturón de pliegues y cabalgamientos-cuenca de antepaís, un modelo
geológico integrado del área ha sido construido por primera vez usando datos estratigráficos, estructurales,
geoquímicos y de yacimiento. Los principales resultados del estudio se refieren a: (1) la elaboración de una
síntesis estratigráfica confiable que incluye dataciones actualizadas; (2) una interpretación estructural coherente
en las zonas de cabalgamiento, validada por el balanceamiento de una sección transversal Norte-Sur; nuevos
hechos relevantes son el descubrimiento de cabalgamientos fuera de secuencia (el Cabalgamiento de Pirital) y
la implicación de la corteza superior en el proceso de deformación; (3) la descripción de modelos de yacimiento
e hidrodinámico, que revelan la importancia de los yacimientos principales Las Piedras, Oficina y Merecure;
(4) una caracterización de tres diferentes rocas madre de origen marino y continental en el Grupo Guayuta (de
origen marino) y la Formación Carapita (de origen continental).
Para mejorar el entendimiento de la generación de petróleo en esta área, es decir, la maduración de las rocas
madre potenciales, la expulsión y migración de los hidrocarburos, se probaron modelajes numéricos 1-D y 2-D
en el área de plataforma antes y después de los cabalgamientos. De esta manera, se ha estimado una cantidad
entre 420–1350 miles de millones de barriles de petróleo generado, de los cuales, de 6–15 por ciento se han
encontrado dentro del area estudiada.

Parnaud, F., Y. Gou, J.-C. Pascual, I. Truskowski, O. Gallango, H. Passalacqua, and F. Roure, 1995, 741
Petroleum geology of the central part of the Eastern Venezuela basin, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S.,
and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 741–756.
742 Parnaud et al.
INTRODUCTION
Bordered to the north by a fold and thrust belt—the
Serrania del Interior—and by the El Pilar fault, which
mark a major plate boundary with the Caribbean, the
Eastern Venezuelan basin extends as far south as the
Orinoco River (Hedberg, 1950). This basin is a flexure-
related foreland basin that developed in Neogene time
on the late Mesozoic passive margin of the South
American craton. It comprises two of the major
petroleum provinces of this continent (Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980): (1) the extensive fields of the Faja
Petrolifera in the southern foreland platform near the
Orinoco River (Fiorillo, 1982) (Figure 1), and (2) the
surface seeps and shallow prospects of the Quiriquire
field at the front of the Serrania in the north, recently
extended into the Maturin basin by the discovery of the
giant El Furrial field in the frontal buried overthrusts of
Figure 1—Tectonic setting of the Eastern Venezuelan basin and locations of the major oil fields. Note the two main
petroleum provinces (Faja in the south and frontal units of the Serrania in the north).
the belt (Carnevali, 1988a) (Figure 1).
Numerous studies, some of them addressing the
stratigraphy (Hedberg, 1950; Sulek, 1961; Arnstein et al.,
1985; Chiock, 1985; Parnaud et al., 1992a), and others
based on seismic data (Rossi, 1985; Rossi et al., 1985;
Carnevali, 1988b; Potié, 1989; Parnaud et al., 1992b;
Roure et al., 1994), have already described the major
regional tectonic features and large oil fields. However, a
synthesis integrating all the available surface and subsur-
face data still remains to be done.
Extensive seismic surveys have been acquired and
numerous exploration wells have been drilled in the
central portion of the basin (Figure 1). This unique set of
data is used here, together with new biostratigraphic and
geochemical analyses, structural studies, and numerical
modeling of the maturation and migration of hydrocar-
bons, to construct an integrated geologic model that
describes the petroleum geology of the area.
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin
Figure 2—Map of study area showing locations of the
seismic profiles and structural sections. The study area
includes 5000 km of seismic reflection lines and more than
200 wells.
GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION AND
STRATIGRAPHIC MODEL
The geodynamic evolution of the Eastern Venezuelan
basin can be divided into four major episodes (Eva et al.,
1989):
• A prerift phase in Paleozoic time
• A rifting and drifting phase during Jurassic and
earliest Cretaceous time, characterized by
grabens, the creation of oceanic crust in the
Tethyan-Caribbean domain, and a regional
breakup unconformity (Eva et al., 1989; Bartok,
1993)
• A passive margin period during the
Cretaceous–Paleogene
• A final phase during oblique collision in the
Neogene and Quaternary that resulted in
formation of the Serrania del Interior and transfor-
mation of the passive margin basin into a foreland
basin. This collision of the Carribean plate with
743
the South American plate was diachronous with a
progressive west to east displacement (Stephan et
al., 1985).
In the central part of the Eastern Venezuelan basin
(Figure 1), only the two last episodes of this geodynamic
evolution can be recognized in wells and outcrops. The
first two are interpreted from seismic data in the
Trinidad subbasin to the east (Persad, 1978) and in the
Guarico subbasin to the west (Figure 1).
Prerift Megasequence
The prerift megasequence that developed during the
Paleozoic is identified on seismic profiles (Figures 2, 3). It
is associated with the Hato Viejo and Carrizal formations
of the Guarico subbasin which were deposited in coastal
to neritic marine environments. The sequences encoun-
tered by drilling are composed mainly of fine- to coarse-
grained sandstones, which are slightly calcareous and
intercalated with conglomerates and green shales. Stover
(1967) has dated the Carrizal Formation as Late
Devonian–Early Carboniferous. This sequence reaches a
thickness of about 1.5–2.0 sec (two-way time), or about
3000–5000 m.
Rift Megasequence
The rift megasequence developed during Late
Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous time and has been described
as the La Quinta Formation west of the study area in the
Espino graben (Hedberg, 1950; Bartok, 1993) (Figure 1).
This formation, which was deposited in a continental
environment, is composed mainly of red shales with
basaltic sills. This megasequence is seismically recog-
nized in half-grabens (Figure 3) and reaches a thickness
of 0.6 sec, or about 3600 m.
Passive Margin Megasequence
The passive margin megasequence covers the Creta-
ceous–Paleogene and is characterized by three principal
transgressive phases that developed from north to south
and culminated during Turonian, Paleocene–early
Eocene, and Oligocene time, respectively (Figure 3).
These events match the general eustatic sea level chart
(Vail et al., 1977). Although this megasequence is clear on
seismic lines (Figure 3), the base has not yet been recog-
nized either in wells or in outcrop.
The initial transgressive phase commenced with
deposition of the basal sandstone of the Barranquin
Formation (Van der Osten, 1957). The maximum trans-
gressive advance is marked by the deposition of platform
carbonates that are diachronous in a north-south
direction within the basin and clearly seen on seismic
lines (Figure 3). This transgression is defined as the inter-
mediate Cretaceous sequence. In the El Pilar area to the
north (Figure 1), these limestones correspond to the
upper level of the Barranquin Formation of Barremian
age and, in the southernmost area of outcrops, to the
Albian El Cantil Formation (Figure 4). In the El Furrial
744 Parnaud et al.
Figure 3—Seismic profile and structural interpretation of the Jurassic–Cretaceous sequence. See Figure 2 for location.
field, these limestones are of Aptian–Turonian age and
belong to the El Cantil, Querecual, and San Antonio
formations. In the southern part of the basin (Mata area),
these strata belong to the Tigre Formation and indicate
the maximum advance of the transgression during the
Turonian (Figure 4).
In the El Furrial area, another intermediate facies has
been drilled between the Tigre and San Antonio forma-
tions. It is characterized by sandstones rich in organic
matter, fossiliferous dolomitic limestones (with echino-
derm fragments), and the presence of glauconite.
Partially silicified phosphatic layers associated with
dolomitic limestones are common.
The main source rocks were deposited during this
transgressive phase (Talukdar et al., 1988; Gallango et al.,
1992; Alberdi and Lafargue, 1993). They are organic-rich
marine mudstones deposited in a bathyal environment
between the Pirital high and the El Pilar fault and a
mixed organic facies that occurs in a platform environ-
ment to the south between the Pirital high and the defor-
mation front. These source rocks correspond to the
Querecual and San Antonio formations of Cenoman-
ian–Campanian age and are coeval with the deposition
of platform carbonates to the south (Figure 3).
During the Paleocene–Eocene, the next transgression
followed the Maastrichtian regression; it is represented
by the San Juan Formation. In outcrops, the San Juan
Formation contains regressive submarine fans facies (Di
Croce, 1989) and in the El Furrial area, deltaic-estuarine
facies. This new facies encountered in one of the wells of
the study area is laterally equivalent to the San Juan
Formation and is referred to as the Musipan Formation
of Maastrichtian age (Figure 4).
The final transgression that developed during the
Oligocene commenced with deposition of the basal
sandstone of the Merecure Formation. This sandstone is
the main reservoir of the El Furrial area (Figure 5). The
Merecure Formation was deposited in a continental envi-
ronment in the southern part of the basin (Cerro Negro
area) and in an inner shelf environment within the
northern part (outcrops of the Serrania del Interior). It is
composed mainly of alternations of fine- to coarse-
grained sandstones and shales, the source of the
sediments being the Guyana shield to the south. The
Merecure Formation changes facies toward the north; the
sandstone shales out into the Areo and Carapita forma-
tions, which are attributed to an outer shelf environment
(Stainforth, 1971).
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin
Figure 4—North-south stratigraphic correlation chart along the regional transect.
Oblique Collision Megasequence
The passive margin megasequence ended during the
Oligocene when it was terminated by the collision of the
Carribbean plate against the South American plate and
the basin changed into a foreland basin. The oblique
collision migrated progressively eastward during the late
Oligocene to earliest Miocene, dividing the foreland
basin into three areas (Figure 1): (1) a southern area (from
Cerro Negro to Oritupano) corresponding to the
platform zone, (2) a central zone (from Acema-Casma to
Pirital) corresponding to the foredeep, and (3) a northern
area (north of the Pirital fault) corresponding to the over-
thrust area.
Diachronism of the thrust belt load applied to the
northern border of the South American continent led to
an eastward migration of the foredeep (Stephan et al.,
1985). In the west, the latest passive margin megase-
quence sedimentary rocks are Paleocene, thus indicating
early tectonic events in that area. In eastern Venezuela,
however, no tectonic activity has been recognized in the
rock record prior to the late Eocene. However, the
foredeep also migrated from north to south, which was
related to stacking of the allochthonous units caused by
collision of the plates (Rossi, 1985; Potié, 1989).
The foredeep, located south of the deformation front,
was isolated from the platform by the slope. In the
foredeep itself, the thick shale sequence of the Carapita
Formation was deposited first. This formation is the
745
main seal for the Oligocene–Miocene reservoirs (Freites
and Oficina formations) (Figure 5) and is also regarded
as a potential source rock with mixed organic matter
types (continental and marine). However, the foredeep
was mainly filled during the Pliocene–Pleistocene with
the younger La Pica and Las Piedras deposits, represen-
tative of shallow marine to continental environments
(Figure 5). The maximum cumulative thickness of the
oblique collision megasequence is about 6000 m.
Near the deformation front and in the allochthon, the
synorogenic deposits contain numerous unconformities
that help to separate the various formations (Figure 5)
and date the deformation:
• The lower Miocene Naricual Formation (Socas,
1990) records the initiation of uplift of the Serrania
del Interior in the north and a coeval southward
propagating deltaic system.
• The Chapapotal Member is related to the Pirital
thrust of middle Miocene age.
• The Morichito Formation corresponds to the conti-
nental infill of a piggy-back basin transported by
the Pirital thrust (Roure et al., 1994).
• Turbiditic sedimentary deposits of the lower
Carapita Formation have a possible northwest to
southeast transport direction.
Each of these formations, except for the Morichito, were
deposited in bathyal environments in front of the thrusts
that generated them.
746 Parnaud et al.
Figure 5—Conceptual cross sections showing the deposition of Oligocene and early Miocene sediments. (A) Regional
model; (B) local model.
STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTIONS AND
MAJOR PETROLEUM TRAPS
The analysis of more than 5000 km of seismic reflec-
tion lines has been supplemented with surface geologic
data, computer-assisted techniques to restore structural
cross sections (Roure et al., 1994), and integration of
gravity and magnetic modeling to construct a coherent
structural model (Figure 6).
Structural Styles
Two different tectonic provinces have been recog-
nized. The autochthonous province extends from the
basin axis to the Orinoco River. It is extensional and
characterized by normal faults trending N 60º–70º E
(Figures 7, 8) and transcurrent faults that are younger in
the southern part than in the north. Strike-slip faults
trending N 70º W are also present in the northern part of
the province, affecting both Cretaceous and Paleogene
deposits. Northward-dipping gravity collapse faults
affect the Miocene–Pliocene sedimentary rocks.
The allochthonous province that extends from the El
Pilar fault (a major east-trending, dextral strike-slip fault
representing the surface trace of the Caribbean–South
American plate boundary) to the basin axis corresponds
to a south-vergent system. Its compressive structural
style is characterized by the following:
• Thin-skinned tectonic units consist of Cretaceous–-
Tertiary deposits that are detached from their
substratum along a major décollement at the
Jurassic–Cretaceous interface (evaporites or coal
measures located at an average depth of 10–15 km)
(Figure 6) (Roure et al., 1994). Shallower detach-
ments occur elsewhere in the tectonic pile, espe-
cially at the boundary between the indurated
Mesozoic and Paleogene platform deposits and the
poorly lithified Neogene Carapita Formation.
There is probably another décollement level within
the Paleozoic–Jurassic succession.
• The deformation front of the allochthonous
province locally corresponds to a triangle zone,
with progressive wedging of the foredeep
Carapita Formation by the Mesozoic and
Paleogene sequences in the El Furrial ramp
anticline (Figure 9). Other fishtail or triangle struc-
tures occur behind the deformation front, that is,
along the Pirital high.
• Kilometer-scale cylindrical folds and associated
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin 747

Figure 6—Structural cross sections across the Maturin basin from the Serraniato to the Faja. See Figure 2 for location. (A)
Present stage. (B) Initial stage. (Modified after Roure et al., 1994; Passalacqua et al, 1995.)

Figure 7—Seismic profile showing normal faulting in the foreland platform area. See Figure 2 for location.

thrusts trending N 60º–70º E are mainly ramp anti-
clines, such as in the El Furrial area (Figures 6, 10).
• The thrust sequence is mainly a piggyback
sequence, with local out-of-sequence thrusting or
fault reactivation in the inner parts of the tectonic
wedge (Pirital and Manresa faults) (Figure 6)
(Roure et al., 1994).
• Dextral transcurrent faults with a N 50º–60º W
direction (Urica, San Francisco, and Los Bajos
faults) (Figures 1, 9) separate the Serrania del
Interior into areas of diachronous structural
evolution (Munro and Smith, 1984).
748 Parnaud et al.
Figure 8—Seismic profile showing traps in the Faja. See Figure 2 for location.
An intermediate zone showing compressive and
extensional structural styles can be interpreted between
the allochthonous and autochthonous provinces.
Balanced Structural Cross Sections
Depth-converted line drawings compiled from the
seismic profiles and additional well and outcrop data
have been used to build preliminary geologic cross
sections from the El Pilar fault in the north to the Orinoco
River in the south (Figure 1). They were then balanced
with the Locace software, an example of which is shown
in Figure 6. Details of these restorations are given
elsewhere (Passalacqua et al., 1995; Roure et al., 1994).
These balanced cross sections show a shortening
discrepancy between the passive margin sedimentary
rocks (about 80 km) and between the pre-Cretaceous
deposits and the upper crust (about 45 km). This differ-
ence implies that the upper crust is also involved in the
shortening process, with a deep detachment either
between the brittle (upper) and ductile (lower) crust or at
the crust–mantle interface.
Moreover, the pattern of compressive deformation
was probably influenced by the history of the crust
during the rift phases (inversion of the previous normal
faults). This inversion is best imaged along eastward-
trending seismic profiles that cross the Urica fault zone
(Figure 9), where thick basinal strata of a Mesozoic
subbasin (El Furrial and Pirital units) are thrust over
thinner and still autochthonous strata of the foreland.
However, the Urica fault only represents a tear fault that
borders the allochthon in the west. This fault does not cut
through the basement, with the initial border fault of the
Mesozoic inverted basin being located to the east (Roure
et al., 1994).
Geodynamic Evolution and Diachronous
Tectonics
Integration of the focal mechanisms of earthquakes
with gravity and magnetic modeling of the crustal archi-
tecture of the belt (see Passalacqua et al., 1995) indicates a
minimum amount of type A subduction of the South
American lithosphere beneath the Caribbean plate. The
amounts of subduction are too limited to develop associ-
ated volcanism. The regional geodynamics are effectively
dominated by oblique collision (transpression) between
the Caribbean and South American plates. From Eocene
time until the present, the Caribbean plate and associated
structural stresses have migrated eastward. This
migration caused diachronism in tectonics and sedimen-
tation along the entire northern border of Venezuela, as
well as strain partitioning across the plate boundary
(Stephan et al., 1985; Passalacqua et al., 1995).
This west to east migration and partitioning of the
compressive stress is shown by the growth of major
structural elements:
• Progressive eastward displacement of the
Caribbean plate along the El Pilar fault
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin
Figure 9—Seismic profile showing the Urica transfer fault. See Figure 2 for location.
• Progressive emplacement of the various compart-
ments of the Serrania allochthon along transverse
transcurrent faults (Urica, San Francisco, and Los
Bajos faults)
• Mainly north-south shortening along the N 60º–
70º E trending frontal thrusts (El Furrial and Pirital)
RESERVOIR AND HYDRODYNAMIC
MODELS
South of the Serrania del Interior outcrops, ten
different reservoirs have been recognized and studied
within the Chacopata-Uverito subsurface transect. The
studied Lower Creataceous–Pleistocene reservoirs
include the San Juan and other undifferentiated Creta-
ceous; the Paleogene Merecure and Caratas Formations;
and the Neogene Las Piedras, La Pica, Morichito, Chapa-
potal, Freites, and Oficina sandstones (Figures 3, 5, 11).
By integrating pressure measurements, geochemical
analyses, and new structural data, a hydrodynamic
model is proposed for the Eastern Venezuelan basin.
749
Reservoir Quality
The results of the reservoir study show that porosity
values are generally high (up to 35%) for shallow reser-
voirs such as Las Piedras, Oficina, and Merecure in the
Orinoco heavy oil belt and are reduced by compaction
due to depth of burial. A general compaction law
(Gallango et al., 1992) for the Las Piedras, Freites,
Oficina, and Merecure reservoirs south of the deforma-
tion front is
PHI= e 3.612–depth/12708
where PHI is the effective porosity in percent.
In addition to these primary obliteration processes, reor-
ganization of the porous media also occurs, especially
through diagenetic processes such as dissolution and
fracturing. These processes have been recognized in the
Aguasay deep zones and in the El Furrial slab, where up
to 60% of the encountered porosity is of secondary origin
(Aguado et al., 1993).
750 Parnaud et al.
Figure 10—Seismic profile showing the El Furrial structure. See Figure 2 for location.
From an exploration prospective, three main areas are
recognized (Figure 1, 11, 12):
• The platform area from Aguasay-Casma to Cerro
Negro, where the objective is the Oligocene–-
Miocene reservoir with intergranular primary
porosity
• The El Tejero-El Furrial-Orocual thrust zones,
where the objective is the Merecure sandstone with
secondary and primary porosity
• The Pirital high zone, where the objectives are the
Las Piedras, Morichito, and Merecure sandstones,
with primary porosity, and the Cretaceous lime-
stones with secondary fracture porosity
Hydrodynamic Model
Based on pressure data and formation water composi-
tion distributions, combined with the integration of new
structural data, a hydrodynamic model is proposed for
the subbasin (Figure 12). This model involves two phases
separated by the last thrust emplacement of the El Furrial
and Pirital structures.
Prior to recent events, two major topographic highs
may have represented the necessary recharge area for
meteoric refill of the Las Piedras and Oligocene–Miocene
aquifers: the Serrania del Interior to the north and the
paleohighs to the west. The transit zones were either
shallow for the surface aquifer or deeper for the
Oligocene–Miocene aquifer. In contrast, the main
discharge was restricted to the Orinoco River banks, with
a secondary discharge in the delta zone for the surface
aquifer. A deep north to south drainage thus existed
within most of the subbasin area, while in the southern
and western parts, the flow direction at shallow depths
was from west to east. Because vertical communication
exists among the different aquifers in the Orinoco heavy
oil belt, this direction is also preserved there, so that the
drainage within the deeper Oligocene–Miocene reservoir
is from west to east.
Due to later thrusting, the deep aquifer is no longer
continuous; it has been subdivided so that the meteoric
refill area of the Serrania is now bypassed. The Las
Piedras transit paths were not modified, but the Oligo-
cene–Miocene drainage pattern was totally reorganized.
In the eastern part (Oritupano area) (Figure 12), a
connate water refill area is recognized that was formerly
hidden by the large flow of meteoric water. This connate
water is the product of compaction (dewatering) of the
thick foredeep deposits. The El Furrial–Orocual thrust
unit is isolated and characterized by mixed formation
waters and high pressures, reaching 75–80% of the litho-
static load. Along the Orinoco heavy oil belt, the pattern
was not changed; meteoric waters still migrated in each
aquifer from the Mesa highs to reach their exsurgence
along the Orinoco River banks.
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin 751

Figure 11—Conceptual cross section showing the major petroleum plays of the Eastern Venezuelan basin.

