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Centaurs As A Hazard To Civilization: Bill Napier, David Asher, Mark Bailey Duncan Steel
Centaurs As A Hazard To Civilization: Bill Napier, David Asher, Mark Bailey Duncan Steel
Centaurs as a hazard
to civilization
Assessments of the risk posed small bodies from the main asteroid belt. asteroids predates the discovery of the vast
The timescale for NEO supply from such a trans-Neptunian and centaur populations,
by near-Earth objects ignore source is tens of millions of years, leading and the finding that centaurs, in chaotic
the possibility of a giant comet to an expectation that the population of orbits, leak from the outer solar system into
entering the inner solar system. NEOs does not fluctuate substantially over the inner planetary region at a significant
D
o we live in dangerous times? The which we have individual “The idea that impacts centaur will dominate the
risks to civilization from impacts datings), which shows that can affect our planet’s supply of Earth-crossing
by asteroids and comets have been these impacts on our own climate and life is now debris. The size distribution
appreciated only in the past few decades. planet have been largely established” of centaurs is shallow (Bauer
Programmes such as NASA’s Spaceguard episodic in nature. That is, et al. 2013), i.e. more of the
observations seek to map near-Earth it seems that the population of NEOs has mass is in the larger objects. These being
objects (NEOs) as a way to quantify the varied substantially across time. The ques- comet-like bodies, we may assume they are
risk to Earth. But does the current count tion arises whether the presently observed subject to wholesale fragmentation. This
of NEOs reflect the population over time? NEOs, at all sizes, are characteristic of a leads to an expectation that when a centaur
We argue that the population is variable long-term average, or whether we are living arrives in an orbit with perihelion within
and that assessments of the extraterrestrial in dangerous times, at a time of significant Jupiter’s heliocentric distance there will be
impact risk based solely on near-Earth enhancement in the NEO population. a temporarily enhanced mass of material
asteroid counts underestimate its nature in the inner solar system, spread across
and magnitude for timescales of order Perpetual vigilance all sizes from dust at <100 microns to tens
10 000 years, i.e. the interval of interest It is clear that no survey of Earth-approach- of kilometres across. The transition rates
and concern to our civilization. A more ing asteroids lasting just 10–20 years can into the near-Earth environment indicate
variable but significant threat comes from possibly lead to the identification of over that fluctuations in the mass of near-Earth
centaurs, giant comets derived from the 90% of all Earth-approaching asteroids interplanetary material may amount to
trans-Neptunian region that reach the if there is a significant fraction in larger, two orders of magnitude over a timescale
inner solar system generally via short-term, intermediate- or long-period (i.e. Jupiter 30–100 000 yr.
dynamically unstable residence periods in and Saturn-crossing) orbits, because many While the terrestrial record of impacts is
the outer planetary region. The disintegra- of these will not come close enough to the incomplete and does not support the notion
tion of such giant comets would produce Sun during that interval so as to become that all mass extinctions arise from asteroid
intermittent but prolonged periods of bom- discoverable. To discover and track all such impacts, the idea that impacts can affect our
bardment lasting up to 100 000 years. Mass asteroids would require a survey lasting planet’s climate and life is now established
extinction/geological boundary events on longer than the maximum orbital periods (see box, “Impacts and extraterrestrial bod-
Earth show such a pattern, as do levels of deemed to be of interest. This links to the ies: the story so far”). These new astronomi-
dust and meteoroids in the upper atmos- problem of long-period or near-parabolic cal and terrestrial lines of evidence merit a
phere. Over the past 10 000 years, Earth has comets: perpetual vigilance is necessary reappraisal of the celestial hazard faced by
been experiencing the intermittent arrival to protect civilization (Marsden & Steel contemporary civilization. Here we concen-
of dust, meteoroids and comet fragments 1994). The claim that the NASA Spaceguard trate on the implications over timescales of
from the disintegration of comet 2P/Encke, programme has (so far) led to the discovery order 10 000 yr.
