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Solar Cells review

Thesis · January 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4298.6404

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 IŞIK UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Arts and Science

Department of Physics

Project - I

Solar Cells Review

by

Tunahan Işık
212PH1050

Supervised by: Prof. İsmail Karakurt

January-2015

1
 Solar Cells Review

Project – I

by

Tunahan Işık

212PH1050

to

The Department of Physics

Işık University
İstanbul, Turkey

January 2015

© Copyright 2015 by Tunahan Işık

All Rights Reserved
2
Solar Cells Review

Tunahan Işık

Abstract

Keywords: Photovoltaics, Solar Cells, Solar Panel

In this review, principles of solar cells are presented together with the photovoltaic (PV)
power generation. A brief review of the history of solar cells and present status of
photovoltaic materials are also given.

The first chapter includes a review of the history, the present status of photovoltaic materials.
The second chapter contains the review of semiconductors and their properties, and gives a
comparison among semiconductors and insulators in terms of their energy band structures. In
Chapter 3, the structures and types of solar cells are summarized, and general aspects of the
working principles of solar cells are explained. Chapter 3 also contains a comparison of the
solar cells in regards to their efficiencies. Chapter 4 gives an overview of photovoltaics.

3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Dr. İsmail Karakurt
for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me
in all the time of research and writing of this project. I am also thankful him for reading my
reports, commenting on my views and helping me understand and enrich my ideas. I am
deeply grateful to him for encouraging the use of correct grammar and consistent notation in
my writings and carefully reading and commenting on revisions of this manuscript. One
simply could not wish for a better or friendlier supervisor.

Also, I would like to thank to my friends for their support and motivation. Their support and
care helped me overcome setbacks and stay focused on my undergraduate study. I greatly
value their friendship and I deeply appreciate their belief in me.

Most importantly, none of this would have been possible without the love and patience of
my family. I would like to thank my family for supporting me spiritually throughout my life.

4
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 3

Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ 4
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................... 5

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 7

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8

Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9

Chapter 2. Semiconductors ........................................................................................................ 13

2.1 Introduction to Semiconductors ....................................................................................... 13

2.2 Semiconductor Energy Bands .......................................................................................... 13

2.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors ................................................................................................. 16

2.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors ................................................................................................. 17

2.5 P-N Junction Diode ........................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 3. Solar Cells .................................................................................................................. 22

3.1 Structure of Solar Cells ..................................................................................................... 22

3.2 Working Principles of Solar Cells ..................................................................................... 26

3.3 Types of Solar Cells .......................................................................................................... 27

3.3.1 First Generation of Solar Cells ............................................................................... 29

3.3.1.1 Crystalline Silicium Solar Cells ............................................................................ 29

3.3.1.2 Mono-Crystalline Silicium Solar Cells ................................................................. 29

3.3.1.3 Semi-Crystalline Silicium Solar Cells ................................................................... 29

3.3.1.4 Ribbon Silicium Solar Cells .................................................................................. 29

3.3.1.5 Poly-Crystalline Silicium Solar Cells .................................................................... 29

3.3.1 Second Generation of Solar Cells .......................................................................... 30

3.3.1.1 Thin Film Solar Cells ............................................................................................ 30

3.3.2.2 Amorphous Silicium Solar Cells .......................................................................... 31

5
 3.3.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenoide Solar Cells ............................................................... 31

3.3.2.4 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells ............................................................................ 31

3.3.1 Third Generation of Solar Cells .............................................................................. 33

3.3.1.1 Super Tandem Solar Cells ................................................................................... 33

3.3.2.2 Intermediate Solar Cells ..................................................................................... 33

Chapter 4. Photovoltaics ............................................................................................................ 37

4.1 Introduction to Photovoltaics ........................................................................................... 37

4.2 Performance Efficiency ..................................................................................................... 40

4.3 Photovoltaic Cell Materials ............................................................................................... 40

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 42

References ........................................................................................................................ 43

6
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 - SCHEMATIC OF A TYPICAL SOLAR CELL. ................................................................................................................... 11