From the study of the crude oil distribution, we

recognize a migration trend. During the first phase, the
oil probably migrated rapidly toward the Orinoco fields
due to the large freshwater flow arising from the uplifted
ranges to the north. The “tar” and heavy biodegrated oils
encountered everywhere in the traps of the basin are
regarded as evidence for such a process. During the
second phase, the lack of a strong hydrodynamic vector
confined the migration of the newly generated oils to the
Onado-Aguasay and northern areas. Thus, oil migration
was no longer in a north-south direction but in an east-
west direction. To the west and southwest, the newly
generated oils are presently undergoing biodegradation
due to the meteoric water percolating from the Mesa
highs.

OIL KITCHENS AND MIGRATION PATHS

Extensive geochemical sampling has been undertaken
both in the Serrania (outcrops) and in the wells of the
Maturin basin. Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis (Espitalié
et al., 1985) and complementary analyses give a good
estimate of the distribution and quality of the potential
source rocks in the area (Talukdar et al., 1988; Alberdi
and Lafargue, 1993) (Figure 13). One-dimensional simu-
lations of the maturation of the organic-rich deposits
were undertaken using GENEX software, whereas two-
dimensional migration paths were tested with THEMIS
software. A detailed description of the numerical
modeling is given elsewhere (Gallango and Parnaud,
1995).

Source Rocks
Three distinct source rocks have been identified. The
principal source rock includes parts of the Querecual and
San Antonio formations (Figures 4, 13). The organic
matter has a marine origin, with an average TOC content
of 2–6 wt. % and a petroleum potential higher than 5 mg
HC/g rock. This source rock is widely distributed in the
Serrania del Interior. A secondary source rock lies within
the San Antonio and Querecual formations (Figures 4, Figure 12—Map showing the hydrodynamic system of the
13), but it has a mixed organic matter type, mainly conti- Maturin subbasin.
752 Parnaud et al.

Figure 13—Hydrogen index (HI) versus oxygen index (OI) and HI versus Tmax diagrams of the major source rocks. (Units are
mg HC/g TOC for HI and mg CO2/ g TOC for OI.)
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin 753

nental, with an average initial TOC of 2 wt. % and a

petroleum potential of about 2 mg HC/g rock. It is
distributed mainly in the Pirital and El Furrial over-
thrusts and in the lateral equivalent of the Querecual
Formation in the autochthonous province to the south.
Finally, the least significant source rock is distributed in
scattered levels of the Carapita Formation in the
autochthonous part of the foredeep basin (Figures 5, 13).
It has a mixed organic matter type, mainly continental,
with an average original TOC of 2 wt. % and a petroleum
potential of 2–5 mg HC/g rock.

Hydrocarbon Kitchens
Numerical modeling has been applied to simulate the
maturation of the Cretaceous potential source rocks
(Gallango and Parnaud, 1995). The Carapita source rock,
which is essentially gas prone, has not been investigated
because of the lack of information. However, it is
probably the source for numerous biogenic gas shows
encountered in the foredeep. Despite its poor oil
potential (type III organic matter of continental origin), it
could have generated small quantities of oil. The
discovery of terrestrial oil in a recent well may relate to
the Carapita source rock, unless it is derived from the
terrestrial organic matter contained in parts of the
Querecual Formation.
Results from numerical simulations of the maturation
of the source rocks help to identify three major kitchens
(Figures 14, 15). The first is located in the autochthon and
El Furrial areas. It contributed to a reduced petroleum
generation potential from Miocene to present time. The
source rocks of this domain are presently in the gas Figure 14—Oil maturity distribution along the Chacopata-
window and have a high transformation ratio. Uverito transect. See Figure 2 for location.
The second source rock kitchen corresponds to the
Pirital slab. It has a moderate petroleum generation
potential and acquired its present maturity during the but eroded sedimentary sequences. In the Pirital area, oil
early Miocene (episode of maximum burial). Petroleum generation started very early, by the end of Cretaceous
was generated in this area from Paleocene to middle time. A later phase of oil generation was initiated during
Miocene time. The maturity index varies from south to the thrusting episode and provided more mature crudes,
north, with vitrinite reflectance values of 0.65–1.30% Ro but in limited quantities. Without considering possible
in the present overthrust zone and a transformation ratio gas generation, between 300 and 930 billion bbl of oil
of 15–95% in the area investigated. Petroleum generation have been generated in this area.
probably occurred during two distinct episodes in the In conclusion, the total amount of generated oil within
Pirital allochthon. During the first episode, prior to the study area is estimated to be between 420 and 1350
thrusting, an immature crude was probably generated billion bbl.
that migrated southward toward the Orinoco subbasin.
In the second episode, a minor amount of more mature Origin of Hydrocarbons and Trapping
crude was also generated. The total amount of petroleum
generated in the Pirital kitchen is estimated to be On the basis of the distribution of oil fields (Figure 1)
between 120 and 420 billion bbl, without taking into and the simulation of hydrocarbon generation, various
account gas generation (Parnaud et al., 1992b). migration paths and episodes of trapping are envisaged
The third kitchen relates to the Serrania del Interior (Figure 15). To the south in the Cerro Negro area (Figures
itself and is characterized by a high petroleum potential. 1, 15), the oil has a marine signature. It is clearly derived
This area is presently in an uplifted position, and its from the first generation of the marine source rocks of
maturity level does not fit with the present burial depths. the Querecual and San Antonio formations, which began
This high maturity level was reached prior to thrusting in early Paleocene time in the Serrania del Interior area.
during early Miocene time. It implies either a high geo- In the Acema-Casma central area (Figures 1, 15), there
thermal gradient at that time or the recent erosion of an is a mixture of mature and immature oils, all of which
overlying tectonic unit (tectonic overburial) or unknown were derived from a marine source. As in the Cerro Negro
754 Parnaud et al.
Figure 15—Tectonic evolution of northern Venezuela.
Conceptual cross sections showing the locations of oil
kitchens and changes in migration paths during the geo-
dynamic evolution. (A) Passive margin stage: source rock
deposition. (B) Passive margin stage: early maturation,
expulsion, and migration. (C) Type B subduction: long
distance migration to the Faja petrolifera del Orinoco.
(D) Type A subduction: late and short distance migration to
the El Furrial and Pirital traps; present-day kitchen.
area, these crude oils correspond to the first generation
from the Querecual and San Antonio formations, starting
in the Paleocene in the area of present-day deformation.
In the Central Onado and northern Furrial areas
(frontal thrust units) (Figures 1, 6, 15), the occurrence of a
very mature crude oil of marine origin is related to a
second episode of generation that was associated with
the rapid tectonic overburial of the Querecual and San
Antonio formations. During this episode, part of the
generated crudes probably still migrated southward and
reached the Onado traps, although most of the oil could
migrate no farther than the frontal structures (e.g., El
Furrial).
The gas that accumulated in the eastern part of the El
Furrial trend (El Corozo structure) is thermogenic and
associated with oil, although in the western part of the
trend (El Tejero–El Carito structures), the gas is associ-
ated with condensate. The gas encountered in the
Onado–Acema Casma fields is also thermogenic and
associated with oil. All the analyzed gas samples from
these fields show that they were generated principally
from a marine source rock, compatible with the San
Antonio and Querecual source proposed for the oils.
In the Pirital area (Figures 1, 6, 15), the occurrence of
an immature to mature crude oil of marine origin is
probably related to the last episode of oil generation in
the Querecual and San Antonio formations. This episode
took place after the latest thrusting and subsequent
isolation of the Pirital unit from other parts of the basin.
Newly generated oils migrated through faults and
fractures toward the shallower reservoirs of the La Pica,
Morichito, and Las Piedras reservoirs. Secondary
migration or remigration of early generated oils toward
the surface may reflect recent reactivation of the Pirital
overthrust fault as part of an out-of-sequence thrust
(Roure et al., 1994) and represents an alternate solution
for the oils trapped in the Morichito piggyback basin.
CONCLUSIONS
This integrated geologic model of the Eastern
Venezuelan basin provides crucial data on the sedimen-
tary fill, internal structural architecture, and evolution of
the basin. Four major episodes of basin evolution are
recognized: prerift, rift, passive margin, and foreland
basin. The change from passive margin to foreland basin
evolution is dated as latest Oligocene or early Miocene. It
is essential to distinguish the Merecure Formation in the
El Furrial area, which is attributed to the Oligocene
passive margin, from the Naricual Formation whose
Serrania outcrops belong to the early Miocene foreland
basin. The outcrop equivalent of the Merecure Formation
is the Oligocene Los Jabillos Formation. A new correla-
tion of the Cretaceous sequences is proposed for the El
Furrial area. The Musipan Formation is believed to be a
southern equivalent of the San Juan Formation, whereas
the El Furrial Formation is a lateral equivalent of the San
Antonio Formation (to the north) and the Tigre
Formation (to the south).
The cross section balancing has constrained the burial
history of the potential source rocks, enabling us to
simulate the petroleum generation. Major results of this
study address the petroleum potential of the basin. The
differences observed among the crude oils are due to the
effects of biodegradation, maturity variations, and
natural mixing processes. Most of the oils were derived
from a marine source: the San Antonio and Querecual
Cretaceous formations.
The source rock for the terrestrial crude oil has not
been identified. The Querecual, San Antonio, or Carapita
formations could have generated this crude. Distinct
episodes of maturation, expulsion, and migration of
hydrocarbons are recognized. Early maturation mainly
 Petroleum Geology of the Central Part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin
resulted from sedimentary overburial, with the
generated oils having migrated long distances from the
present Serrania area toward the flexural bulge (Orinoco
fields). In contrast, late stage maturation was related to
tectonic overburial, with the resulting crudes having
migrated short distances to fill the frontal traps of the
allochthon (El Furrial field).
Acknowledgments The authors thank Intevep, S.A., for
permission to publish this paper and the industry sponsors
Corpoven, S.A., Lagoven, S.A., and Maraven, S.A., opera-
tional affiliates of PDVSA, for the financial support of the
project and for providinge the subsurface data required for the
study. This paper has also been greatly improved thanks to the
comments of M. Cooper, M. Daly, A. J. Tankard, and an
anonymous reviewer.
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F. Roure
IFP
B.P. 311
92506 Rueil-Malmaison
France
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics of the
Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin,
Venezuela and Colombia

C. E. Macellari
Shell Oil
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Abstract

T he complex Caribbean–South American plate boundary records a Late Cretaceous–Eocene phase of

terrane collision followed by Eocene–Recent right-lateral displacement. This study analyses the strati-
graphy deposited during the latter stage in a series of episutural pull-apart basins. On the basis of regional
seismic, well control, field work, and published information, this succession is divided into four unconformity-
bounded depositional sequences. These cycles are upper Eocene–lower Oligocene, upper Oligocene–lower
Miocene, middle–upper Miocene, and Pliocene–Recent. The remnants of upper Eocene and lower Oligocene
rocks are mostly restricted to narrow, fault-controlled northwest-southeast depocenters. During the late
Oligocene–late Miocene, sedimentation was still fault controlled but more widespread. Sedimentation rates
along these growth faults were extremely high (up to 350 m/m.y.), but generally decreased through time.
During the Eocene, the axis of maximum subsidence was located in the western part of the Golfo de
Venezuela, at the contact between autochthonous and allochthonous units emplaced during a prior collisional
event. During the Oligocene and Miocene, the axis of maximum subsidence was located farther east, in the
Urumaco trough and east of La Vela Bay. At the same time, an ENE-WSW oriented depocenter began to
develop in the Falcón basin in response to loading by a northward-advancing thrust front. Finally, during the
Pliocene, the largest subsidence rates occurred south of the Golfo Triste, in a pull-apart area created by the
right-lateral displacement of the Boconó and Oca faults.

Resumen

E l complejo contacto de las placas del Caribe y Sudamérica registra una fase cretácica tardía a eocena de
colisión de terrenos, que fue seguida por desplazamientos laterales derechos durante el Eoceno al
Reciente. Este estudio analiza la estratigrafía depositada durante esta última etapa en una serie de cuencas
“pull-apart” episuturales. Basado en el estudio de sísmica regional, pozos, trabajo de campo, y análisis de liter-
atura, esta sucesión se divide en cuatro secuencias deposicionales limitadas por discordancias. Estos ciclos son:
Eoceno superior–Oligoceno inferior; Oligoceno superior–Mioceno inferior; Mioceno medio–superior, y
Plioceno–Reciente. Los remanentes de depositación del Eoceno tardío y del Oligoceno temprano están mayor-
mente restringidos a depocentros angostos orientados noroeste-sudeste, que fueron controlados por fallas.
Durante el Oligoceno tardío al Mioceno tardío, la sedimentación aún estuvo controlada por fallas, pero fue mas
distribuida arealmente. Los ritmos de sedimentación en estas fallas de crecimiento fueron extremadamente
altos (hasta 350 m/m.a.), pero decrecieron en general a travéz del tiempo.
Durante el Eoceno, el eje de máxima subsidencia estuvo ubicado en la parte occidental del Golfo de
Venezuela, en el contacto entre unidades autóctonas y alóctonas emplazadas durante un evento collisional
previo. Durante el Oligoceno y el Mioceno, el eje de subsidencia máxima estuvo ubicado mas hacia el este, en
el surco del Urumaco, y al este de la Ensenada de La Vela. Al mismo tiempo un depocentro orientado este
noreste-oeste sudoeste comenzó a desarrollarse en la cuenca de Falcón en respuesta flexural a la carga
producida por un frente de corrimiento que avanzaba desde el sur. Finalmente, durante el Plioceno el ritmo
mas alto de sedimentación se localizó al sur del Golfo Triste, en una cuenca “pull-apart” creada por el
desplazamiento lateral-derecho de las fallas de Boconó y Oca.

Macellari, C. E., 1995, Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics of the southwestern 757
Caribbean pull-apart basin, Venezuela and Colombia, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and
H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 757–780.
758 Macellari
Figure 1—Tectonic and basin map of northwestern South America and location of study area. (Modified from Stephan, 1985.)
INTRODUCTION
Most of the Caribbean–South American plate
boundary is represented by a regional right-lateral
transpressive contact. A series of Cenozoic basins
developed along this contact as a response to plate
interactions, which included an early collision and a
subsequent pull-apart stage (Muessig, 1984; Pindell,
1991). This complex geologic history is recorded in the
sedimentary succession.
The aim of the present study is to describe and
interpret the Cenozoic depositional history of the north-
western South American margin to better understand
the evolution of the area (Figure 1). To achieve this, the
stratigraphy was simplified in terms of unconformity-
bounded depositional sequences or cycles. These cycles
were identified on the basis of prominent unconformities
in the seismic record, regional paleontologically dated
hiatuses, marked changes in depositional environments,
widespread distribution of characteristic lithologic types,
and changes in the areal distribution of stratigraphic
units, including variations in coastal onlap. The database
for this study includes published literature, several
regional seismic lines, information from 25 wells, and
field observations in the Falcón-Paraguaná area.
TECTONIC PROVINCES
The southern Caribbean margin is formed by a suite
of tectonic terranes that include the following, from north
to south (Figure 1):
South Caribbean Deformed Belt—The south Carib-
bean deformed belt (Case et al., 1984) and its eastern
continuation, the Curaçao Ridge, are Neogene accre-
tionary complexes that formed in a compressional
regime as the Caribbean borderlands were thrust
northward over the Caribbean basin (Silver et al., 1975;
Talwani et al., 1977; Ladd et al.,1984).
Los Roques Basin—The Los Roques basin, located
between the Curaçao Ridge and the Leeward Antilles,
contains more than 2000 m of Tertiary pelagic and
possibly turbiditic strata overlying oceanic crust (Silver et
al., 1975; Case et al., 1984). The Los Roques basin was
interpreted by Silver et al. (1975) as a secondary feature
associated with uplift north of the Curaçao Ridge.
Leeward Antilles Terrane—The Leeward Antilles (or
Netherland Antilles) terrane is a series of uplifted blocks
trending eastward off the northern coast of Venezuela.
These blocks are exposed in the Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire,
Las Aves, and Los Roques islands. The basement rocks
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
are middle(?) Cretaceous tholeiitic pillow basalt and
diabase of possible oceanic crust origin. Upper Creta-
ceous rocks interpreted as a primitive magmatic arc are
superimposed (Beets, 1972; Silver et al., 1975). Uplift and
erosion during the Paleogene resulted in deposition of a
conglomerate that is exposed on central Bonaire (Pijpers,
1933; Beets et al., 1977). This conglomerate includes clasts
of chert, volcanic rocks, and serpentinite, along with
fragments of gneiss, marble, and various schists, which
may indicate a continental provenance (Pijpers, 1933).
Bonaire Basin—The elongated Bonaire basin extends
south of the islands of Curaçao and La Orchila and
contains more than 4000 m of Cenozoic deposits (Case et
al., 1984). This basin is an offshore extension of the Falcón
basin (Silver et al., 1975; Case et al., 1984), but it is
underlain by a transitional to oceanic crust (Edgar et al.,
1971; Case et al., 1984).
Cordillera de la Costa—The Caribbean system in
north-central Venezuela is represented by the Cordillera
de la Costa, which is composed of a series of east-west-
trending tectonic belts. These consist of Mesozoic
metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks that were
emplaced south- or southeastward over Paleogene flysch
(Bellizzia, 1972; Maresch, 1974; Beck, 1978).
Guajira Peninsula—The Guajira Peninsula has a core
of Cretaceous metamorphic rocks that are exposed in the
Serranias de Cocinas, Macuire, and Jarara and are
surrounded by relatively thin and mildly deformed
upper Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. The oldest preserved
structures in the Guajira Peninsula are a series of
southeast-verging thrusts that place allochthonous over
autochthonous Cretaceous rocks.
Falcón Basin—The Falcón basin is an east-west
depression developed in northwestern Venezuela.
Subsidence related to both extensional opening between
wrench fault systems and flexural loading by an
advancing thrust front resulted in the deposition of
more than 6000 m of Oligocene and younger clastics and
reefal limestones. The area surrounding the Falcón basin
displays three structural styles. The first is found in the
stable highs of the Dabajuro platform and Paraguaná
Peninsula, where there is only minor deformation of a
thin Cenozoic cover over a Mesozoic metamorphic
basement. The second style is represented by regional
northwest-southeast striking growth faults developed
between the major highs (Golfo de Venezuela, Urumaco
trough, offshore Aruba, and eastern La Vela Bay)
(Payne, 1951; Audemard and Demena Arenas, 1985;
Boesi and Goddard, 1991). Changes in stratigraphic
thickness along these faults indicate that they were
active during Oligocene–Miocene sedimentation. The
third style occurs along the Falcón anticlinorium which
forms the inverted part of the basin. The anticlinorium is
formed by elongated east-west folds superimposed on
previous tectonic styles. The contact between the anticli-
norium and the flat-lying strata of the coastal plain is
marked by a zone of north-verging thrusts and asym-
metric and overturned folds, which are well exposed
south of Coro.
Prominent features of the Falcón basin are the east-
west right-lateral wrench faults. The most conspicuous
759
of these is the Oca fault, which has a documented
displacement of at least 15–20 km (Feo-Codecido, 1972;
Tschanz et al., 1974).
STRATIGRAPHY
The present study concentrates on the Eocene and
younger strata that were deposited around the South
American–Caribbean plate margin. To simplify and
better understand equivalent events throughout the area,
the complex Cenozoic stratigraphy was analyzed in
terms of unconformity-bounded depositional sequences.
Four major cycles (D, C, B, and A) extending from the
upper Eocene to the Pliocene were identified (Figure 2).
Because of the diversity of facies and terminology, these
cycles are described independently for each geographic
area.
Guajira Peninsula
Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the northern and
eastern Guajira Peninsula area are preserved in three
basins (Figure 3): the Cocinetas, Portete, and
Chichibacoa.
Cocinetas Basin
The Cocinetas basin is a low area enclosed by the
Serranias de Cocinas, Jarara, and Macuire. The basin
opens to the southeast where it extends with southeast-
ward dip into the Golfo de Venezuela (Renz, 1956; Bürgl,
1960; Rollins, 1965; Thomas, 1972a,b) (Figure 3). Tertiary
sedimentary rocks rest unconformably on Cretaceous
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The total thickness
of outcropping strata is more than 2500 m (Rollins, 1965),
but the Guajira-1 well penetrated less than 1000 m of
Cenozoic strata (Figures 3, 4).
Cycle D (upper Eocene)—Sedimentation in the basin
started in the late Eocene with the Macarao Formation.
This unit is exposed only in small topographic lows along
the eastern margin of the Serrania de Cocinas. In the type
section, the Macarao Formation is 240 m thick and
contains gypsiferous silty shale, fine-grained glauconitic
sandstone with shale interbeds, and massive limestone
(Thomas, 1972a,b). The age of this formation is still
debated, but the bivalve fauna includes the diagnostic
species Venericardia (Venericor) guajirensis and Turritella
chira, indicating a late Eocene age (Stainforth, 1962a;
MacDonald, 1964; Rollins, 1965; Thomas, 1972a,b).
Cycle C (upper Oligocene–lower Miocene)—The
Siamana (or Sillimana) Formation lies unconformably on
top of the Macarao Formation. It is exposed around the
margins of the basin, especially in the northwest between
the Serranias de Cocinas and Jarara. The Siamana
Formation consists of a lower conglomeratic member
and an upper limestone member (Renz, 1960). The upper
limestone prograded across the underlying unit, and in
the western part of the basin, it directly onlaps Jurassic
 760
Macellari