trapped within the orbit of Jupiter. and orbit determination of 93 or 95% of
The assessments by Chapman & NEOs larger than 1 km in size is justifiable, The centaur flux
Morrison (1994) and others of the major so long as one recognizes that the term (5145) Pholus, the second-discovered
impact hazard posed to modern civiliza- “NEOs” as used there implies only aster- centaur after (2060) Chiron, and
tion are based on the assumption, usually oids in short-period (i.e. cis-jovian) orbits, (15760) 1992 QB1, the second trans-
unspoken, that the contemporary NEO and not those asteroids in larger orbits – Neptunian object (TNO) after Pluto, were
population is in a steady state, in terms of and no comets at all. both discovered as recently as 1992. Discov-
the populations at different sizes, being The basic model of NEO supply by ery rates have increased such that known
maintained primarily through leakage of gravitational perturbations upon main-belt centaurs now number in the hundreds and
agencies: collapse of food chains as a result of a large fraction of the human population, 257–260 260 ●
of impact-generated fine dust in the upper and that there is a probability of about 1% 322
atmosphere blocking out sunlight; ozone-layer of such an event in the next 10 000 yr. The 360
destruction; straightforward blast; and others. combination of small probability and large 364–367
The concept of food-chain collapse caused by consequences (for substantial NEOs) has led 370–370
dust was not new: Hoyle & Wickramasinghe to systematic searches for large near-Earth 375 377 ●
(1978) had suggested that such dusting might asteroids (>1 km) in cis-jovian orbits and their
385
be caused by an encounter with the coma of discovery appears to be above 93% complete
445 445 (●)
a comet. Earlier suggestions of links between (cf. Harris & D’Abramo 2015), although
488
asteroid impacts and geological boundary attention has now been shifted to smaller
(i.e. mass extinction) events include Nininger NEOs around 50 m across. 495
(1942) (see Steel 1995). There are emerging claims from some Earth 499
The discovery of iridium – an element scientists that the terrestrial disturbance of Table Correlations over the last ~500 Ma
common in meteorites but sparse in the ~12 800 BP, the sudden onset of 1300 years between peak activity of large igneous provinces
Earth’s crust – at the Cretaceous–Palaeogene of cooling, a global collapse of large animal (V; Bond & Wignall 2014), marine genera mass
boundary (Smit & Hertogen 1980, Alvarez et populations and other terrestrial phenomena extinctions (E; Bambach 2006) and bombardment
al. 1980) cemented the idea that the great (e.g. Wittke et al. 2013, Kinzie et al. 2014, Kennett episodes (B; Napier 2015). Dates are in Ma. Tem-
mass extinctions of the biological record could et al. 2015) had a cosmic or even cometary poral coincidences within measurement errors
originate in highly energetic asteroid impacts. origin, although this remains controversial. are marked by ● or by (●) where one impact has
Early enthusiasm for a simple link – giant A similar claim has also been made for the been identified. There is an empirical three-way
asteroid impacts = mass extinctions – has not simultaneous collapse of civilizations, global correlation between bombardment episodes,
generally been supported by palaeontological cooling and drought, at near 2350 BC (Courty the creation of some large igneous provinces and
evidence. Some of the major extinctions et al. 2008). With current collision rates, the mass extinctions, implying that some massive
may be associated with relatively small largest asteroid impact energy expected volcanisms may have been induced or exacer-
craters, perhaps incapable of explaining the during the Neolithic is 300–600 megatons, bated by such episodes. Richards et al. (2015) have
biological devastation recorded in the strata. which is incapable of causing the global shown that the Chicxulub crater formed within
Conversely, several large craters, such as the upsets that appear to have taken place. 0.1 Myr of a major outburst of Deccan volcanism.
known TNOs over a thousand. Although (2013) use 5 < q < 28 and a < 1000 au, where q most being weeded out along the way by
formally classed as being “minor plan- is perihelion distance and a semimajor axis the influences of the giant planets.
ets” (i.e. asteroids), centaurs are cometary (see Steel 2014). Centaurs comprise a transi- Neglecting physical destruction and
bodies, composed of volatile ices as well tional population deriving from cometary non-gravitational effects, about one in
as silicates, which cross or approach the reservoirs beyond Neptune. Some reach ten centaurs in Chiron-like orbits become
orbits of one or more giant planets and are Earth-crossing orbits (Hahn & Bailey 1990, Earth-crossers, often repeatedly (Horner
therefore dynamically unstable. The exact Asher & Steel 1993), even though only a et al. 2004ab, Napier 2015): an example
definition of what entails a “centaur” varies minor fraction of the objects that begin is shown in figure 1. The rate of arrival
between researchers: Emel’yanenko et al. such an inward passage actually get here, of ≥100 km centaurs into short-period,
inclination
~22 000 years. Over the 1.2 25
q au
bulk of this interval, the
Earth 20
semimajor axis is ~3 au, 1
corresponding to an 15
0.8
orbital period ~5 years. Venus
10
The orbit has many
0.6
low-inclination phases, 5
Earth-crossing orbits is of order one per that there is indeed a strong tendency for These near-synchronicities are difficult
10000
In addition, two single craters, 3 = unidentified with major transition
4 = Cretaceous–Palaeogene
marked by asterisks, coincide
5 = unidentified with major transition
duration (years)
(Popescu et al. 2014). Five bright Taurid large fluctuations, following the arrival (Babadzhanov et al. 1990, Steel et al. 1991,
consequences of passage through a debris nuclear war (Crutzen et al. 1984, Robock and other geochemical anomalies that
trail. While trail cross-sectional shapes et al. 2007). Dusting of this intensity is they attribute to an oceanic impact in the
vary from stream to stream (Asher 2010, expected to reduce the level of sunlight to southern Indian Ocean. Estimates of the
Asher & Steel 2012), the common feature is that of moonlight, and result in a global duration of the cooling vary from a decade
a high spatial density of meteoroids if Earth cooling sufficient to destroy commercial to two centuries.