FIGURE 2 - ENERGY BANDS OF SEMICONDUCTOR .................................................................................................................... 13
FIGURE 3 - ILLUSTRATION OF FERMI FUNCTION AT 300 K WHEREAS THE THERMAL ENERGY KT IS 0.026 EV ....................................... 14
FIGURE 4- ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF A CONDUCTOR, SEMICONDUCTOR, AND INSULATOR .......................................................... 14
FIGURE 5 - ELECTRONS AND HOLES ...................................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 6 - SEMICONDUCTOR CURRENT ................................................................................................................................ 15
FIGURE 7 - EFFECTIVE MASSES OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES ........................................................................................................ 16
FIGURE 8 - PENTAVALENT AND TRIVALENT IMPURITIES ............................................................................................................ 16
FIGURE 9 - P AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS ........................................................................................................................ 17
FIGURE 10 - ENERGY BANDS OF N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR. ....................................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 11 - ENERGY BANDS OF T-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR ........................................................................................................ 18
FIGURE 12 - SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A SOLAR CELL CIRCUIT. ......................................................................................... 20
FIGURE 13 - SINGLE CRYSTAL SOLAR CELLS IN PANEL ............................................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 14 - AMORPHOUS-SI SOLAR PANEL ........................................................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 15 - THE STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELL ............................................................................... 23
FIGURE 16 - FIRST GENERATION SOLAR CELL. ........................................................................................................................ 27
FIGURE 17 - EFFICIENCY OF FIRST GENERATION SOLAR CELLS BETWEEN 2004 – AND 2010. .......................................................... 28
FIGURE 18 - SECOND GENERATION SOLAR CELL ..................................................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 19 - THIN FILM SOLAR CELL LAYER............................................................................................................................ 30
FIGURE 20 – SCHEMATIC DISPLAY OF THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELLS ....................................................................................... 31
FIGURE 21 - SCHEMATIC SPECTRUM DISPLAY OF THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELLS ......................................................................... 32
FIGURE 22 - SCHEMATIC EFFICIENCY DISPLAY OF THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELLS ......................................................................... 32
FIGURE 23 - THE EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCT COST COMPARISON OF ALL GENERATIONS ................................................................. 34
FIGURE 24 - SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTION IN EQUILIBRIUM (A) AND UNDER ILLUMINATION (B) ................................................... 35
FIGURE 25 - THE I - V CHARACTERISTIC OF AN IDEAL SOLAR CELL............................................................................................. 36
FIGURE 26 - GRID CONTACT STRUCTURE OF A PV CELL ............................................................................................................ 37
FIGURE 27- SCHEMATIC DEPICTION OF A BASIC SOLAR CELL THAT SHOWS THE IMPORTANT FEATURES ................................................ 38

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 - SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCIES ACHIEVED BY THE PRINCIPAL SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES…………………24

7
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Silicon wafers are the base of the most solar cells in the market today, which is called the “first
generation” technology. Material costs dominates the cost which becomes sharply for this
technology, this material cots mostly silicon wafer that strengthened by low-iron glass cover
sheet, and those of other components of the system. This trend is expected to continue as the
photovoltaic industry continues to develop [1].

Transformation of the solar radiation into electricity is the most important and initial step in
order to understanding the concept of solar energy which occurs by the photovoltaic effect
was first observed by Becquerel in the middle of 1950s [2]. This system is basically defined as
the emergence of an electric voltage between two electrodes which attached to a solid or
liquid system with shining light onto this system. Practically all photovoltaic devices contain a
pn-junction in a semiconductor where the photo voltage happened and improved. These
photovoltaic devices are also called as solar cells. The important thing about this
semiconductor is that what material of this in order to absorb light. The semiconductor
material has to be able to absorb a large part of the solar spectrum. The absorption
properties of the material is directly related to the light is absorbed in a region more or less
close to the surface. When light is absorbed, electron hole pairs are generated and reach the
junction where separated by an electric field. Another thing is that semiconductors should be
at near as possible as they can even for weakly absorbing semiconductors like silicon has
most carriers are generated just near the surface [1]. Solar cells using for practical are
packaged into modules which containing either a number of crystalline Si cells connected in
series or a layer of thin-film material in series connected. This modules has two main
goals, first of all, it protects the solar cells from the environmental hazard and second, it
generates a higher voltage than a single cell which can delivers less than 1 Volt [2].