Figure 2—Upper Eocene–Recent stratigraphic chart for the Guajira Peninsula, Falcón basin, and Paraguaná areas.
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
Figure 3—Cenozoic basins of the Guajira Peninsula,
showing location of wells, total Cenozoic isopachs in
meters, and location of cross sections in Figures 5 and 6.
Numbers in the Cocinetas basin show location of sites
referenced in Figure 4 and in the text: 1, Cerro Jimol; 2,
Quebrada Uitpa; 3, Guararies; 4, Siamana-Samuludo; 5,
Guajira-1 well; 6, Bahia de Tortugas.
Figure 4—Stratigraphic correlation of measured sections and well in the Cocinetas basin. See Figure 3 for locations.
761
and Cretaceous rocks (Renz, 1960). The upper interval
consists of reefoidal limestone with bioclastic debris.
These biostromes are associated with the margins of the
relatively uplifted highlands, where they apparently
formed fringing reefs. In the subsurface, this twofold
division is less obvious, and most of the Siamana
Formation is composed of limestone with sandstone
interbeds. The thickness of this transgressive formation
varies from 100 m in the Guajira-1 well to 325 m at Cerro
Jimol (locality 1, Figure 3) (Renz, 1960). The upper
Siamana Formation contains microfauna diagnostic of
the Globigerina ciperoensis zone (Rollins, 1965), although
Duque-Caro (1974) considers the unit to be slightly
younger.
Overlying the Siamana is the Uitpa Formation. The
contact between the two is discordant, especially around
the edges of the basin (Rollins, 1965; Thomas, 1972b), but
it tends to be transitional in the center (Rollins, 1965). The
Uitpa Formation is composed of silty, selenitic clays and
shales, with an abundant microfauna. Fine grained,
calcareous sandstone interbeds are common in the lower
and upper parts of this formation (Thomas, 1972b). The
thickness of the Uitpa ranges from 340 m near Uitpa to
200 m north of Siamana (Figure 3, localities 2 and 4,
respectively) (Rollins, 1965). The Uitpa Formation repre-
sents the maximum encroachment of the Cenozoic sea in
the Guajira Peninsula. This formation is believed to have
762 Macellari
Figure 5—Correlation of wells in offshore Chichibacoa basin. Only the resistivity logs are shown. See Figure 3 for location.
an early Miocene age and includes the Globorotalia kugleri,
Catapsydrax dissimilis, Catapsydrax stainforthi, and lower
Globigerinatella insueta zones (Thomas, 1972b; Duque-
Caro, 1974).
Cycle B (upper Miocene)—The contact of the Uitpa
and Jimol formations has been described as gradational
(Renz, 1960; Rollins, 1965; Thomas, 1972b). However,
Hunter (1974) recognized an abrupt lithologic break
between the two. Duque-Caro (in Thomas, 1972a) also
noted a marked hiatus between the top of the lower
Miocene and the base of the upper Miocene on the basis
of foraminiferal zones. A marked downward shift of
coastal onlap is observed at the base of the Jimol
Formation on geologic maps. Lithologically, the Jimol
Formation is composed of a calcareous sandstone or
sandy limestone with some clay interbeds (Rollins, 1965;
Thomas, 1972b). The shallow marine molluscs in these
beds indicate a middle Miocene age (Rollins, 1965;
Thomas, 1972b). Duque-Caro (in Thomas, 1972a) placed
the Jimol Formation in the early late Miocene Globorotalia
menardii zone. This unit is over 600 m thick east of Uitpa
(locality 2, Figure 3), but thins rapidly toward the old
shoreline to the west (Rollins, 1965).
The uppermost Tertiary of the Cocinetas basin is
represented by the Castilletes Formation. This formation
was deposited conformably on the Jimol, but it onlaps
older Cenozoic strata along the margins of the basin.
Rollins (1965) distinguished two lithologic units in the
Castilletes Formation: a lower limestone and an upper
claystone, with a combined thickness of 690 m. However,
the formation thins to less than 100 m to the west
(Thomas, 1972b). The rich macrofauna of the Castilletes
has strong affinities with the Cantaure Formation of the
Paraguaná Peninsula, indicating a middle–late Miocene
age (Thomas, 1972a,b).
Chichibacoa and Portete Basins
These basins extend north of the Serranias de Macuire
and Jarara (Chichibacoa) and north of the Serrania de
Cocinas (Portete) (Figure 3). Both basins merge and
continue into the southern Caribbean Ocean. They
display a progressive northward increase in sedimentary
thickness to more than 4000 m.
Cycle D (upper Eocene)—Onshore, this cycle is repre-
sented by the Nazareth Formation (Renz, 1960; Stainforth,
1962b). It is exposed in a discontinuous belt north of the
Serrania de Macuire. Two lithologic units are distin-
guished in the type section: a 30-m-thick lower unit
consisting of conglomerate, calcareous sandstone, and
limestone, and an upper unit comprising 35 m of pebbly
limestone with abundant marine macrofossils and
interbedded sandstones (Thomas, 1972a,b). The maxi-
mum thickness of the Nazareth Formation is 290 m. The
contact with the Siamana Formation is believed to be
unconformable because the two formations have different
dips. The age of the Nazareth is interpreted as late Eocene
on the basis of foraminifera (Nummulites jacksoniensis) and
the echinoid genus Oligopygus (Thomas, 1972b). Contem-
poraneous strata are present in the Uashir, Puerto
Estrella, and Chimare wells (Figures 3, 5, 6). In the
Chimare well, cycle D rocks overlie a metamorphic
basement and include 48 m of shale. These sedimentary
rocks become coarser and thicker toward the south
(Puerto Estrella well).
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
Figure 6—Interpreted seismic line in offshore Chichibacoa basin. See Figure 3 for location.
Figure 7—Interpreted regional seismic line through northwestern Falcón basin. Note major fault generating the Urumaco
trough.
Cycle C (upper Oligocene–lower Miocene)—This cycle
corresponds to the outcropping Siamana and Uitpa
formations. The thickness of cycle C ranges from less
than 200 m in the south to over 1000 m in the north. The
Uitpa Formation is probably slightly older in the Portete
basin than in the adjacent Cocinetas basin, extending
from the Globigerina ciperoensis ciperoensis zone (latest
Oligocene) to the Globigerinatella insueta zone (late early
Miocene) (Thomas, 1972b).
Within the Chichibacoa basin, available seismic data
indicate that cycle C is composed of three packages (C3,
C2, and C1). At the base, C3 was deposited throughout
the basin, except for the eastern Chimare high, where the
Santa Ana well shows that Cenozoic sedimentation
began slightly later (Figure 5). This unit is composed of
sandstone with local coal seams and subordinate shales.
Seaward, these strata grade into shale (Chimare-1) and
limestone (Punta Gallinas-1). Subcycle C2 was deposited
only in the deepest part of the basin. These sedimentary
rocks, dated in the wells as late Oligocene, were appar-
ently deposited after the pronounced late Oligocene sea
level drop (within the Globorotalia opima opima zone; Vail
and Hardenbol, 1980). This interval is composed of
limestone in the Punta Gallinas-1 well and sandstone in
the more proximal facies of the Uashir-1 well.
The younger subcycle C1 was deposited throughout
the basin with fairly uniform thicknesses (770–1150 m). It
consists of shale and interbedded sandstone and
limestone attributed to the maximum transgression.
Subcycle C1 equates with the lower Miocene Uitpa shale.
Cycle B (middle–upper Miocene)—In outcrop, cycle B
is included in the Taroa Formation, which rests discon-
formably on the Uitpa Formation. It is composed princi-
pally of sandy limestone, calcareous sandstone, pebbly
conglomerate, and subordinate mudstone (Thomas,
1972b). These rocks cap the mesas along the northern
and northeastern coasts of the Guajira Peninsula. The
maximum measured thickness of the Taroa Formation is
763
about 1050 m. There are no age-diagnostic fossils in this
unit (Bürgl, 1960). In the subsurface, cycle B is wide-
spread and is composed of shale and mudstone with
minor intercalations of limestone and rare coal (Santa
Ana well) (Figure 5). The subsurface thickness of cycle B
ranges from a few hundred meters at the southern end of
the basin to a maximum of 2290 m in the Punta Gallinas
well. Its age is believed to range from middle to late
Miocene.
Cycle A (Pliocene)—Cycle A sedimentary rocks are
exposed only along the northern edge of the Guajira
Peninsula, where they include solution-pitted sandy
limestones that unconformably overlie the Taroa
Formation (Thomas, 1972b). This 30-m-thick sequence is
included in the Gallinas Formation of Thomas (1972b). In
the subsurface, cycle A is more argillaceous and contains
mudstone with subordinate sandstone and limestone. A
total of 580 m of Pliocene strata were penetrated in the
San Jose-1 well (Figure 5).
Falcón Basin
The Falcón basin is an ENE-WSW elongated uplift,
with a core of older Oligocene strata and alkaline basaltic
intrusions of Oligocene–Miocene age (K-Ar age of 22.9 +
0.9 m.y.; Muessig, 1978, 1984) that are succeeded to the
north by progressively younger Cenozoic strata. The
basin contains a thick Oligocene–Miocene sequence that
was deposited in a series of NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW
trending troughs (Figure 7) (Wheeler, 1963; Muessig,
1984; Boesi and Goddard, 1991). Rocks of the Falcón anti-
clinorium are strongly folded and overturned along
north-verging thrusts. This deformation is attributed to
transpressive displacement of the Oca fault (Figure 1).
Cycle D (upper Eocene)
Sedimentation in the Falcón basin probably started in
the late middle Eocene in western Falcón and as late as
764 Macellari
Figure 8—Oligocene paleogeography of the Falcón basin (cycle C). (Modified from Wheeler, 1960.)
early late Eocene in eastern Falcón. Sediments related to
the initial formation of the basin in western Falcón are
represented by the Agua Negra Group of upper middle
Eocene age (Figure 2). These rocks are included in the
Santa Rita, Jarillal, and La Victoria formations (Guevara,
1967). The Santa Rita Formation contains 400–500 m of
coarse conglomerate, sandstone, and marl with
interbedded limestone (Guevara, 1967). Its lower contact
is not well exposed, but it is usually in fault contact with
older Eocene strata (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
These strata are conformably overlain by the Jarillal
Formation, up to 375 m of dark shale with sandstone
intercalations (Guevara, 1967). The invertebrate fauna
and palynomorphs indicate a middle Eocene age
(Wheeler, 1960; Hunter, 1974, 1978).
The upper part of the Agua Negra Group is the La
Victoria Formation, comprising 2400 m of dark shale with
interbedded sandstone and coal (Sutton, 1946; Guevara,
1967). The La Victoria Formation was deposited predomi-
nantly in a lacustrine environment with an incursion of
brackish water (Sutton, 1946; Gonzalez de Juana et al.,
1980).
In eastern Falcón, Eocene rocks are more than 400 m
thick and are included in the dark calcareous shales of
the Cerro Misión Formation (Figure 2) (Renz, 1948). The
shales contain microfossils of the Globigerinatheka semiin-
voluta zone (late Eocene) (Hunter, 1974). The Cerro
Mision disconformably overlies middle Eocene rocks
(Hunter, 1972, 1974; Diaz de Gamero, 1985).
Cycle C (Oligocene–lower Miocene)
Sedimentation in the Falcón trough began during early
late Oligocene time (Wheeler, 1963; Diaz de Gamero,
1977a, 1985). These rocks form a suite of facies deposited
during a marine transgression that was punctuated by a
regressive episode near the Oligocene–Miocene
boundary. The regressive episode separating subcycles
C2 and C1 is represented by a widespread sheet of coarse
clastics. Cycle C rocks are well exposed in the Falcón anti-
clinorium. They were deposited on Eocene strata to the
west, on metamorphic Cretaceous rocks to the east, and
on Paleocene–Eocene turbidites in the center of the basin.
Five different areas of deposition are recognized in the
Falcón basin (Figures 2, 8).
Central Area—The central area is the main depocenter
of the Falcón basin. Sedimentation started with the El
Paraiso Formation, the lower part of which is a 205-m-
thick chert-rich sandstone with shale interbeds (Wheeler,
1963; Diaz de Gamero, 1977a), followed by a quartz and
chert pebble conglomerate (Gonzalez de Juana et al.,
1980). The upper member of the El Paraiso Formation
consists of 330–450 m of dark shale with interbedded
quartzose sandstone. This interval becomes more arena-
ceous toward the south. The upper El Paraiso is inter-
preted as a regressive sequence that prograded toward
the north and northeast (Figure 8).
An impoverished microfaunal assemblage dominated
by arenaceous foraminifera occurs in this unit. The taxa
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
Figure 9—Early Miocene paleogeography of the Falcón basin (subcycle C1). (Modified from Wheeler, 1960; Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980.)
suggests brackish depositional environments. The upper
portion of this formation has fauna diagnostic of the
Globorotalia opima opima zone (middle late Oligocene); the
lower interval may be included in the Globigerina amplia-
pertura zone (early late Oligocene) according to Diaz de
Gamero (1977a,b).
A thick sequence of dark silty shale in the center of the
Falcón basin is included in the Pecaya Formation (Diaz
de Gamero, 1977a,b). Sandstone and limestone intervals
are more numerous toward the margins of the basin
(Wheeler, 1963). Within the Pecaya, the San Juan de la
Vega Member consists of shales with interbedded
sandstone, siltstone, and minor limestone (Figure 2). The
sandstones contain shell fragments and are strongly
bioturbated (e.g., Ophiomorpha). The San Juan de La Vega
Member tapers to the west and east and was probably
sourced from the Dabajuro high (Figure 8). The biota
indicate shallow marine deposition within the deeper
water Pecaya shale (Diaz de Gamero, 1977a). This unit
reflects lowstand deposition possibly associated with the
pronounced worldwide drop in sea level that took place
in the Globorotalia opima opima zone (see Vail and
Hardenbol, 1980).
The Pecaya Formation is 600 m thick in central Falcón,
but it thickens westward to 1300 m. The lower part of the
Pecaya contains a fauna diagnostic of the Globorotalia
opima opima zone (middle late Oligocene), whereas the
upper part includes taxa associated with the Globigeri-
noides primordius and Catapsydrax dissimilis zones (early
765
Miocene; Diaz de Gamero, 1977b).
During the early Miocene, subcycle C1 was deposited
(Figures 2, 9). Regional subsidence resulted in onlap and
overstepping of the previous margins of the basin. In the
center of the basin, sedimentation started with shales of
the Agua Clara Formation, a sequence of dark ferrugi-
nous shale with intercalations of silty and calcareous
sandstones that are locally glauconitic (Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980). The shales are usually very fossilif-
erous and locally have a petroliferous odor. The lower
part of the Agua Clara Formation contains the Cauder-
alito Limestone, a richly fossiliferous unit containing
corals, bryozoans, bivalves, gastropods, and large
foraminifera. The thickness of the Agua Clara varies
from 1320 to 1600 m (Wheeler, 1963). Because this unit is
preserved only along the margins of the basin, the
molluscs and foraminifera indicate shallow water envi-
ronments (Diaz de Gamero, 1977a). The age of this unit
spans the early Miocene Catapsydrax dissimilis to Praeor-
bulina glomerosa zones (Diaz de Gamero, 1977b).
Along the southern and southwestern margins of the
Sierra de San Luis, subcycle C1 was initiated with the
Pedregoso Formation (Figures 2, 9). This shale,
interbedded sandstone, and bioclastic limestone have
been interpreted as proximal turbidite deposits (Diaz de
Gamero, 1977a). This unit ranges in thickness from 120 m
in the east to 940 m in the west (Wheeler, 1963). The rich
microfauna indicates the early Miocene Globigerinoides
primordius and lower Catapsydrax dissimils zones
766 Macellari
(Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). This formation was
probably deposited in a deep water environment that
shallowed toward the top (Diaz de Gamero, 1977a).
Western Falcón—In the western Falcón basin, the
Pedregoso Formation is more arenaceous and thicker
and correlates with the Castillo Formation (Figures 2, 8)
(Wheeler, 1960, 1963). The Castillo is conformable on the
basinal facies tract of the Pecaya shale. Farther west, it
has an angular contact with Eocene strata (Figure 2). The
Castillo is dominated by sandstone and conglomerate,
with lesser amounts of shale and coal seams (Wheeler,
1963). The unit was deposited under marine conditions
toward the center of the basin, with brackish and even
continental facies influencing the western margin. The
main depocenter of the Castillo Formation (up to 1480 m)
forms a belt parallel to the old western coastline. Lacking
index fossils, the age of the Castillo is estimated as late
Oligocene–early Miocene on the basis of its stratigraphic
relationships (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
Coro High—The reefal complex of the Sierra de San
Luis developed along the southern margin of the Coro
high during Oligocene–Miocene time (Figures 8, 9).
While the core of the reef is included in the San Luis
Formation, forereef and open marine facies of the Pedre-
goso Formation were deposited southward. In contrast,
peri-reefal facies interfingered with deltaic and coastal
shale and sandstone facies of the Patiecitos Formation,
and with sandstone and conglomerate facies of the
Guarabal Formation along the northern margin
(Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
The San Luis Formation consists of massive reef lime-
stones containing large foraminifera, algae, and locally
large brain corals and bivalves (Wheeler, 1963). The
maximum growth of the reef is restricted to the eastern
part of the Serrania de San Luis, where reefal limestones
are more than 100 m thick (Diaz de Gamero, 1977a). The
minimum thickness of the San Luis Formation is
estimated to be 800 m (Wheeler, 1960), and its age is
inferred to be late Oligocene (Globorotalia opima opima
zone) to early Miocene (Catapsydrax stainforthi zone;
Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
South-Central Falcón—The south-central Falcón
basin also developed carbonate facies along the southern
extension of the Coro high (Figures 8, 9). The entire
Oligocene–lower Miocene sequence (cycle C) consists of
a series of ridge-forming limestone, sandstone, and shale
up to 125 m thick, which together form the Churuguará
Formation (Wheeler, 1963). The Churuguará has a
conformable contact with the Jarillal Formation below
and the Agua Clara Formation above. Foraminifera in
the lower part of the section are indicative of the Globoro-
talia opima opima zone (middle late Oligocene), whereas
the upper part contains early Miocene foraminifera
(Wheeler, 1963).
Eastern Falcón—In the eastern area of the Falcón
basin, deposition during cycle C also formed a variety of
facies. North of the Esperanza-Guacharaca high, deep
water shales (Agua Salada Group) accumulated in what
is called the Agua Salada (Diaz de Gamero, 1985) or
Hueque depocenter (Wheeler, 1963). South of this high,
strata are considerably coarser grained and are included
in the Guacharaca and Casupal formations (Renz, 1948;
Blow, 1959; Diaz de Gamero, 1985) (Figures 8, 9).
Cycle B (middle–upper Miocene)
At the end of the early Miocene, the pattern of sedi-
mentation in the Falcón basin changed significantly as a
result of a relative drop in sea level or rapid uplift associ-
ated with the early stages of deformation. After this
event, renewed subsidence initiated a new cycle of sedi-
mentation, which at first blanketed the entire basin,
including topographic relief such as the Dabajuro
platform and the Paraguaná Peninsula, which lacked a
cycle C cover. Newly uplifted areas to the south
provided considerable sedimentary input. Cycle B sedi-
mentation occurred in shallow or restricted environ-
ments, except in the northeastern part of the basin (Agua
Salada) and the northern Paraguaná Peninsula (V. F.
Hunter, 1986, personal communication) where deep
water facies persisted.
Central Area—In the center of the Falcón basin,
cycle B starts with the Cerro Pelado Formation (Figures
2, 7, 10). This formation consists mainly of laminated
sandy shale and interbedded fine-grained sandstone
(Liddle, 1946). The sandstones are usually cross bedded
and contain ripple cross lamination and lignite seams up
to 1 m thick (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). The Cerro
Pelado was deposited unconformably on top of the Agua
Clara shale. It is about 1000 m thick and is replaced to the
east by shales of the Agua Salada Group. Diaz de
Gamero (1977b) assigned the Cerro Pelado to the Globoro-
talia foshi peripheroronda zone (early middle Miocene).
The overlying Socorro Formation crops out in the hills
of western Falcón and in the Cumarebo zone. In the type
section, near the town of Socorro, the Socorro has a basal
shale (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980) and an upper
sandstone interval. The upper fine-grained sandstones
are oil reservoirs in the Cumarebo field. The Socorro
Formation is 1570 m thick but thins to 660 m south of
Coro (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). The microfauna of
the lower part of the succession is assigned to the
Globorotalia foshi foshi zone (earliest middle Miocene)
(Diaz de Gamero, 1977b). The Socorro Formation was
deposited in a coastal environment to the west, which
became gradually more open marine to the east
(Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). The Socorro succession
grades upward into the Urumaco Formation in the
Urumaco trough area and into the Caujarao Formation
farther east.
The Caujarao Formation includes 1220 m of shale and
interbedded marl, limestone, and fine-grained sandstone
that are oil bearing in the Cumarebo field (Payne, 1951).
Rapid facies changes are reflected in a diverse strati-
graphic nomenclature (see Gonzalez de Juana, 1937;
Petzall, 1959; Payne, 1951; Senn, 1935; Vallenilla, 1961;
Ministerio de Minas, 1970; Gonzalez de Juana et al.,
1980). The Caujarao Formation was deposited on a
marine platform in a warm, tropical sea (Petzall, 1959).
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
Figure 10—Middle–late Miocene paleogeography of the Falcón basin (cycle B). (Modified from Wheeler, 1960; Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980.)
The rich fauna indicates an age ranging from the Globoro-
talia menardii zone (late middle Miocene) to the Globoro-
talia acostaensis zone (late Miocene) (Diaz de Gamero,
1977b).
Toward the west, in the area of the Urumaco trough,
the Caujarao is replaced by the Urumaco Formation
(Figure 10). These are more proximal facies than the
Caujarao Formation and include marine and nonmarine
shale, sandstone, and coal seams. The thickness of the
Urumaco Formation is about 1675 m (Ministerio de
Minas, 1970; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
La Vela Formation is conformable on the Caujarao
Formation in the Coro area. It includes 590 m of
calcareous sandstone with shale interbeds, reflecting
beach and estuarine depositional environments
(Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). The age of the La Vela
Formation ranges from the Neogloboquadrina dutertrei
zone to the Globorotalia margaritae zone (late
Miocene–early Pliocene) (Diaz de Gamero, 1968). The La
Vela Formation is succeeded to the east by more open
marine facies of the El Veral Formation and to the west
by more continental facies of the Codore Formation.
Western Falcón—Sediments deposited in the western
Falcón basin during cycle B are included in the La Puerta
Group or Formation (Figures 2, 7, 10, 11). This unit
comprises claystone, sandstone, and lignite overlain by
massive and cross-bedded sandstone that is capped by
varicolored shales (Halse, 1937). Deposition is believed to
767
have occurred in a piedmont-coastal area, with a pro-
venance located to the south (Gonzalez de Juana et al.,
1980). On the Dabajuro Platform, La Puerta strata rest
directly on Eocene rocks. The maximum thickness of this
unit (2140 m) was encountered in the QMC-1X well
(Figure 11).
Northeastern Falcón—In the northeastern Falcón
basin, sediments deposited during cycle B are included
in the upper part of the Agua Salada Group (north) and
the Pozón Formation (south) (Figure 10). In the Agua
Salada depocenter, the base of cycle B is represented by
the El Salto Formation. According to Diaz de Gamero
(1985), this unit has four lithofacies: (1) olistostrome
blocks 1–5 m in diameter of sandstone, siltstone, and
coal, encased in shale; (2) fine-grained sandstone in beds
20–50 cm thick; (3) massive siltstone with plant remains
at the base coarsening upward into sandstone; and (4)
thick sandstone beds. The El Salto is estimated to be
800–900 m thick. According to Diaz de Gamero (1985),
the El Salto Formation is a deltaic deposit related to
growth faulting and turbidity current processes. These
deltaic sediments encapsulated in an otherwise deep
water Agua Salada sequence are attributed to a sea level
lowstand. The age of this unit ranges from the Praeorbu-
lina glomerosa to the Globorotalia foshi peripheroronda zone
(Diaz de Gamero, 1985).
South of the Agua Salada depocenter, the upper part
of the sequence contains 150–300 m of shallow water
768 Macellari
Figure 11—Correlation of wells in western Falcón basin across the Oca fault.
carbonates of the Capadare Formation (Figure 10).
Capadare sedimentation started in the early middle
Miocene (Globorotalia foshi foshi zone) and continued into
the late middle Miocene (Diaz de Gamero, 1985).
South-Central Falcón—In south-central Falcón basin,
cycle B rocks are represented by the Pozón Formation.
This is a shaly succession with glauconitic sandstones
and marls at the base (Renz, 1948). Reworked
foraminifera at the base suggest that the Pozón formation
was locally preceded by erosion (see Renz, 1948). The
Pozón Formation is up to 1040 m thick. Micropaleon-
tology assigns these rocks to the Globigerinatella
insueta–Globigerina bulloides zones (early middle
Miocene–late Miocene; Diaz de Gamero, 1985).
Southeastern Casupal—In the southeastern Casupal
depocenter, Casupal sandstone and conglomerate are
succeeded by 1300 m of shale, clay, and limestone of the
Agua Linda Formation (Ministerio de Minas, 1970)
(Figures 2, 10). The Agua Linda is conformable on the
Casupal Formation and is overlain disconformably by
the Capadare limestone (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
Cycle A (Pliocene)
A major phase of basin inversion took place during
the Pliocene. Coarse clastic facies were deposited north
of the uplifted Falcón anticlinorium (San Gregorio and
Coro formations). In the northeastern coastal area, sedi-
mentary rocks are composed of calcareous clay, fossilif-
erous marl, and argillaceous limestone (Punta Gavilán
Formation).
Paraguaná Peninsula
The Paraguaná Peninsula extends north of the Falcón
basin into the Caribbean Sea. Structurally, the peninsula
is the northern part of a NNW-SSE trending high.
Cenozoic sedimentation started at least by the late early
Miocene (cycle B), but seismic data suggest that early
Miocene and even late Oligocene sediments might have
accumulated in more restricted areas north of the
peninsula (Figures 2, 8, 9, 10, 12).
The Cenozoic sequence rests on metamorphic and
igneous basement. These sediments surround igneous
and metamorphic highs in a series of concentric cuestas
dipping seaward up to 10°. Regional seismic lines show
that the thickness of the Cenozoic stratigraphy increases
progressively away from the center of the Peninsula
where the basement is exposed. In the southern part of
the peninsula, the Manuel-1 and Cardón-1 wells encoun-
tered 1067 m and 1159 m of Cenozoic strata, respectively
(Figures 8, 9, 10). Manuel-1 bottomed in red beds of
unknown age (possibly late Oligocene or early Miocene)
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin 769