encounters a trail’s central region. The agriculture (Robock et al. 2007). Such work It has been proposed that a sudden
Leonid meteor storms (Brown 1999) prove has implications for atmospheric dusting global cooling at 12 800 BP, which persisted
that meteor activity from a stream need not events of cosmic origin, although there are for 1300 years, led to cultural reorganiza-
be uniform, and that substantial fractions significant differences, of course. Hoyle & tions of earlier societies in southwest Asia
of the total mass input can arrive during Wickramasinghe (1978) considered that the (Moore et al. 2000) and North America
the Earth’s rare, deep encounters with acquisition of ~1014 g of comet dust in the (Anderson et al. 2011), and a substan-
dense trails (Kondrat’eva & Reznikov 1985, upper atmosphere would have a substan- tial decline of large mammals in North
McNaught & Asher 1999, Lyytinen & Van tial effect on the Earth’s climate. Such an America, Europe and Australia. This event,
Flandern 2000). Figure 5 shows a Taurid encounter is a reasonably probable event at the Younger Dryas (YD) boundary, was
trail cross-section and an example traverse during the active lifetime of a large, disinte- accompanied by a peak in microspherule
through it by the Earth. Overall we should grating comet in an Encke-like orbit (Napier deposition over at least that 10% of the
expect enhanced mass influxes during TC 2010). If the meteoric smoke has absorption Earth’s surface so far investigated (Wittke et
w-intersection epochs. For a 1020 g comet coefficient k ~ 105 cm2 g–1, comparable with al. 2013), the presence of high-temperature
undergoing a hierarchical disintegration that of soot, then passage through ~1014 g of melt glass (>2100 °C) at several locations,
across ~104 yr, there is an expectation of one dust would yield a veil of substantial opti- a thin carpet of nanodiamonds laid down
encounter (or at most a few) with a debris cal depth for as long as the smoke persisted synchronously (to within ~100 yr) with the
trail sufficient to dump ≳1014 g (cf. Napier (Hoyle & Wickramasinghe 1978). The effect onset of the cooling (Kinzie et al. 2014, Ken-
2010 section 3) into the atmosphere. is comparable with the darkening expected nett et al. 2015), a large platinum spike of
from an asteroid land impact of energy non-terrestrial provenance in the GRIP ice
Terrestrial consequences 106 megatons, expected at ~2 Myr intervals core (Petaev et al. 2013), and other indicators
The effects of running through the debris according to Chapman & Morrison (1994). of cosmic disturbance. There is addition-
trail of a large comet are liable to be com- Societal collapses in antiquity often fol- ally an abundance of charcoal and soot
plex, and to involve both the deposition of lowed abrupt climatic coolings of unknown at the boundary, likely to be indicative of
fine dust into the mesosphere and, poten- origin, persisting for decades and leading extensive wildfires. Sharp ammonium and
tially, the arrival of hundreds or thousands to drought and famine (Weiss & Bradley nitrate spikes in Greenland ice cores, the
of megaton-level bolides over the space 2001). Two such collapses have been linked, largest in 300 000 years, have been linked
of a few hours. Incoming meteoroids and albeit controversially, with cosmic distur- to this boundary; these may have been pro-
bolides may be converted to micron-sized bances. Around 2350 BC the earliest civili- duced by extensive biomass burning, atmo-
smoke particles (Klekociuk et al. 2005), zations, throughout the near East, northern spheric chemistry induced by incoming
which have high scattering efficiencies India and China, collapsed simultaneously, fireballs, or direct deposition of cometary
and so the potential to yield a large opti- apparently driven by cooling and drought. material (Melott et al. 2010). Whatever their
cal depth from a small mass. Modelling Courty et al. (2007) have found evidence for origin, they confirm that the YD cooling
of the climatic effects of dust and smoke the dispersal of hot, viscous impact ejecta was an exceptional event over at least this
loading of the atmosphere has focused over hemispheric dimensions (Peru, Spain, timescale. To match the 1300 yr cooling of
on the injection of such particulates in a Syria etc) at this time, with nanodiamonds the YD, a quasi-equilibrium perturbation
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