Figure 12—Interpreted northwest-southeast seismic line, Paraguaná Peninsula. The “Paraguaná reflector” is a high-
amplitude event at, or close to, the base of the sedimentary sequence. This reflector probably represents a volcanic body,
most likely a sill, since it appears to be slightly discordant with other stratal surfaces.

and basalt. The sedimentary thickness is much greater in

the northern peninsula (up to 4000 m), where antithetic
growth faults, active during much of the Miocene,
formed significant depocenters (Figure 12).
The outcrops of cycle B on the Paraguaná Peninsula
start with the Cantaure Formation. These are fossiliferous
silty shales with thin layers of gypsum and minor
sandstone and limestone intercalations (Hunter and
Bartok, 1974). The Cantaure Formation is up to 75 m
thick. An early Miocene age is inferred (Gobigerinatella
insueta to Praeorbulina glomerosa zones; Hunter and Bartok,
1974), possibly extending into the middle and late
Miocene (V. F. Hunter, 1986, personal communication).
The overlying Paraguaná Formation comprises most
of the sedimentary rocks exposed on the peninsula. It
consists of fossiliferous shale, siltstone, and limestone
(Rodriguez, 1968; Hunter and Bartok, 1974). The fauna
indicates the Globorotalia margaritae zone (Pliocene)
(Hunter and Bartok, 1974).

La Vela Bay
La Vela Bay is an offshore extension of the Falcón
basin and contains a similar stratigraphy. It displays a
regional tilt to the south and southeast, where more than
4500 m of strata have accumulated. The eastward
increase in thickness is controlled by eastward-dipping
growth faults (Figure 13). Seismic and well information
indicate the presence of cycles C, B, and A (lower
Miocene–Recent). The contact between cycles C and B
forms a persistent reflector (reflector “C”) (Biju-Duval et
al., 1979) or a regional unconformity (Gonzalez de Juana
et al., 1980). Figure 13—Structure at the top of the Cauderalito
Thirteen exploration wells and a dense seismic grid limestone and location of wells in the La Vela Bay (from
make La Vela Bay, one of the best known of the southern Corpoven).
Caribbean basins, although much of this information is
still confidential. The basement, reached in eight wells,
consists of gneiss, phyllite, and metamorphosed igneous
rocks, dated radiometrically as Cretaceous (Gonzalez de
Juana et al., 1980). In the southwestern part of the bay,
770 Macellari
Figure 14—Interpreted seismic line in offshore Aruba. Note the conspicuous tilting of cycle D strata prior to deposition of
cycle C.
Cenozoic sedimentation began with a continental red
bed sequence of shale, siltstone, and fine-grained to
conglomeratic arkosic sandstone (Gonzalez de Juana et
al., 1980). An Oligocene age is inferred for these beds
(Vasquez, 1975).
Overlying this red bed sequence are the sandstones
and dark claystones of the Guarabal Formation. These
strata form discontinuous pockets restricted to relatively
small depocenters that have a maximum thickness of
550 m (Corpoven, 1980, proprietary report). The
Guarabal is the backreef facies of the San Luis reefal
limestone tract. This formation has been interpreted as an
important source of oil in the La Vela Bay area
(Corpoven, 1980, proprietary report). The Guarabal is
followed by the Agua Clara Formation, consisting of the
basal Cauderalito limestone and calcarenite, followed by
dark shale with local thin limestone and calcarenite
interbeds (Vasquez, 1975; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
These argillaceous rocks are also considered to be oil-
prone source rocks in the area (Boesi and Goddard,
1991).
The base of cycle B is formed by the Socorro
Formation, an 850–1740-m-thick claystone succession
with intercalations of calcarenite and fine- to medium-
grained sandstone. This is followed by 260–580 m of
glauconitic calcarenite with interbedded medium-
grained to conglomeratic sandstone of the Caujarao
Formation. The upper part of the cycle B section is the La
Vela Formation, comprising mudstone, calcarenite, and
fine-grained sandstone. The uppermost rocks of La Vela
Bay (cycle A) include fine-grained sandstone with subor-
dinate siltstone, claystone, and limestone. These beds are
assigned a Pliocene–Pleistocene age and are 120–145 m
thick (Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980).
Offshore Eastern Falcón (Golfo Triste)
Cycles A, B, and C are observed in regional seismic
lines of the Golfo Triste. The stratigraphy and structure
are apparently a continuation of the trends along the
eastern coast of Falcón (Figures 8, 9, 10). The extension of
the Cerro Mision–Chichiriviche high to the east separates
the Casupal (south) and Agua Salada (north) depocen-
ters. The former is characterized by a predominantly
coarse clastic fill, whereas the latter contains more argilla-
ceous facies.
The Cayo Sal-1 well (Figure 8) penetrated a middle
Eocene–Quaternary section. A basal middle–upper
Eocene shale is followed by a 1900-m-thick cycle C unit
(Oligocene–lower Miocene), composed of sandstone,
shale, and limestone in an overall upward-fining succes-
sion. Cycle B (lower Miocene–lower Pliocene) includes
1450 m of claystone and sandstone capped with
limestone. The youngest strata encountered are 380 m of
clay and limestone of Pleistocene age.
Aruba
The island of Aruba is located on the westernmost
extension of the basement high that extends from La
Orchila to Aruba (Figure 1). Aruba has a core of Creta-
ceous igneous and metamorphic rocks, surrounded by a
rim of thin upper Cenozoic deposits. Seismic surveys
west and southwest of Aruba show a thick sedimentary
sequence (Figure 14). Three seismic lines were available
for this study. Elsewhere on the southwestern Caribbean
margin, the reflector that separates cycles B and C
(reflector “C” of Biju-Duval et al., 1979) is interpreted as a
late early Miocene unconformity (Hunter, 1974, 1986).
The ages of younger unconformities are based on corre-
lation with the global sea level chart of Vail and
Hardenbol (1980).
A rapid increase in sedimentary thickness is observed
west of Aruba. This change is controlled by a northwest-
southeast trending normal fault parallel to the south-
western Aruba coast. A maximum of 5000 m of Cenozoic
sedimentary rocks is observed, but common sedimentary
thicknesses vary between 2500 and 3500 m. Based on
regional correlations, this stratigraphy is believed to
overlie Cretaceous basement similar to that exposed in
Aruba.
The succession attributed to cycle D is up to 1400 m
thick, but generally ranges from 150 to 450 m. These
rocks were block faulted and tilted prior to deposition of
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
the overlying cycle C (Figure 14). The large acoustic
impedance of the basal part of cycle D may indicate the
presence of well-lithified limestone similar to the
Nazareth and Macaro formations of the Guajira
Peninsula. The Nazareth was also block faulted and
tilted before deposition of cycle C strata. These rocks are
possibly equivalents of the Butuco Limestone, which is
poorly exposed in Aruba. In the northwestern part of the
basin, this block-faulted sequence is associated with
reflectors that are alternatively strong and weak and also
discontinuous laterally. These may be interpreted as a
continental sequence developed in the initial rifting of
the basin.
Strata interpreted as equivalent to cycle C are widely
distributed offshore from Aruba, where they have a rela-
tively uniform thickness, indicating a period of regional
subsidence. Maximum thickness of these rocks is about
2400 m. Cycle C rocks are correlated with the Siamana
and Uitpa formations of the Guajira Peninsula and with
the El Paraiso–Pecaya–Agua Clara sequence of the
central Falcón basin.
Deposits attributed to cycle B are distributed
throughout the basin and increase in thickness west and
southeast of Aruba. The thickest section is preserved in
the southeastern part of the basin, where up to 1800 m
are estimated. The succession offshore from Aruba is
believed to reflect a deep water section of shale and
mudstone. At least four subcycles are recognized in the
cycle B sequence, forming a series of prograding clino-
forms (Figure 14). These cycles are best defined near the
Aruba high and toward the southeastern part of the
Aruba basin. They reflect relative sea level fluctuations
and substantial sediment influx. Similar progradational
wedges are observed in La Vela Bay. Cycle B is possibly
equivalent to the Socorro, Caujarao, and La Vela forma-
tions of La Vela Bay and of the north-central part of the
Falcón basin. Pliocene–Recent cycle A sediments increase
in thickness away from Aruba, ranging from 100–300 m.
Three dry wildcat exploration wells recently drilled in
the Aruba region support these stratigraphic relation-
ships. Curet (1992) documented three sequences that are
separated by regional unconformities. The lower
sequence, apparently correlative of cycles D, C3, and C2,
ranges in age possibly from the late Eocene to the latest
Oligocene (Globorotalia kugleri zone). The sequence is
composed of varicolored mudstone followed by clay-
stone with a limestone cap. The middle sequence, equiv-
alent to cycle C1, is composed of deep water claystone
and shale of early–middle Miocene age. The upper
sequence, equivalent to cycles B and A, consists of coars-
ening-upward sequences of soft claystone with
sandstone interbeds of late Miocene–Pleistocene age.
REGIONAL ISOPACHS AND GEOLOGIC
HISTORY
Isopachs of postcollisional strata (Eocene and
younger) deposited in northwestern Venezuela, the
Guajira Peninsula, and offshore Aruba are shown in
Figures 15, 16, and 17. They are based on regional seismic
771
lines, well logs, and measured outcrop sections. Data for
the Bonaire basin were derived from seismic lines inter-
preted by Biju-Duval et al. (1979).
Maximum sedimentary thicknesses are preserved
both east and west of the Paraguaná Peninsula. Two
depocenters are observed in the Golfo de Venezuela area.
The western depocenter has up to 7500 m of Eocene
strata, whereas the eastern depocenter has as much as
7500 m of upper Oligocene–Miocene rocks. The
depocenter located east of the Paraguaná Peninsula has
up to 7000 m of upper Oligocene–Pliocene strata. Discus-
sion of the isopachs of cycles D, C, and B, as well as the
postcollisional geologic history of this area, are presented
here.
Cycle D
Cycle D (upper Eocene) overlies Mesozoic and
Paleogene rocks related to the older Caribbean compres-
sional event. This cycle includes the Macarao and
Nazareth formations in the Guajira Peninsula, formed by
erosional debris derived from the nearby landmasses,
followed by deeper marine sedimentation. These
deposits are confined to the northeastern and south-
eastern borders of the peninsula (Figure 15). In the north-
western Falcón basin, sedimentation was initiated with
clastics of the Santa Rita and Jarillal formations. The
Paraguaná Peninsula was a positive feature during this
time. In the eastern Falcón basin, cycle D was initiated
with deposition of the Cerro Misión shale. Eocene sedi-
mentary rocks are also preserved in the Golfo Triste area.
Up to 2000 m of continental and shallow marine strata
occur in the Aruba area. The nature of the rocks in the
Bonaire basin is unknown, but they are believed to
consist of shale and turbidites.
Subsidence during cycle D was controlled by progres-
sive extension of an already discontinuous landmass.
Paleohighs outlined rhomboidal depocenters that were
closer before the initiation of late Eocene extension of the
southern Caribbean margin. This geometry suggests that
the Paleocene Serie Domi conglomerate of Bonaire was
shed from the Paraguaná Peninsula. The complex iso-
pachs in the western Falcón basin are the result of right-
lateral displacement of previous NNW-SSE trending
depocenters by the Oca and associated faults (Feo-
Codecido, 1972).
Cycle C
Early Oligocene tectonic activity followed deposition
of cycle D (Figure 16). In the northern Guajira Peninsula,
deformation of the Macarao Formation and tilting of the
Nazareth Formation took place during this event. This
was probably also the time of tilting of cycle D rocks in
the southern part of the Aruba basin. In the Falcón basin,
this event is marked by a regression and uplift of the
southern margin of the basin.
The late Oligocene was marked by high subsidence
rates and deep water sedimentation throughout the
study area. The pull-apart basin was well developed and
bounded to the north by the Aruba-Curaçao-Bonaire
 772
Macellari

Figure 15—Isopach map of cycle D strata, upper Eocene.

Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin 773

Figure 16—Isopach map of cycle C strata, upper Oligocene–lower Miocene.

774 Macellari
chain, to the south by the platform edge of the Falcón
basin, and to the west by the Dabajuro-Guajira platform.
Deposition occurred along two main trends. The first,
oriented NNW-SSE, was controlled by extension along
preexisting cycle D troughs. The second, oriented ENE-
WSW, was aligned along the axis of the Falcón basin.
Sedimentation in the Guajira Peninsula started with a
basal conglomerate (Siamana Formation) eroded from
the uplifted Jarara, Macuira, and Cocinas highlands.
These were followed by early Miocene shale deposited
during the maximum Cenozoic trangression, when most
of the Guajira Peninsula was drowned. Cycle C deposits
in the Chichibacoa basin increase in thickness to more
than 1000 m in an offshore direction. In the Cocinas
basin, these strata are usually thinner than 200 m.
In the Falcón basin, the locus of sedimentation
migrated east of the cycle D depocenter. No cycle C
deposits are preserved on the Dabajuro platform, which
had subsided rapidly during the previous cycle. Marked
cycle C subsidence occurred along the axis of the Falcón
basin (ENE-WSW), where 3600–3800 m of section are
preserved. Up to 3800 m of cycle C sediments were also
deposited in the NNW-SSE trending Urumaco trough,
where subsidence was controlled by the westward-
dipping Sabaneta normal fault that forms the eastern
margin of the trough. The southern margin of this
depocenter is presently offset about 15–20 km by the
right-lateral Oca fault, suggesting that a large amount of
displacement along this fault occurred after the early
Miocene. Cycle C rocks in the Falcón basin developed as
a series of concentric belts ranging from coarse clastics
around the basin margins to deep water shales toward
the center. In the northern and southern parts of the
central Falcón basin, thick carbonate reefs developed on
regionally high areas.
Maximum transgression took place during the early
Miocene. During this time, the Agua Clara shale was
deposited throughout most of the Falcón basin, while
calcareous facies and reefs continued to develop in the
San Luis and Churuguará areas. The northern part of the
Paraguaná Peninsula and large areas of La Vela Bay
were flooded for the first time.
Cycle B
By the middle–late Miocene, several of the blocks
present during cycle C were dissected and marine sedi-
mentation took place throughout the study area (Figure
17). The rapidly subsiding Urumaco trough and a
subparallel depocenter east of the Paraguaná Peninsula
still maintained their own identities. Cycles C and B are
separated by a pronounced regional unconformity that
has a conspicuous seismic expression (Biju-Duval et al.,
1979, 1982; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980). Cycle B is
characterized in La Vela Bay and offshore Aruba by
sigmoidal clinoforms.
In the Cocinetas basin, cycle B contains offlapping
calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone of shallow
marine origin (Jimol Formation). In the Portete and
Chichibacoa basins, there is a hiatus between cycles C
and B onshore, but sedimentation was almost uninter-
rupted offshore where up to 2000 m of argillaceous
material was deposited.
The Falcón basin was progressively deeper toward
the east. In the western part of the basin, the Dabajuro
platform was covered by deltaic and shallow marine
deposits of the La Puerta Formation. These were progres-
sively replaced to the east by marine units, including the
Cerro Pelado, Socorro, and Caujarao formations, and
finally by deep water black shales of the Agua Salada
Group. During this time, the Paraguaná Peninsula was
largely covered by shale and limestone of the Cantaure
Formation. These sediments were deposited in deep
water north of the peninsula.
Cycle A
The original distribution of cycle A has been inter-
rupted by erosion, thus precluding the construction of an
isopach. Three depocenters include the Urumaco trough
in the west with up to 1400 m of strata, a depocenter
north of the Paraguaná Peninsula with up to 1200 m of
deposits, and a depocenter in the Golfo Triste area with
up to 1800 m of Pliocene sedimentary rocks.
On land, this sequence is generally shallow marine to
fluviodeltaic. On the Guajira Peninsula, the Pliocene
Gallinas Formation was deposited after a period of
tectonism. In Falcón, this deformation resulted in basin
inversion and uplift of the Falcón anticlinorium. In the
lowlands of the Paraguaná Peninsula and in the coastal
area east of Cumarebo, cycle A rocks are composed of
calcareous clay and fossiliferous limestone of the
Paraguaná and Punta Gavilán formations, respectively.
The most active sedimentation during the Pliocene is
observed in the Golfo Triste area, where a thick sequence
of clay and limestone was deposited.
SUBSIDENCE RATES THROUGH TIME
To better understand the relationships between
tectonics and sedimentation, 53 burial curves based on
well and seismic information were calculated for the
Guajira Peninsula, Falcón, and Aruba areas. These curves
are not decompacted and do not include bathymetry.
Representative curves are shown in Figure 18. Seven
areas with common subsidence characteristics are recog-
nized: northern Guajira Peninsula, Dabajuro platform,
Urumaco trough, Paraguaná Peninsula, eastern Falcón
and La Vela Bay, Aruba, and offshore eastern Falcón.
Northern Guajira Peninsula
Subsidence rates calculated from seven wells were
available for this area. Subsidence rates in the northern
Guajira were low during the late Eocene, with a mean
value of 68 m/m.y., but with a large variation between
localities (Figure 19). The Oligocene was a time of
reduced subsidence, with mean rates varying between 49
and 54 m/m.y. A pattern of rapid subsidence was estab-
lished during the early Miocene (cycle C1) and continued
Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin 775

Figure 17—Isopach map of cycle B strata, middle–upper Miocene.

776 Macellari

into the middle–late Miocene (cycle B). The mean rates

for the Miocene varied from 136 to 139 m/m.y. Subsi-
dence again decreased during the Pliocene (cycle A) with
consistent values close to 77 m/m.y. In summary,
maximum subsidence in the northern Guajira Peninsula
took place during the Miocene, with slower rates in the
Eocene, Oligocene, and Pliocene.

Northwestern Falcón Basin

(a)
(b)
Figure 18–(a) Selected subsidence curves for the study
area. All curves were derived from well data, with the
exception of Aruba-6 and Paraguaná-12, which were calcu-
lated from seismic lines. (b) Location map.
Information on this area, broadly coinciding with the
Dabajuro platform, was obtained from six wells. Cycle C
(Oligocene–lower Miocene) sedimentary rocks are
scarce, so that cycle B rests directly on Eocene rocks.
In some areas north of the Oca fault, Eocene deposits
are thin and wells (QMC-1X and QMD-1X) reached
basement (Figure 18). In general, this was an area of low
sedimentation rates, except for an Eocene rate of 170
m/m.y. (Figures 18, 19). However, this value is no more
accurate than the estimated age of the sequence. Only
two of the analyzed wells (Santa Cruz and AMN-2X)
record early Miocene C1 sedimentation (Figure 18).
Subsidence was moderate during the middle and late
Miocene, with a mean rate of 121 m/m.y., and was fairly
uniform throughout the area.
Urumaco Trough
The Urumaco trough is characterized by high subsi-
dence rates during cycles C and B (Figures 18, 19). Four
subsidence curves were calculated. Correlation of seismic
information and well data indicates that rapid sedimen-

Figure 19—Average subsidence rates by area. The coefficient of variation indicates the degree of deviation of the data from
the calculated mean value.
 Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics, Southwestern Caribbean Pull-Apart Basin
tation probably started in the early Miocene (Agua Clara
Formation, cycle C1), when the highest rate occurred (367
m/m.y). A high rate of 296 m/m.y. persisted for the rest
of the Miocene. This area was uplifted during the late
Pliocene, so that cycle A rocks are absent. In summary,
subsidence rates in the Urumaco trough were exceed-
ingly high, and they decreased and became more uni-
form through time, until inversion of the depocenter in
Recent time.
Paraguaná Peninsula
Widespread sedimentation on the Paraguaná
Peninsula began during cycle B (early middle Miocene).
However, seismic interpretation suggests that sedimen-
tation possibly started during the early Miocene in
restricted northern areas. The early stages of Miocene
sedimentation record a moderate (93 m/m.y.) but highly
variable sedimentation rate (Figures 18, 19). During the
rest of the Miocene (cycle B), sediments were deposited
at a more moderate rate (120 m/m.y.), but again acceler-
ated during the Pliocene to 192 m/m.y. In conclusion, in
the Paraguaná Peninsula, sedimentation rates show a
progressive increase through time.
Offshore Northeastern Falcón Basin and
La Vela Bay
This area had two patterns of subsidence. The part of
La Vela Bay adjacent to the Paraguaná Peninsula (La Vela
platform) records lower rates than southeastern localities.
Maximum subsidence apparently took place near the
present coast (Boca Ricoa) (Figure 18) during deposition
of cycle C (mean subsidence rate of 326 m/m.y.). As in
the Urumaco trough area, subsidence rates remained
high, but decreased during Miocene and Pliocene time
(194 and 127 m/m.y., respectively) (Figure 18).
The only data available for offshore southeastern
Falcón (Golfo Triste) are from the Cayo Sal-1 well. An
almost constant sedimentation rate of about 90 m/m.y. is
observed for the Eocene–late Miocene. This was followed
by a sudden increase in the rate to 320 m/m.y. in the
Pliocene.
Aruba
Aruba subsidence rates are based on interpretation of
seismic data. Nine subsidence curves were constructed.
Maximum rates occurred during deposition of cycle D
(late Eocene?), with a mean value of 226 m/m.y. in
restricted depocenters. Subsidence rates remained more
or less constant during the late Oligocene–late Miocene,
with a mean value of 138–147 m/m.y. (Figures 18, 19).
Rates finally decreased to a mean of 38 m/m.y. during
the Pliocene (cycle A). In conclusion, subsidence rates in
Aruba were initially high, then decreased through time.
Comparison of Subsidence Rates
A regional right-lateral strike-slip setting developed
during the late Eocene. As a result, a rapidly subsiding
777
pull-apart basin developed east of the Guajira Peninsula
above the previous compressional setting (see Biju Duval
et al., 1982). The locus of maximum subsidence within
this pull-apart basin migrated eastward. The northern
part of the Guajira Peninsula, however, developed
outside this extensional regime. During the early stages
of basin formation, maximum subsidence occurred in
parts of offshore Aruba basin and in the northwestern
part of the Falcón basin (Dabajuro platform), as well as in
the western Golfo de Venezuela.
Deposition during late early Oligocene cycle C3 was
restricted to the offshore portion of the Guajira
Peninsula, some areas of the Aruba region, and the
rapidly subsiding central part of the Falcón basin. Rapid
sedimentation began during cycle C2 (late Oligocene),
particularly in the Aruba region and the central Falcón
basin. Rapid subsidence rates are calculated for the early
Miocene (cycle C1) of the entire pull-apart system
(100–140 m/m.y.), especially in the Urumaco trough and
northeastern Falcón basin (over 300 m/m.y.), driven by
active growth along northwest-trending faults. High
rates (about 100–140 m/m.y.) were maintained through-
out the region during the middle and late Miocene (cycle
B). The Urumaco trough and northeastern Falcón basin
continued with higher rates (295 and 200 m/m.y., respec-
tively).
Because of erosion, data for Pliocene sedimentation
are not accurate for the onshore regions. The locus of
maximum Pliocene subsidence was located in the Golfo
Triste area, where sediments were deposited at a rate of
330 m/m.y.
CONCLUSIONS
There has been considerable debate about the exact
location and geometry of the Caribbean–South American
plate boundary. Most recent work agrees that the
boundary is located along the South Caribbean marginal
fault and continues eastward into the El Pilar fault of
northeastern Venezuela (Beck and Stephan, 1979;
Stephan, 1985). The tectonic history of the Caribbean
chain has been summarized by Bellizzia (1972), Maresch
(1974), and Bellizzia et al. (1980), among others. During
the Jurassic, rifting occurred in the proto-Caribbean. An
island arc system collided obliquely with the continent in
Late Cretaceous–Oligocene time (Erlich and Barrett,
1990; Pindell, 1991), and a foredeep developed where the
crust was loaded. Eventually the allochthonous terranes
were thrust across Paleocene–Oligocene foredeep flysch
(Stephan, 1977, 1985; Beck, 1978).
A major change in the tectonic regime took place in
the Eocene as the Caribbean plate moved eastward with
respect to South America (Stainforth, 1969; Bell, 1972;
Maresch, 1974). East-west right-lateral transcurrent
faulting began in northern South America by late Eocene
time. This coincided with andesitic volcanism and
subduction along the Lesser Antilles arc (e.g., Wester-
camp et al., 1985).
East-west displacement between the two plates
resulted in the formation of an extensive pull-apart zone
778 Macellari
Figure 20—Evolutionary model for the southwestern
Caribbean pull-apart basin.
along the northern margin of South America, between
the Curaçao Ridge and the San Sebastián–Oca fault
system (Figure 1). Right-lateral shearing caused exten-
sional subsidence along northwest-trending normal
faults (Biju-Duval et al., 1982; Muessig, 1984). Basaltic
alkaline magmas were injected as a result of this crustal
thinning (Muessig, 1984). It is believed that the Los
Monjes and La Orchila islands, the Paraguaná Peninsula,
and the Falcón basin were almost juxtaposed before
Oligocene extension (Muessig, 1978, 1984). Eocene
isopachs (Figure 15) support a pull-apart model in which
Curaçao and Bonaire were east of the Paraguaná
Peninsula. During this time, the locus of maximum
subsidence developed west of the allochthonous terrane
(Figure 20).
During the Oligocene and Miocene, the allochthonous
thrust sheet was disrupted by stretching of the pull-apart
basin, and the axis of maximum subsidence migrated
eastward into the Urumaco trough and east of La Vela
Bay (Figure 20). Continued displacement along the Oca
fault resulted in transpressive deformation of older strata
and the formation of a thrust front that advanced
progressively northward. Thus, an ENE-WSW oriented
foreland basin began to form during this time.
Transpressive movement along the South Caribbean
marginal fault (Kellogg and Bonini, 1982) during the
Pliocene resulted in shallow underthrusting of the
Caribbean plate beneath the Curaçao Ridge. During this
time, the thrust front of the Falcón anticlinorium
migrated farther northward and extension along
northwest-southeast faults ceased. Active right-lateral
displacement along the Boconó fault began at this time
(Schubert and Sifontes, 1970). This displacement,
coupled with continued movement of the Oca fault
system, resulted in formation of a pull-apart depocenter
southeast of Falcón basin (Figure 20) (Schubert, 1984) and
thick Pliocene sedimentation.
Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Hocol
subsidiary of Tenneco Oil Co. I am grateful to D. Wimann
(British Gas, Ecuador) for his comments and support. T. Boesi,
C. Blanco (Maraven, Venezuela), and T. Subieta (Lagoven,
Venezuela) provided generous cooperation and insight during
my work in Venezuela. S. Schamel (Earth Sciences and
Resources Institute, University of South Carolina) offered
valuable advice during the earlier stages of this study.
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Geologicae Helvetiae, v. 28, p. 51–113.
Silver, E. A., J. E. Case, and H. J. Macgillavry, 1975, Geophys-
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Stainforth, R. M., 1962a, The upper Eocene of the Guajira
Peninsula: Asociación Venezolana de Geologos Mineros y
Petroleros, Boletín Informativo, v. 5, p. 229–230.
Stainforth, R. M., 1962b, Definition of some new stratigraphic
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Jebe, Tres Esquinas, and Nazareth: Asociación Venezolana
de Geologos Mineros y Petroleros, Boletín Informativo, v.
5, p. 279–282.
Stainforth, R. M., 1969, The concept of sea floor spreading
applied to Venezuela: Asociación Venezolana de Geologos
Mineros y Petroleros, Boletín Informativo, v.12, p. 257–274.
Stephan, J. F., 1977, El contacto cadena Caribe-Andes
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Congreso Geologico Venezolano, Caracas, Memorias, v.
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Stephan, J. F., 1985, Andes et chaine Caraibe sur la transver-
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Author’s Mailing Address
C. E. Macellari
Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij B.V.
P.O. Box 28000
9400 HH Assen
The Netherlands

Accretion, in Andes, 102
Adrian Jara Formation, stratigraphy of,
195
Africa (southern), see also Pan-Africa
basin evolution in, 5-44
data point analysis, 84
Middle Devonian of, 257
Aguada Villanueva, seismic reflection
profile of, 395
Aguaragüe field, cross section of, 552
Aguaragüe range
seismic reflection profile of, 534, 537
structure of, 551-552
supersequence of, 255
Algae, in organic matter, 414
Alluvial fans, of Sierra Pampeanas, 341-
356
Altiplano
basin architecture of, 312-313, 320
basin evolution of, 305-322
Bouguer gravity of, 310, 313, 314
Carboniferous stratigraphy of, 233-
237
correlation chart of, 321
geologic map of, 310-312
geologic setting of, 306-307, 512-514
geophysical data of, 308-309, 310-311,
313-314, 322
hydrocarbons of, 307-308, 314-315
location map of, 512
seismic reflection profiles of, 316-319
stratigraphic columns of, 309, 311
stratigraphy of, 308, 312
structural inversion in, 321
structure of, 306, 315
and sub-Andean belt, 474
tectonostratigraphic chart of, 311
Alto Paraguay terrane, 39
Amazon basin, data point analysis of, 83
Ambo Group, 216, 235
Andean bend
analogs of, 520
décollement levels in, 513
footwall morphology in, 515-516
models of formation of, 518
orocline interpretation of, 518-521
paleogeography of, 518-519
sedimentary thicknesses in, 517
structure of, 513-515
Andean deformation, see also Andes
in Boomerang Hills, 487-489
climax of, 74
early, 73-74
Ordovician, 212
seismic reflection profile of, 28
Index
Andes, see also Eastern Cordillera
Aptian-Albian paleogeography of,
112-113
and asthenosphere, 476-477
backthrusting in, 475
basement of, 271, 273-274
basin-bounding features of, 243-244
bend in, see Andean bend
blind thrusting in, 650-651
Cambrian-Devonian evolution of, 214
Carboniferous of, 233-237, 241
Cenozoic of, 118-119, 120-121, 122-
123, 225, 277-279
of Colombia, 642-643
compared to Canadian Cordillera,
653-654, 656
Cretaceous rift system of, 325-337
Cretaceous paleogeography of, 110-
111, 114-117
cross sections of, 461, 465, 466, 467,
475, 477, 643
crustal structure of, 639-642
data point analysis of, 82
Devonian of, 233-235, 240-241
evolution of, 103-127
geodynamics of, 244-245, 641-642
geologic setting of, 460-462, 512-514
hydrocarbon systems of, 104, 124-127
igneous events of, 242, 243-244, 271,
273-274
intermontane basins of, 597-611
Jurassic paleogeography of, 108-109
lithosphere of, 461, 477, 642-643
location map of, 232, 648
new model for structure of, 652-653
paleobiogeography of, 238-240
paleolatitudinal shift in, 231-246
palinspastic reconstruction of, 102-
103
Permian of, 233, 237-238, 241-243
and pre-Andean extension, 490
sandstone reservoirs of, 125-126
source rocks of, 124-125
strain of Tithonian rift of, 641-642
structure of, 208-209, 514-518, 531
subduction in, 643
tectonic evolution of, 269-281, 474-
477, 654
Tertiary compression in, 40
Triassic-Jurassic paleogeography of,
106-107
Antarctica, data point analysis of, 84
Apon Formation
isopach map of, 708
stratigraphy of, 707
781
Araucanian orogeny, 71-73, 394
Arches, of South America, 65
Architecture
of Altiplano, 312-313, 320
of Gondwana, 8
of South America, 65
of Venezuelan Coast Ranges crust,
667-677
Arequipa massif, 233-234, 243
Argentina
basement of, 271, 273-274
basin evolution of, 251-265
basin-bounding features of, 243-244
Cambrian-Ordovician of, 271-275
Carboniferous-Jurassic stratigraphy
of, 257-261
Carboniferous-Permian of, 276, 285-
299
Cenozoic structures of, 277-279
correlation charts of, 134-135, 134-137,
136-137, 138-139, 270
Cretaceous unconformity of, 548
Cretaceous-Tertiary subsidence of,
276-277
cross sections of, 153-158, 278
depocenters of, 275
gas fields of, 550
geologic maps of, 130-155, 272
geologic provinces of, 270
glacial deposits of, 168-170, 173-174,
174-176
hydrocarbons of, 279-280, 365-366
igneous events of, 243-244, 271, 273-
274
paleogeography of, 383-400
Permian of, 276
petroleum geology of, 547-549
Phanerozoic history chart of, 270
prerift geologic map of, 327
regional map of, 404
rift system of, 307, 325-337
and sea level trends, 257
sedimentation in, 177, 178
Silurian-Devonian stratigraphy of,
253-257, 275-276
structural inversion in, 341-356, 359-
366, 369-380
structure of, 549-554
sub-Andean belt of, 549-554
tectonic evolution of, 263, 269-281
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Arica bend, lithospheric cross section of,
477
Aruba
geologic history of, 771-774
782 Index
interpreted seismic line of, 770
isopach map of, 772, 773, 775
stratigraphy of, 770-771
subsidence rates of, 776, 777
Asunción arch, cross section of, 85
Asthenosphere, and Andes, 476-477
Atuel half-graben, cross section of, 377
Atuel-Valenciana half-graben
cross section of, 375, 377-378
geometry of, 374, 376
Ayacucho basin, stratigraphic column
of, 602
Azogues Formation, megaturbidites of,
603
Azúcar Group
paleocurrents in, 621
stratigraphy of, 620-621
Backthrusting
in Andes, 475
cross section of, 475
definition of, 650
Bahia Negra platform, hydrocarbons of,
199
Bajada Vidal trough, seismic reflection
profile of, 388
Barda Colorado area, seismic reflection
profile of, 393
Barinas-Apure basin
cross section of, 687, 693
geologic setting of, 682
location map of, 682
Mesozoic-Cenozoic stratigraphy of,
685-696
Paleozoic stratigraphy of, 682-685
Basement
of Andes, 243-244
of Argentina, 243-244, 271, 273-274
basin forming, 66
crustal evolution of, 8-10
extension in, 26
of Maracaibo basin, 705
of Paganzo basin, 287
of Patagonia, 405
shortening in Venezuelan Coast
Ranges, 674
structural trends of, 9
Basin evolution
and 2-D modeling, 728
of Altiplano, 305-322
of Argentina, 251-265, 271-276
block diagram of, 24
Carboniferous-Permian, 30-32
of Caribbean pull-apart basin, 778
of coastal Ecuador, 626-629
Cretaceous, 72-73
of Cuenca basin, 605-607
early Paleozoic, 21-30, 68
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 743-745
of intermontane basins, 604-608, 609,
611
Jurassic, 70-72
late Paleozoic, 68-69
of Llanos basin, 660-663
of Malargüe basin, 371-373
in Mesozoic, 34-40
Neocomian, 71-73
of Neuquén basin, 383-400
of Paganzo basin, 288, 293-296
Phanerozoic, 66-67
of Rumichaca basin, 607-608
tectonic controls of, 5-44
Triassic, 69-70
Basin resources, estimates of, 57-60
Bending, synorogenic, 512
Beni basin, stratigraphy of, 216
Beni-Chaco plain, structural setting of,
208
Berta Formation, stratigraphy of, 195
Blind thrusting, in Eastern Cordillera,
650-651
Bolivia
Andean bend in, 511-521
Andean deformation in, 481-498
basin-bounding features of, 243-244
Cambrian-Caradoc of, 211-212
Carboniferous of, 32, 177, 215-218,
233-237
Cenozoic of, 221-225
Chaco basin of, 15
correlation chart of, 132-133, 138-139
Cretaceous rift basin of, 305-322
cross sections of, 153-158, 222, 461
Devonian of, 213-215, 232-235
geochemical database of, 527
geologic maps of, 130-155, 464, 482
geologic setting of, 524
glacial deposits of, 174-176
hydrocarbons of, 224-225, 451-457,
526-531
Jurassic-Cretaceous of, 221
location map of, 460
Mesozoic paleogeography of, 218,
220, 223, 224
oil correlation of, 527
Ordovician of, 212, 213-215
paleobiogeography of, 238-240
Paleozoic paleogeography of, 210-
211, 218
Pennsylvanian-Triassic of, 218-219
Permian of, 215
petroleum geology of, 224-225, 451-
457
Phanerozoic stratigraphy of, 209-211,
226-227
Silurian of, 213-215
source rocks of, 448-450
stratigraphic column of, 213, 215, 219,
221, 448
stratigraphy of, 178, 254, 501-507
structural setting of, 208-209
sub-Andean belt of, 445-457
tectonic map of, 232, 446
Triassic-Jurassic of, 219-221
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Bolivia basin, summary of, 245
Bolivian Andes, data point analysis of,
82
Bolivian orocline, 512
Bolsones, definition of, 68
Bonaire basin, geologic setting of, 759
Boomerang Hills
Andean deformation in, 487-489
cross section of, 447, 454, 456, 488
deformation summary of, 497
fault map of, 487, 490
hydrocarbons of, 490-494
isopach map of, 498
oil and gas window in, 456
oil fields of, 483
petroleum system of, 447, 454
pre-Andean deformation of, 489-490
sedimentary wedge of, 449
seismic reflection profiles of, 485, 486,
491, 492, 493, 495, 496
stratigraphic column of, 483
stratigraphy of, 483-486
structure of, 486-487, 488
Boomerang-Chiquitanas suture, 29
Bouguer gravity
of Altiplano, 310, 313, 314
of Gondwana, 9
Brasiliano cycle, 11-19, 32, 186-187
Brazil
correlation charts of, 132-133, 134-135,
136-137
geologic cross sections of, 153-158
geologic maps of, 130-155
glacial deposits of, 171-173, 176
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Brazilian shield, igneous events of, 243
Bucaramanga fault, nature of, 651
Bulk strain, of Main sub-Andean thrust,
471-473
Buried thrust fronts, definition of, 650
Caipipendi
cross section of, 541
geologic history chart of, 531
geologic map of, 539
HI/OI diagram of, 528
seismic reflection profile of, 540, 541
Calentura Formation, stratigraphy of,
617
Campo Duran field
cross section of, 553
seismic modeling of, 553
Campo Duran-Madrejones range,
structure of, 552-554
Canadian Cordillera, compared to
Andes, 653-654, 656
Cancañiri Formation, stratigraphy of,
211-212, 213

Cangapi Formation, stratigraphy of, 259
Cape basin, evolution of, 21
Cape foldbelt, orogenesis of, 35
Cape-Karoo basin
as depocenter, 19-34
subsidence curves of, 33
Capilla del Monte
basement foliation of, 349
block diagram of, 346
cross section of, 346
geology of, 345, 348
Neogene thrusts of, 348-351
normal faults of, 356
Caquiahuaca thrust, 464-467, 473
Caranavi anticline, structure of, 469
Carandaity basin
hydrocarbons of, 199
stratigraphy of, 194
Caribbean plate
margins of, 722, 757-778
tectonic provinces of, 758-759
tectonic setting of, 700-702
Caribbean pull-apart basin, evolutionary
model for, 778
Castillo anticline, 409
Cauderalito limestone, structure at top
of, 769
Cayo Formation, stratigraphy of, 617-618
Celiphus rallus-like algae, 414
Central America, tectonic features of, 701
Central thrust zone
cross section of, 468
structure of, 468-469
Cerro León Group, stratigraphy of, 190,
192-194
Cinco Picachos supersequence, 253-254
Chronostratigraphy, see Stratigraphic
column, 406
Clay Pebble beds, stratigraphy of, 621-
622
Clinoforms, of Maracaibo basin, 714-716
Closed rift, definition of, 80, 81
Coastal Ecuador
basin evolution of, 617-625, 626-629
cross section of, 627
forearc basin of, 626-628
geologic setting of, 617
location map of, 616
paleocurrents of, 621, 624, 625
paleogeography of, 618
sedimentation rates of, 628
stratigraphic column of, 618
Coca-Payamino field, cross section of,
586
Cochabamba basin
cross section of, 515
map view of, 515
structure of, 514, 515-516
Cocinetas basin, stratigraphy of, 759-762
Cocuy basin, stratigraphy of, 640
Codo del Senguerr anticline, 408
Colombia
Caribbean pull-apart basin of, 757-
778
Cordilleran crustal evolution of, 633-
643, 647-657
cross sections of, 635, 638, 642
lithosphere in, 642-643
structure of, 651
tectonic provinces of, 660
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Colon Formation
isopach map of, 708
stratigraphy of, 707
Colorado field, cross section of, 657
Competitor analysis, in petroleum
exploration, 56-57
Computer modeling, of Eastern
Venezuelan basin oil, 727-740
Copacabana Formation
reservoirs of, 433
as source rocks, 449, 450
setting of, 216, 427
stratigraphy of, 237, 238, 503
Cordillera, see Eastern Cordillera;
Western Cordillera
Cordillera de la Costa, 759
Cordillera Oriental, see Oriente basin
Cordillera Real, see Eastern Cordillera
Core photos
of Hollin Formation, 578
of Manuripi X-1 well, 506
of Pando X-1 well, 506
Coro high, stratigraphy of, 766
Correlation charts
of Altiplano, 321
of Argentina, 270
of Chaco basin, 192
of Cocinetas basin, 761
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 745
of Falcon basin, 760
of glaciated basins, 168
of Madre de Dios basin, 427
of Maracaibo basin, 703
of Marañon basin, 427
of Napo Formation, 583
of Paganzo basin, 298
of South America, 132-139
of sub-Andean belt, 427, 431
of Ucayali basin, 427
of Venezuela, 684, 703, 760
Critical taper, definition of, 473
Cross sections
of Aguaragüe field, 552
of Andes, 461, 465, 466, 467, 475, 477,
643
of Argentina, 153-158, 278
of Asuñcion arch, 85
Atuel-Valenciana half-graben, 375,
377-378
of backthrusting, 475
of Barinas-Apure basin, 687, 693
Index 783
of Bolivia, 153-158, 222, 461
of Boomerang Hills, 488
of Brazil, 153-158
of Caipipendi, 541
of Campo Duran field, 553
of Capilla del Monte, 346
of Central thrust zone, 468
of Chaco basin, 85, 189
of Chaco-Paraná, 85-86
of Chile, 153-158
of coastal Ecuador, 627
of Cocuy basin, 640
of Colombia, 635, 638, 642
of Cuenca basin, 606
of Cusiana field, 664
of Cuyo basin, 361, 362-364
of Devonian Andes, 244-245
of Eastern Cordillera, 461, 547, 635,
638, 639, 640, 641, 642
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 729,
744, 746, 747, 751
of El Pilar fault, 673
of Gondwana, 244
of gravity-driven structures, 649
of Hollin Formation, 580, 586
of Ipaguazu field, 554
Jurassic-Recent, 86
of Lomas de Olmedo basin, 337
of Llanos basin, 640
of Llanos foothills, 664
of Madrejones field, 554
of Magdalena Valley, 652, 653, 657
of Main sub-Andean thrust, 467, 468,
472
of Malargüe belt, 375-380
of Mangan Formation, 607
of Maracaibo basin, 687, 721
of Maturín basin, 747
of Merida arch, 709
of Napo uplift, 580
of Oriente basin, 655
of Paganzo basin, 294
of Palauco rift, 378
of Paraguay, 153-158, 197, 200
of Paraná basin, 189
Permian-Triassic, 85
of Pungarayacu area, 580
of Ramos field, 551
regional tectonostratigraphic, 23
of Rumichaca basin, 610
of Serranía, 672, 673
of Sierra de Pajarillo, 346
Silurian-Carboniferous, 85
of southern South America, 153-156,
157-158
of structural inversion, 321, 364
of sub-Andean belt, 447, 463, 533, 541,
549
of triangle zone, 649
of Tuichi syncline, 473
of Uruguay, 153-158
784 Index
of Venezuela, 754
of Venezuelan Coastal Ranges, 672,
673
of worldwide foldbelts, 470-471
Crude oil, resources of Latin America, 54
Crust
of Andes, 639-642
of Venezuelan Coast Ranges, 667-677
Cuenca basin
cross section of, 606
evolution of, 605-607
megaturbidites of, 603
paleogeography of, 606
stratigraphic column of, 601
structural map of, 608
tectonic setting of, 605
Cuevo supersequence, stratigraphy of,
259
Cumana Formation, lithologies of, 235
Curaçao Ridge, setting of, 758
Curupaity subbasin, hydrocarbons of,
199
Cusiana field
cross section of, 664
seismic reflection profile of, 637
Cuyo basin
cross section of, 361, 362-364
hydrocarbons of, 365-366
inversion in, 359-366, 364
seismic reflection profile of, 364
source rocks of, 365-366
stratigraphic column of, 40
stratigraphy of, 361, 363
structure of, 360, 361-362
tectonic evolution of, 362-363
Cuyo Group
isopach map of, 374
paleogeography of, 387
stratigraphy of, 388-390
transfer faults of, 399
Chacay Melehue half-graben, 375, 376
Chacay-Lotena Group, isopach map of,
375
Chaco basin
Carboniferous of, 177
Cenozoic of, 189-190, 195-198
cross sections of, 85, 189
data point analysis of, 82
Escarpment Formation of, 32
evolution of, 29
geologic map of, 187, 482
geologic setting of, 546
geothermal gradient of, 199
hydrocarbon potential of, 198-201
isopach map of, 193
Mesozoic of, 189, 195-196
Paleozoic of, 187-189, 190-195
pre-Andes deformation of, 498
sedimentary episodes of, 186
seismic reflection profile of, 15, 191
stratigraphic column of, 188, 194, 196
stratigraphy of, 216-218
and sub-Andean belt deformation,
535-536
subbasins of, 186, 196, 199
Chaco Formation, stratigraphy of, 198
Chacopampeana Plain, geologic setting
of, 252-253
Chaco-Paraná basin
glacial deposits of, 173-174
sedimentation in, 177
Chacopata-Uverito transect
location map of, 728
oil maturity along, 753
Chaco-Tarija basin
depositional setting of, 180
glacial deposits of, 174-176
hydrocarbons in, 177-178
sedimentation of, 19-34, 178
stratigraphic columns of, 178
Chañic belt, tectonic evolution of, 276
Chañic orogeny, 89, 425-426
Chapiza Formation, stratigraphy of, 562-
563
Charagüe, seismic reflection profile of,
537, 538
Chenque-Challao anticline, 410
Chichibacoa basin
offshore wells of, 762
stratigraphy of, 762-763
Chile
basin-bounding features of, 243-244
correlation charts of, 132-133, 134-135,
136-137
Devonian stratigraphy of, 232-235
geologic cross sections of, 153-158
geologic maps of, 130-155
igneous events of, 244
Permian paleogeography of, 242
regional map of, 404
rift basins in, 342
Chiquitanas-Boomerang suture, 18-19
Chongón-Colonche Cordillera
stratigraphic column of, 620, 622
tectonostratigraphic evolution of,
619-623
transgressive deposits of, 622, 623
Chonta Formation, oil-source correlation
of, 432
Chota basin, stratigraphic column of, 601
Chubut Group, 406
Dahlstromian, definition of, 634
Data point analysis
of Amazon basin, 83
of Antarctica, 84
of Bolivian Andes, 82
of Chaco basin, 82
of Huallaga basin, 83
of Paraná basin, 82
of Sierras Chiquitanas, 80
of southern Africa, 84
of West Texas Permian basin, 83
Delamination, by tectonic wedge, 551
Depocenters, of Paleozoic, 19-34
Deseado massif, definition of, 64
Diaguita orogeny, 276-277
Diamante River area, cross section of,
377
Diamictites
of Bolivian Andes, 234-236
of Itarare Group, 173
of Tarija Formation, 179
Dorsal de Huincal, see Huincal dorsal
Dry holes, percentage of, 55
Eastern Cordillera
angular unconformity of, 260
blind thrusting in, 650-651
compared to Canadian Cordillera,
653-654, 656
cross sections of, 461, 547, 635, 638,
639, 640, 641, 642
crustal configuration of, 639-642
foreland basin of, 635-636
geologic setting of, 252-253, 512-514,
561
gravity-driven structures of, 648-649,
657
hydrocarbons of, 654-656
location map of, 512
new model for structure of, 652-653
palinspastic restoration of, 639
polyphase rifting in, 638
rift tectonics of, 639-639
Silurian-Devonian unconformity in,
255
snip restoration of, 476
stratigraphy of, 258, 259
structure of, 277, 461, 641, 642
tectonics of, 546, 634-636
Eastern Venezuelan basin
computer modeling of, 727-740
correlation chart of, 745
cross sections of, 729, 744, 746, 747,
751
geodynamic evolution of, 743-745
HI/OI of, 752
hydrocarbon saturation in, 735, 738,
739
hydrocarbons of, 727-740, 749-755
hydrodynamic model of, 750-751
lithofacies of, 731
location map of, 728, 743
megasequences of, 743-745
Miocene facies of, 736
oil fields of, 742
petroleum geology of, 749-755
pressure zones in, 732-733
reservoirs of, 749-750
seismic reflection profiles of, 744, 747,
748, 749, 750

source rocks of, 730, 737, 752
stratigraphic columns of, 730, 745
stratigraphy of, 730, 731, 735, 743-745
structure of, 746-748
tectonic setting of, 742
vitrinite reflectance in, 734, 736, 737,
738
water flow in, 734
Eastern Venezuelan ranges, see also
Venezuelan Coast Ranges
geodynamic modeling of, 675-677
geologic setting of, 668-672
subduction in, 675-676
tectonostratigraphy of, 670-671
terranes of, 670-673
Economic basement, see Basement
Ecuador, see also Coastal Ecuador
coastal, 615-629
Cretaceous paleogeography of, 582-
585
depositional systems of, 575-582
geologic setting of, 574-575
intermontane basins of, 597-611
location map of, 574
morphostructural map of, 598
reservoirs of, 585-590
seismic expression of structures of,
559-570
stratigraphic column of, 601
stratigraphy of, 575-582
tectonic map of, 560
tectonic setting of, 605
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
El Furrial structure, 750
El Pilar fault
cross section of, 673
and deep structure, 676
geologic setting of, 668-672
Ene Formation, oil-source correlation of,
428
Entre Lomas trough, seismic reflection
profile of, 389
Escarpment Formation, 32, 297
Estancia Vieja area, seismic reflection
profile of, 396
Etendeka magnetism, 39
Eva-Eva thrust, 464-467
Exploration efficiency
definition of, 57-58
for Maracaibo basin, 58
for Maturin basin, 58
for Venezuela, 58
Explosive source data, for Salta rift, 339
Extensional arc, definition of, 103
Faja Petrolifera, 748
Falcón basin
geologic setting of, 759
interpreted seismic line of, 763
paleogeography of, 764, 765, 767
stratigraphic column of, 760
stratigraphy of, 763-768
subsidence rates of, 776
well correlation in, 768
Fan, definition of, 176
Fast flexure, 80, 81
Fault-bend fold, 487, 489
Field discoveries
major, 56-57
from wildcat drilling, 55
Field size
95th percentile of, 59
distribution of, 59-60
in Latin America, 58-59
population statistics of, 58-59
worldwide, 58-59
Field size analysis, definition of, 57
Flexural load model, of Andean crust,
639-641
Flexure
fast, 80, 81
slow, 81
Foldbelts, cross section of worldwide,
470
Footwall morphology, in Andean bend,
515-516
Forced fold, definition of, 489
Forearc basin, of coastal Ecuador, 626-
628
Foredeep fill, of sub-Andean belt, 462
Foreland basin, of Maracaibo basin, 717-
719, 720, 721
Foreland basins
of Eastern Cordillera, 635-636
evolution of, 73-74
glacial deposits of, 167, 168-170
hydrocarbons in, 176-177
of Maracaibo basin, 710-719
Paleozoic of Andes, 231-246
of Peru, 424, 425
Gacela field, stratigraphic correlation of,
587
Gariep belt, 11
Gas fields, see also Oil fields
of Argentina, 550
largest in Latin America, 57
GENEX software, 450-451, 751
Geochemistry
of organic matter, 414
of sub-Andean belt, 437, 526-531
Geologic maps
of Altiplano, 310-312
of Argentina, 272
of Bolivia, 464
Carboniferous, 137, 139, 145
of Chaco basin, 187
Cretaceous, 147-150, 152, 153
Devonian, 135, 137, 143, 144
of Inicua quadrangle, 469
Jurassic, 145-147, 151
of Llanos foothills, 663
Index 785
of Malargüe belt, 370
of Neuquén basin, 370
of Occidental, 352
Ordovician, 130, 133, 141
of Paraguay, 187
Permian, 139-142, 146, 147, 148
of Rumichaca basin, 610
of Saldan Formation, 348
of Serranía, 670
of Sierra Chicas, 345
of Sierra de Los Condores, 347
of Sierras de Cordoba, 343
Silurian, 133, 135, 142
of sub-Andean belt, 464, 469, 525
Tertiary, 150-153, 154, 155
Triassic, 143-144, 149, 150
Vendian-Cambrian, 130, 140
Ghanzi thrusts, seismic reflection profile
of, 12-13
Glacially influenced, definition of, 167
Glaciated basins
correlation chart of, 168
marine sediments in, 165-176
Glaciation
of Gondwana, 31, 169
and hydrocarbon reserves, 165-180
Middle Silurian, 88
sediments of, 165-176
Golfo Tristel, stratigraphy of, 770
Gondwana
basin evolution of, 5-44
basin map of, 7, 9
Carboniferous paleogeography of,
90-93, 169
crustal evolution of, 8-10
Devonian of, 88-90, 244
evolution of, 208
glaciation of, 31, 88, 169, 235
Ordovician of, 86-87
Paleozoic of, 212, 218
Permian of, 92-95
Phanerozoic evolution of, 66-67
reconstruction map of, 81
Silurian of, 88-89
structural trends of, 9
tectonic subsidence analysis of, 79-96
Triassic of, 95-96
Gravity-driven structures
cross section of, 649
of Eastern Cordillera, 648-649, 657
geometry of, 648-649
of Magdalena Valley, 649-650, 657
in Tien Shan mountains, 649
Guajira Peninsula
Cenozoic basins of, 761
geologic history of, 771-774
geologic setting of, 759
isopach map of, 772, 773, 775
stratigraphic column of, 760
stratigraphy of, 759-763
subsidence rates of, 774-776
786 Index
Guandacol supersequence, 288-290
Guapore shield
stratigraphy of, 192
structural setting of, 208
Guasare Formation
isopach map of, 711, 713
stratigraphy of, 711-712
Guayaquil area
stratigraphic column of, 618
tectonostratigraphic evolution of,
617-619
Guayaquil Formation, stratigraphy of,
619
Guayuta Group, as source rocks, 737
Guyana shield, 673
Hiatus, Carboniferous of Bolivia, 237
Historical field size analysis, definition
of, 57
Hollin Formation, see also Main Hollin
Formation; Upper Hollin
Formation
core photos of, 578
Cretaceous paleogeography of, 584
cross section of, 580, 586
depositional systems of, 575-580
isopach map of, 576
logs of, 577, 580, 581
petrography of, 588
petrophysical properties of, 589-590
reservoirs of, 585-590
roadcut of, 581
stratigraphic column of, 576
stratigraphy of, 575-580
wettability of, 590
Huallaga basin, data point analysis of, 83
Huarina belt, stratigraphy of, 216
Huincul dorsal
interpretation of, 394
seismic reflection profiles of, 38, 393,
395, 396
structural inversion in, 391-396
tectonic evolution of, 384, 386
Hydrocarbons
of Altiplano, 307-308, 314-315
and Andean development, 104, 124-
127
of Argentina, 265, 279-280, 365-366
of Bolivia, 224-225, 451-457
of Boomerang Hills, 490-494
of Chaco basin, 198-201
of Cuyo basin, 365-366
of Eastern Cordillera, 654-656
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 727-740,
749-755
effect of faulting on, 365-366
field discoveries of, 55-56
in foreland basins, 176-177
in glacially influenced sediments,
165-180
in intracratonic basins, 177-180
in Latin America, 53-61
of Marañon basin, 424, 433-440
maturation of, 126-127, 415
of Paganzo basin, 296
of Paraguay, 198
of Patagonia, 413-416
of Pirital area, 754
of San Bernardo belt, 413-416
of sub-Andean belt, 424, 433-440, 451-
457, 547-549
TEMISPACK used for, 728
traps of, 415-416
of Ucayali basin, 424, 433-440
Igneous events, of Andes, 243-244, 271,
273-274
Imbrication, in sub-Andean belt, 464-
466, 471, 474
Inca movements, 276-277
Inicua quadrangle, geologic map of, 469
Intermontane basins
age of sedimentary rocks of, 599
age of volcanic rocks of, 598-599
basin evolution of, 609, 611
definition of, 598
of Ecuador, 609, 611
evolution of, 604-608
lithostratigraphy of, 600-604
location of Ecuadorian, 599
location of Peruvian, 600
Neogene of Andes, 597-611
sequence stratigraphy of, 602-604
Intracratonic basins
glacial deposits of, 171-176
hydrocarbons in, 177-180
Intracratonic subsidence, definition of,
81
Inversion, see Structural inversion
Ipaguazu field, cross section of, 554
Ipaguazu Formation, stratigraphy of,
259
Isiboro cross section
maturity in, 455
oil and gas window of, 454
petroleum system of, 453-454
Isiboro thrust, 465
Isla del Sol, 235
Itapucumí Group, stratigraphy of, 190
Itararé Group
depositional model of, 176
logs of, 172, 173, 174
moldic porosity in, 175
sedimentary columns of, 173
Izozog arch, seismic reflection profile of,
27
Jurásico cycle
block diagram of, 376
isopach map of, 373
Karoo basin, evolution of, 31
La Cruz Conglomerate, 354
La Luna Formation
isopach map of, 708
stratigraphy of, 707
La Paz Formation, stratigraphy of, 190-
192
La Quinta Formation, Jurassic of, 706
La Valenciana anticline, cross section of,
378
La Valenciana half-graben, 373, see also
Atuel-Valenciana half-graben
La Vela Bay
stratigraphy of, 769-770
subsidence rates of, 777
wells in, 769
Labrador Sea, channels in, 180
Lake Maracaibo, see Maracaibo basin
Las Breñas Formation, 328
Las Heras Group, 405
Las Lenas anticline, cross section of, 377
Las Pavas supersequence
logs of, 256
stratigraphy of, 254-255, 256
Las Penas Formation, stratigraphy of,
258-259
Las Piedras Formation, 730
Lateral ramp, geometry of, 654
Latin America, see also South America
hydrocarbons in, 53-61
petroleum basin map of, 54
undiscovered resources of, 60
Laurussia, Carboniferous paleogeog-
raphy of, 169
Leeward Antilles terrane, 758-759
Lewis thrust sheet, compared to Andes,
653-654, 656
Lias, 405
Line 25106-28, seismic reflection profile
of, 317
Line 2585-28, seismic reflection profile
of, 319
Line 2586-28, seismic reflection profile
of, 318
Line 2587-28, seismic reflection profile
of, 316
Line 3272-26, seismic reflection profile
of, 25
Line 4032-24, seismic reflection profile
of, 26
Line 4196
seismic reflection profiles of, 327, 329,
330-331, 334-336
strength attribute of, 328
Line 4542-20, seismic reflection profile
of, 28
Line 5008-21, seismic reflection profile
of, 27
Lisure Formation, stratigraphy of, 707
Lithosphere, in Andes, 461, 477, 642-643
Lomas de Olmedo basin

cross section of, 337
field parameters of, 340
isopach map of, 326
seismic reflection profile of, 264
stratigraphic column of, 40
structure of, 333
Lonco Trapial, 405
Longhorn basin, geometry of, 638-639
Los Blancos anticline, cross section of,
377
Los Monos Formation
HO/OI diagram of, 529
as source rocks, 528-529, 547
stratigraphic column of, 529
Los Roques basin, 758
Lotena Group, paleogeography of, 391
Lower Patquia–De la Cuesta superse-
quence, stratigraphy of, 291-292
Llallagua Formation, stratigraphy of, 213
Llanos basin
basin evolution of, 660-663
chronostratigraphic summary of, 661
cross section of, 640
logs of, 662
stratigraphic column of, 662
stratigraphy of, 660-663
Llanos foothills
chronostratigraphic summary of, 661
cross section of, 664
geologic map of, 663
logs of, 662
stratigraphic column of, 662
stratigraphy of, 660-663
structure of, 663-664
Lliquimuni cross section
maturity in, 453
oil and gas windows of, 451
petroleum system of, 447, 451-453
Macarao Formation, stratigraphy of, 759
Macharetí Group
evolution of, 297-298
setting of, 216-217
stratigraphy of, 257-258
McKenzie basin model, 638
Macuma Formation, stratigraphy of, 561
Madre de Dios basin
correlation chart of, 427
depositional systems of, 504-507
exploration wells of, 442
setting of, 426
stratigraphy of, 501-507
Madrejones field, cross section of, 554
Magallanes basin, evolution of, 71-73
Magdalena Valley
cross section of, 652, 653, 657
gravity-driven structures of, 649-650,
657
low-angle normal faults of, 656
structure of, 651
Magmatism, Triassic-Jurassic, 35-36
Magnetism, of Paraná basin, 39
Main Andean thrust
stages of thrust dynamics, 473-474
tectonics of, 470-471
Main Hollin Formation, see also Hollin
Formation
core permeability of, 595
deposition systems of, 576-577
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria of, 596
petrophysical properties of, 594
porosity-permeability of, 593
Main sub-Andean thrust
balancing bulk strain in, 471-473
cross section of, 467, 468, 472
seismic reflection profile of, 472
stages of thrust dynamics of, 473-474
tectonics of, 470-471
Main thrust, definition of, 469
Main thrust tectonics, definition of, 469
Malargüe basin, evolution of, 371-373
Malargüe belt
cross sections of, 375-380
geologic map of, 370
structural inversion in, 369-380
Malvinas basin, evolution of, 71-73
Malvinokaffric fauna, 239
Manabí area, tectonostratigraphic
evolution of, 619
Mandeyapecua thrust, interpretation of,
539
Mandiyutí Group
evolution of, 297-298
setting of, 216-217
stratigraphy of, 258-259
Mangán Formation, 607
Manuripi X-1 well
core photos of, 506
depositional systems of, 504-507
depth/dates of, 503
lithofacies of, 506
location of, 502, 503
stratigraphy of, 502-504
Maraca Formation
isopach map of, 708
stratigraphy of, 707
Maracaibo basin
basement of, 705
clinoforms of, 714-715
correlation chart for, 703
cross sections of, 687, 721
depositional environments of, 704
exploration efficiency for, 58
fault map of, 718
foreland basins of, 710-719, 720, 721
fossil assemblages of, 704
geologic/tectonic setting of, 682, 700-
702
isopach maps of, 708, 711, 712, 713
location map of, 682
paleocurrents of, 714-715
Index 787
passive margin sedimentation of,
706-709
rift sedimentation of, 705-706
sandstone petrography of, 714
seismic reflection profiles of, 701, 715-
717
seismic stratigraphy of, 702-704
stratigraphic columns for, 703, 704
stratigraphy of, 682-696, 705-707, 711-
713
subsidence curves of, 709, 710, 715,
719
subsurface seismic map units of, 702-
704
well data of, 701, 702
Marañon basin
correlation chart of, 427
exploration wells of, 442
hydrocarbons of, 424, 433-440
oil fields of, 443
seismic reflection profile of, 426
setting of, 425-426
Massifs, of South America, 65
Maturation, mechanisms of, 126-127
Maturín basin
cross section of, 672, 673, 747
exploration efficiency for, 58
field size distribution in, 59
hydrodynamic system of, 751
tectonostratigraphy of, 671-672
Megasequences
definition of, 211
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 743-745
of Maracaibo basin, 703-704, 707, 711-
713
Mendoza area, structural inversion in,
369-380
Merida arch
cross section of, 709
Jurassic rifts of, 705
Mesa Formation, 730
Mesoproterozoic, crustal evolution in, 8-
10
Mesosaurus, 31
Miraflores syncline, stratigraphic
column of, 221
Misoá Formation
clinoforms of, 715, 716
isopach map of, 711, 713
progradation in, 717
seismic reflection profile of, 715, 716
stratigraphic column of, 693
stratigraphy of, 712-713
Morichito basin
cross section of, 672, 673
seismic reflection profile of, 671
Mulichinco Formation, paleogeography
of, 397
Multinational oil companies (MNCs),
definition of, 56
788 Index

Nama Group Occidental evolution of, 31, 288, 293-296

basin fill of, 16
deposition of, 15-16
outcrops of, 16
seismic reflection profiles of, 12, 14
Namora basin, stratigraphic column of,
602
Napo, reservoir petrography of, 586-589
Napo Formation
correlation chart of, 583
Cretaceous paleogeography of, 585
depositional systems of, 580-582
idealized depositional package of,
582
logs of, 581
petrophysical properties of, 589-590
stratigraphy of, 580-582
T and U sandstone reservoirs of, 581-
582
transgressive-regressive cycle of, 583
Napo uplift, cross section of, 580
National oil companies (NOCs), defini-
tion of, 56
Nazca plate, 277
Neoproterozoic
basins of, 7
extension in, 12
outcrop belts of, 10
of Pan-Africa, 17
tectonic reconstruction of, 18
Netherland Antilles, 758-759
Neuquén basin
early rifting in, 386
evolution of, 71-73
geologic map of, 370
geologic setting of, 386
Huincal arch in, 38
isopach map of, 390
Jurassic rift of, 373-375
location map of, 384
oil fields of, 386
paleogeography of, 387, 391
seismic reflection profiles of, 388, 389,
393, 395, 396
stratigraphic column of, 372
stratigraphy of, 385, 388-391
structural inversion in, 369-380, 391-
393
structural style of, 386-388
subsidence in, 391-394
Tertiary folding of, 375-380
Neuquén Group
cross section of, 398
isopach map of, 399
paleogeography of, 397
Tertiary orogenesis of, 397-398
Normal fault, horizontal offset from, 653
North Patagonia massif, definition of, 64
“Northwestern basin,” 252
Oca fault, well correlation across, 768
Cretaceous stratigraphy of, 352-353
geologic map of, 352
Neogene inversion of, 353-356
Neogene structure of, 351-352
stratigraphic column of, 354
Ocloyic foldbelt
regional framework of, 273
tectonic evolution of, 275
Oil fields
of Argentina, 265
of Boomerang Hills, 483
of Cuyo basin, 362-363, 365-366
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 742
largest in Latin America, 57
of Marañon basin, 443
of Neuquén basin, 386
of Peru, 424
of San Bernardo belt, 405
sizes of, 59-60
of Ucayali basin, 443
Oil and gas, see Hydrocarbons
Open rift, definition of, 80, 81
Organic matter, geochemical profile of,
414
Oriente basin
Cretaceous paleogeography of, 582-
585
cross section of, 655
depositional systems of, 575-582
evolution of, 655, 636
geologic setting of, 561, 574-575
igneous events of, 243
location map of, 574
logs of, 581
reservoirs of, 585-590
seismic reflection profiles of, 563, 564,
565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 636, 637
stratigraphic columns of, 562, 575,
576
stratigraphy of, 561-565, 575-582
structure of, 565-569
tectonic map of, 560
Orinoco oil belt, cross section of, 672-673,
729
Oritupano area, porosity vs. depth in,
733
Orocline
Andean bend as, 518-521
definition of, 512
Orogenesis
Andean, 696; see also Andes
Araucanian, 71-73
Permian-Triassic, 34-35
Tertiary, 40
Vendian, 15-19
Paganzo basin, 276
basement of, 287
correlation chart for, 298
cross section of, 294
hydrocarbon potential of, 296
paleogeography of, 296-298
seismic reflection profile of, 289
stratigraphic column of, 287
stratigraphy of, 288-293
subsidence curves of, 33
supersequences of, 288-296
tectonic model for, 294, 295
Paganzo-Maliman basin
glacial deposits of, 168-170
stratigraphic framework of, 169
Palauco half-graben, geometry of, 374,
376
Palauco rift, cross section of, 378
Paleobiogeography
of Carboniferous Andes, 239-240
of Devonian Andes, 238-239
of Permian Andes, 240
Paleogeography
Albian, 112-113
of Andean bend, 518-519
of Andes, 240-243
Aptian, 112-113
of Argentina, 383-400
of Bolivia, 210-211, 218, 220, 240-243
Cambrian, 20, 42, 67
Campanian, 116-117
Carboniferous, 42, 67, 90-93, 169, 241,
297
Cenomanian, 114-115
Cenozoic, 224
of coastal Ecuador, 618, 625
construction of maps of, 103
Cretaceous, 37, 43, 71, 72, 73, 223, 224,
263, 344-348, 397, 399, 584, 585,
688-692
of Cuenca basin, 606
of Cuyo Group, 387
Devonian, 24, 42, 67, 88-90, 234, 240-
241
of Ecuador, 582-585
Eocene, 118-119, 694, 695
of Falcón basin, 764, 765, 767
of Hollin Formation, 584
Jurassic, 34, 37, 43, 70, 71, 106-107,
108-109, 220, 373, 387, 391, 392, 399
late Paleozoic, 69
of Lotena Group, 391
Maastrichtian, 116-117
of Mesozoic Andes, 118-124
Middle Silurian, 88-89
Miocene, 120-121, 122-123, 696, 765,
767
of Mulichinco Formation, 397
of Napo Formation, 585
Neocomian, 110-111
of Neuquén basin, 387, 391
of Neuquén Group, 397
Oligocene, 120-121, 695, 764
Ordovician, 20, 42, 67, 86-87

of Oriente basin, 582-585
Paleocene, 118-119, 692, 694
of Paleozoic Andes, 106-117
Permian, 30, 42, 67, 70, 92-95, 218,
241-243
Pleistocene, 696
Recent, 122-123
Santonian, 114-115
of Sierra Chicas, 344-348
Silurian, 67
of southern hemisphere, 86-96
Tertiary, 73, 263
of Tordillo Formation, 392
Triassic, 34, 43, 67, 95-96, 106-107, 218,
220, 387
Vendian, 42
of western Venezuela, 683, 688-692,
694-696
Palinspastic reconstruction, of Andes,
102-103
Palmar de las Islas Group, stratigraphy
of, 195
Palo Santo Formation
seismic contours of, 197
stratigraphy of, 195-196
Pampean Ranges, 68, 271
igneous events of, 243-244
location map of, 343
stratigraphic column of, 344
structural inversion in, 341-356
Pan-Africa, tectonic framework of, 11-19
Pando X-1 well
core photos of, 506
depositional systems of, 504-507
depth/dates of, 503
lithofacies of, 506
location of, 502, 503
stratigraphy of, 502-504
Pangea, late Paleozoic reconstruction of,
212, 226
Pan-Gondwana, tectonic framework of,
11-19
Paraguaná Peninsula
interpreted seismic line of, 769
isopach map of, 772, 773, 775
stratigraphic column of, 760
stratigraphy of, 768-769
subsidence rates of, 776, 777
Paraguaná reflector, 769
Paraguay
correlation charts of, 134-135, 138-139,
192
Cretaceous tectonics of, 188
cross sections of, 153-158, 197, 200
geologic maps of, 130-155, 187
hydrocarbon potential of, 198
Phanerozoic tectonics of, 185-201
sedimentation of, 185-201
stratigraphic column of, 188, 198
tectonosedimentary framework of,
190
Paraná basin, 11
cross sections of, 85, 189
data point analysis of, 82
as depocenter, 19-34
glacial deposits of, 171-173
hydrocarbons of, 178-180
isopachs, 39, 193
logs of, 172
magnetism of, 39
outcrop map of, 175
subsidence curves of, 33
Parasequence, of Las Pavas, 255, 256
Passage beds, stratigraphy of, 621
Passive roof duplexes, definition of, 650
Patagonia
basement of, 405
hydrocarbons of, 413-416
tectonic evolution of, 403-413
Patquía–De la Cuesta supersequence,
stratigraphy of, 291-292
Paují Formation
isopach map of, 711, 713
stratigraphy of, 713
Pelado structure, maturity of, 452
Perija Andes, compared to Canadian
Cordillera, 653-654, 656
Peru
basin-bounding features of, 243-244
Carboniferous stratigraphy of, 233-
237
cross section of, 425
Devonian stratigraphy of, 232-235
foreland basins of, 424, 425
igneous events of, 243
intermontane basins of, 597-611
morphostructural map of, 598
oil fields of, 424
Permian paleogeography of, 242
petroleum geology of, 423-444
stratigraphic column of, 602
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Petroleum basins; see also Oil fields
of Latin America, 54
of South America, 54, 63-74
Petroleum exploration, see also Hydro-
carbons
competitor analysis of, 56-57
Petroleum geology
of Argentina, 547-549
of Bolivia, 224-225
Cretaceous-Paleocene, 74
early Paleozoic, 68
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 749-755
Jurassic, 70-71
late Jurassic–Neocomian, 72
late Paleozoic, 69
of Peru, 423-444
of sub-Andean belt, 423-444, 433-440
Triassic, 69-70
Petroleum systems
of Bolivia, 451-457
Index 789
of Boomerang Hills, 447, 454
of Isiboro cross section, 447, 453-454
of Lliquimuni cross section, 447, 451-
453
of sub-Andean belt, 452-455
Phanerozoic
basin evolution in, 5-44, 66-67
stratigraphic column of, 21
Pilar subbasin, hydrocarbons of, 199
Piñon Formation, stratigraphy of, 617
Pirgua Subgroup, stratigraphy of, 330-
332
Pirital area, hydrocarbons of, 754
Pirital high
cross section of, 672, 673, 729
seismic reflection profile of, 671
Pirity subbasin
hydrocarbons of, 199
seismic reflection profile of, 191
Polyphase rifting, in Eastern Cordillera,
638
Portete basin, 762-763
Pre-Andean deformation
of Boomerang Hills, 489-490
of Chaco basin, 498
Precambrian belts
of Argentina, 271, 273-274
of South America, 286
Pucara Group, isopach map of, 429
Pull-apart basin, of SW Caribbean, 757-
778
Pumbuiza Formation, stratigraphy of,
561
Puna arch, evolution of, 29
Puna-Pampeanas arch, 29, 30, 33
Pungarayacu area
cross section of, 580
depositional systems of, 579-580
Punilla thrust
basement foliation of, 349
slip analysis of, 349, 350
Punta Ancón Formation, stratigraphy of,
623-624
Quechua orogeny, 276-277
Ramos field, cross section of, 551
Ramos range, structure of, 550-551
Ramp, definition of, 487
Reflection seismic profiles, see Seismic
reflection profiles
Reservoirs
of Andes, 125-126
of Bolivia, 225
of Cuyo basin, 366
of Ecuador, 585-590
in foreland basins, 176-177
of Hollin Formation, 585-590
Napo T and U sandstones, 581-582
of Oriente basin, 585-590
of San Bernardo belt, 414
790 Index
sandstone, 125-126
of sub-Andean belt, 433-436, 547-548
Resources, basin, 57-60
Retama Formation, as source rocks, 449
Retama Group, 216
Rift basin
architecture of, 320
of Eastern Cordillera, 639-639
of Maracaibo basin, 705-706
seismic reflection profile of, 316-319
tectonics of, 639-639
Triassic, 69-70, 322
Rift-drift subsidence, definition of, 81
Rifts, types of, 80-81
Rio Apa subcraton, stratigraphy of, 192
Rio Chota basin, fluvial sequences of,
603
Rio Grande area, cross section of, 379
Rio Negro Formation, stratigraphy of,
707
Riphean, extension in, 11-12
Rotational arc
in Andean bend, 519-520
definition of, 512
Rumichaca basin
basin evolution of, 607-608
cross section of, 610
geologic map of, 610
stratigraphic column of, 603
Salado River area, cross section of, 377
Salamanqueano beds, 406
Salar de Atacama, correlation chart of,
321
Saldán Formation
geologic map of, 348
stratigraphy of, 347-348
Salta Group
angular unconformity of, 260
paleogeography of, 263
tectonic evolution of, 276-277
Salta rift
explosive source data for, 339
isopach map of, 326
postrift deposits of, 332-333
prerift sequences of, 328
seismic reflection profiles of, 327, 329,
330-331, 334-336
stratigraphy of, 328-333
synrift deposits of, 330-332
tectonics of, 332, 326-328, 333-336
vibroseis data for, 339
San Alfredo Group, stratigraphy of, 194-
195
San Bernardo belt, 404
cross sections of, 407, 408, 409, 416
geodynamic interpretation of, 409-
412
hydrocarbons of, 413-416
oil fields of, 405
oil-bearing anticline of, 415
regional map of, 404
reservoirs of, 414
seismic reflection profiles of, 407, 408,
411
stratigraphy of, 405-406
structural inversion of, 403-413
structure of, 405, 406-409, 413
San Jorge basin
seismic reflection profile of, 411
stratigraphic column of, 406
San José Formation, stratigraphy of, 195
San Juan X2 well, maturity in, 457
San Lorenzo Formation, stratigraphy of,
619
San Luis, Neogene structure of, 351-352
San Marcos basin, stratigraphic column
of, 602
San Mateo Formation, stratigraphy of,
623, 625
San Nicolás batholiths, 244
San Telmo Formation, stratigraphy of,
259
Sandstone reservoirs, in Andes, 125-126
Santa Barbara Formation, stratigraphy
of, 196-197
Santa Elena Formation, stratigraphy of,
619
Santa Elena Peninsula
paleocurrents of, 621, 624
setting of, 616-617
stratigraphic column of, 620, 624
Santa Rosa Formation, stratigraphy of,
190, 192
Seca Formation, stratigraphic column of,
624
Seismic reflection profiles
of Aguada Villanueva, 395
of Aguaragüe range, 534, 537
of Altiplano, 316-319
of Andean structure, 27, 28
of Bajada Vidal trough, 388
of basin development, 25-28
of Boomerang Hills, 485, 486, 491,
492, 493, 495, 496
of Caipipendi, 540, 541
of Chaco basin, 15, 191
of Charagüe, 537, 538
of Cusiana field, 637
of Cuyo basin, 364
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 744,
747, 748, 749, 750
of Entre Lomas trough, 389
of Estancia Vieja area, 396
of Faja Petrolifera, 748
of Ghanzi thrusts, 12-13
of Huincul dorsal, 38, 393, 395, 396
of hydrocarbon traps, 434-435
of Izozog arch, 27
of Lomas de Olmedo rift, 264
of Main sub-Andean thrust, 472
of Maracaibo basin, 701, 715-717
of Marañon basin, 426
of Misoá Formation, 716
of Nama Group, 12, 14
of Neuquén basin, 388, 389, 393, 395,
396
of northeast-oriented lineaments, 22-
23
of Oriente basin, 563, 564, 565, 566,
567, 568, 569, 636, 637
of Paganzo basin, 289
of rift basin, 316-319
of Salta rift, 327, 329, 330-331, 334-336
of San Bernardo belt, 407, 408, 411
of San Jorge basin, 411
of sub-Andean belt, 434-435, 549
of Venezuelan Coastal Ranges, 671
of western Venezuela, 685, 688, 692
Sequence stratigraphy, see also Strati-
graphic columns; Supersequences
of Altiplano, 312
of Boomerang Hills, 483-486
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 743-745
of intermontane basins, 602-604
of Maracaibo basin, 702-704
Sequences, definition of, 211
Serranía
cross section of, 672, 673
geologic map of, 670
Serranías Occidentales, see Occidental
Sidewall, definition of, 20
Sierra Chicas
Cretaceous stratigraphy of, 344-348
geologic map of, 345
Neogene structure of, 344
paleocurrents of, 347
paleogeography of, 344-348
structural inversion of, 348-351
Sierra de Los Condores
geologic map of, 347
stratigraphy of, 346-347
Sierra de Pajarillo
cross section of, 346
geology of, 345, 348
stratigraphy of, 345-346
Sierra de Palauco area, cross section of,
380
Sierra del Gigante
inversion of, 354-355
slip analysis of, 353, 356
Sierra del Pajarillo, block diagram of, 346
Sierra Guayaguas, inversion of, 353-354
Sierra Pampeanas, see Pampean Ranges
Sierra Quijadas, inversion of, 354
Sierras Chiquitanas, data point analysis
of, 80
Sierras de Cordoba, geologic map of, 343
Single data point analysis, 80
Slip sheet, gravity driven, 648-649
Slow flexure, definition of, 81
Snip restoration, of Eastern Cordillera,
476

Socorro Formation, stratigraphic column
of, 624
Socuy Member
isopach map of, 708
stratigraphy of, 707
Source rocks, see also Hydrocarbons
of Andes, 124-125
of Bolivia, 448-450
Copacabana Formation as, 449, 450
of Cuyo basin, 365-366
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 730, 752
Guayuta Group as, 737
Los Monos Formation as, 528-529,
547
Retama Formation as, 449
of San Bernardo belt, 413-414
of sub-Andean belt, 436, 448-450, 526-
530, 547
Toregua Formation as, 450
in upper Patquía, 293
South America
architectural map of, 65
basin evolution in, 5-44
basin map of, 84, 167, 186, 286, 758
and Caribbean plate boundary, 676
geologic cross sections of, 153-156,
157-158
geologic maps of, 130-155
geologic provinces of, 131
geologic setting of, 64-66
glacial record of, 167-168
location map of northwestern, 634,
701
oil and gas in, 53-61
paleogeography of, 67, 69
petroleum basins in, 54, 63-74
Phanerozoic correlation in, 129-158
political map of, 460
tectonic features of, 701
tectonic map of, 758
South American plate, margin of, 722,
757-778
South Caribbean deformed belt, 758
Southern hemisphere, paleogeography
of, 86-96
Stasis, definition of, 81
Strain partitioning, in Venezuelan Coast
Ranges, 676
Stratigraphic columns
of Altiplano, 309, 310, 311
of Ayacucho basin, 602
of Bolivia, 213, 215, 219, 221, 448
of Boomerang Hills, 483
of Chaco basin, 188, 194
of Chaco-Tarija basin, 178
of Chongón-Colonche Cordillera,
620, 622
of Chota basin, 601
of coastal Ecuador, 618
of Cuenca basin, 601
of Cuyo basin, 40, 361
of Eastern Venezuelan basin, 730, 745
of Ecuador, 601
of Falcón basin, 760
of glacial deposits, 168
of Guajira Peninsula, 760
of Guandacol supersequence, 290
of Guayaquil area, 618
of Hollin Formation, 576
of Las Pavas supersequence, 256
of Lomas de Olmedo basin, 40
of Los Monos Formation, 529
of Maracaibo basin, 703, 704
of Misoa Formation, 693
of Namora basin, 602
of Neuquén basin, 372, 385
of Occidental, 354
of Oriente basin, 562, 575, 576
of Paganzo basin, 287
of Pampean Ranges, 344
of Peru, 602
of Phanerozoic, 21, 253
of Punta Ancón Formation, 624
of Rumichaco basin, 603
of San Jorge basin, 406
of San Marcos basin, 602
of San Mateo Formation, 625
of Santa Elena Peninsula, 620, 624
of Seca Formation, 624
of Socorro Formation, 624
of South America, 132-139
of sub-Andean belt, 448, 462, 526, 548
of Tinajani basin, 603
of Tupe supersequence, 291
of Vilcabamba basin, 601
of western Venezuela, 684, 691, 694,
696
Strike-slip fault, horizontal offset from,
653
Structural inversion
of Altiplano, 321
in Argentina, 341-356, 359-366
cross section of, 321, 364
in Cuyo basin, 359-366
definition of, 35
in Huincul dorsal, 391-396
Jurassic-Cretaceous, 39
in Malargüe belt, 369-380
Neogene, 348-351, 353-356
in Neuquén basin, 369-380, 391-393
in Pampean Ranges, 341-356
of San Bernardo belt, 403-413
of Sierra Chicas, 348-351
Sub-Andean belt
and Altiplano, 474
Argentine ranges of, 547
basin evolution of, 73-74
basin setting of, 425-426
burial history diagram of, 528
and Chaco basin, 535-536
correlation chart of, 427, 431
Cretaceous of, 427, 430
Index 791
cross sections of, 425, 447, 463, 533,
541, 549
crustal load deflection in, 463
crustal shortening in, 539-540
deformation of, 535-539
evolution of, 74, 397-398
exploration modeling of, 450-451
foredeep fill of, 462
gas-oil ratio in, 456
geochemical evaluation of, 437, 526-
531
geologic maps of, 464, 469, 525
geologic setting of, 252-253, 446-448,
512, 524, 546-547
geothermal gradient of, 437
hydrocarbons of, 424, 433-440, 451-
457, 526-531, 547-549
imbrication in, 464-466
location maps of, 512, 532, 546
main thrust tectonics of, 469-473
oil and gas windows of, 451
oil–source correlation, 438
petroleum geology of, 423-444, 433-
440, 452-455
reservoirs of, 433-436, 547-548
sedimentary wedge of, 449
seismic reflection profiles of, 434-435,
549
source rocks of, 436, 448-450, 526-530,
547
stratigraphic columns of, 448, 462,
526, 548
stratigraphy of, 216, 426-430, 462-463,
524-526
structural trap styles of, 439-440
structure of, 447, 460-462, 463-464,
531-541, 549-554
synclines of, 467-468
tectonic framework of, 430-433
triangle zone of, 466-467
Triassic basin of, 429
Subduction
in Andes, 643
in Eastern Venezuelan ranges, 675-
676
Subsidence curves
analysis of, 80-81
for Carboniferous-Permian, 33
for La Valenciana half-graben, 373
of Maracaibo basin, 709, 710, 715, 719
for NW Argentina, 262
for Paganzo basin, 33, 295
for Venezuela, 776
Successor basins
definition of, 19
of Paleozoic, 19-34
Superpatagoniano succession, 406
Supersequences
of Argentina, 253-261
of Bolivia, 209
definition of, 211
792 Index
of Paganzo basin, 288-296
of western Venezuela, 683, 685-692
Tacurú supersequence, stratigraphy of,
259-260
Tarija basin, stratigraphy of, 259
Tarija Formation
outcrops of, 179
stratigraphy of, 258
Tarija-Teoponte belt, stratigraphy of,
216-218
Tecka Range, stratigraphic column of,
171
Tectonic subsidence, see also Subsidence
curves
curves of, 80-81, 262, 295, 373
of Cuyo basin, 363
of Gondwana, 79-96
of Maracaibo basin, 715, 719
Tectonic wedge
creating trap by, 552
delamination by, 551
high-density in Venezuelan Coast
Ranges, 676-677
TEMISPACK software, 728, 736, 737
Temperature-burial modeling, for San
Bernardo belt, 415
Tepuel basin
glacial deposits of, 170-171
stratigraphic framework of, 169
Tepuel Group, stratigraphic column of,
171
Tequeje Formation, stratigraphy of, 502-
503
THEMIS software, 751
Tien Shan mountains, gravity-driven
structures in, 649
Tinajani basin, stratigraphic column of,
603
Tobifera, 405
Toe addition, definition of, 465
Tokochi Formation, stratigraphy of, 213
Tomachi Formation, stratigraphy of, 503
Tordillo Formation, paleogeography of,
392
Toregua Formation
as source rock, 450
stratigraphy of, 503
Transpression, Permian-Triassic, 36
Traps, see Hydrocarbons
Triangle zone
cross section of, 649
definition of, 648, 650
of sub-Andean belt, 466-467
Trujillo Formation
clinoforms of, 715
progradation in, 717
seismic reflection profile of, 715
stratigraphy of, 712
Tuichi syncline, cross section of, 473
Tupambi Formation, stratigraphy of, 258
Tupe supersequence, stratigraphy of,
290-291, 292, 293
Turbidites
depositional model of, 176
of Tarija Formation, 179
of Tupe supersequence, 293
Two-dimensional computer modeling,
727-740
Ucayali basin
correlation chart of, 427
exploration wells of, 442
hydrocarbons of, 424, 433-440
oil fields of, 443
setting of, 426
Uncía Formation, stratigraphy of, 213
Undiscovered resources, prediction of,
60
Upper Hollin Formation, see also Hollin
Formation
depositional systems of, 577-579
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria of, 596
petrophysical properties of, 591, 592
porosity-permeability of, 590
Upper Patquía–De la Cuesta superse-
quence, 292, 293
Uribante rift, Jurassic of, 706
Urica fault, seismic reflection profile of,
748
Uruguay
correlation chart of, 136-137
geologic cross sections of, 153-158
geologic maps of, 130-155
Urumaco trough
interpreted seismic line of, 763
subsidence rates of, 776-777
Vaca Muerta range, outcrops of, 394
Venezuela, see also Western Venezuela
Caribbean pull-apart basin of, 757-
778
Cenozoic tectonics of, 757-778
cross section of, 754
crust of, 667-677
exploration efficiency for, 58
geologic history of northwestern, 771-
774
isopach maps of, 772, 773, 775
location maps of, 648, 669
seismicity of, 669
stratigraphy of, 681-697, 759-774
tectonics of, 754, 758-759, 669
wildcat drilling in, 54-55
Venezuelan Coast Ranges, see also
Eastern Venezuelan ranges
basement shortening in, 674
cross section of, 672, 673
crust of, 667-677
geologic setting of, 668-672
geophysical modeling of, 675
gravimetric map of, 673
magnetic map of, 674
seismic reflection profile of, 671
strain partitioning in, 676
Vibroseis data, for Salta rift, 339
Vilcabamba basin, stratigraphic column
of, 601
Vilque well, stratigraphic column of, 309
Vitiacua Formation, stratigraphy of, 259
Vivian Formation, isopach map of, 432
Vizcacheras block, structure of, 365
Wells, wildcat, 54-55
Western Cordillera
geologic setting of, 512-514
subduction on, 643
Western Venezuela
correlation chart of, 684, 703
geologic setting of, 682
logs of, 694, 696
paleogeography of, 683, 688-692, 694-
696
seismic reflection profiles of, 685, 688,
692
stratigraphic column of, 684, 691, 694,
696
stratigraphy of, 682-696
tectonic evolution of, 683, 700-723
tectonic setting of, 700-702
Wildcat drilling
in Latin America, 54-55
net oil found by, 57
Yaurichambi Formation, stratigraphy of,
503