Thin-film solar cells are made by applying thin layers of semiconductor materials to a solid
backing material. Therefore, sunlight entering the intrinsic layer that it will generates free
electrons in conductor. P-type and n-type layers create an electric field across the intrinsic
layer. The electric field performs the free electrons into the n type layer while positive

8
charges collect in the p-type layer. Total thickness of the p-type, intrinsic, and n-type layers
is approximately one micron. However, this process is less efficient than single- and
polycrystalline silicon, thin-film solar cells can create even greater promise for large-scale
power generation because of ease of mass- production and lower materials cost [3]. Using
thin films instead of silicon wafers greatly reduces the amount of semiconductor material
required for each cell. Solar cells can be made from very thin films of silicon in a form known
as amorphous silicon (a-Si), in which the silicon atoms are much less ordered than in the
crystalline forms [4]. There are also other types of silicon such as Gallium arsenide (GaAs),
copper indium dieseline (CuInSe2) [5], cadmium telluride (CdTe) [6] and titanium dioxide
(TiO2) are materials that have been used for thin film PV cells. Titanium dioxide thin films
have been recently developed which are transparent [7]. Tin oxide is used in place of a
metallic grid for the top layer of thin film photovoltaic sheets. Amorphous silicon is the most
popular thin-film technology. Because, it provides efficiency about of 5-7% for cell. Double
and triple junction designs which is also called multi-junction PV cells raise efficiency up to 8-
10%. The extra layers capture different wavelengths of light. The top cell captures blue light,
the middle cell captures green light, and the bottom cell captures red light. The most efficient
PV modules usually employ single crystal silicon cells, with efficiencies up to 15%.
Polycrystalline cells are less expensive to manufacture but yield module efficiencies of about
11%. Thin film cells are less expensive still, but give efficiencies to about 8% and suffer
greater losses from deterioration [8].

Solar cells or photovoltaics (PV) as they are often referred to, are semiconductor devices that
convert sunlight into (DC) direct current electricity. Human has a long history using solar
energy for heat but producing electricity is much more recent. It is closely linked to modern
solid state physics. Solar cell performs the photovoltaic effect, ("photo" – light, "voltaic" –
electricity). In the photovoltaic effect, photons are striking the surface of semi-conductor
material such as silicon, and set electrons free from the material’s atoms. Adding chemicals
compounds to the material’s composition is very helpful to set electrons free. This creates an
electrical current obviously. Thanks to the photovoltaic effect, a uniform typical four inch
silicon solar cell can produces about one watt of direct current electricity. Groups of PV cells
are can electrically configured into modules and arrays, which can be used to charge
batteries, operate motors, and to power any number of electrical loads. With the appropriate

9
power conversion equipment, PV systems can produce alternating current (AC) compatible
with any conventional appliances, and operate in parallel with and interconnected to the
utility grid [9]. Providing small amounts of power in inaccessible and remote locations,
needing little or no maintenance or attention. Examples of such applications include signal or
monitoring equipment, or telecommunication and corrosion protection systems. Since then,
numerous photovoltaic systems have been installed to provide electricity to the large number
of people on our planet that do not have access to mains electricity.

This part is contains development scale of the PVs from start to present throughout decades.
The first conventional photovoltaic cell was produced in the late 1950s, and they were
principally used to provide electrical power for satellites in the 1960s. In the 1970s,
developments in manufacturing, performance and quality of PV modules helped to reduce
costs and make much opportunities for powering remote terrestrial applications, including
battery charging for navigational aids, signals, telecommunications equipment and other
critical, low power needs. In the 1980s, photovoltaics became a popular power source for
consumer electronic devices, including calculators, watches, radios, flashlights and other
small battery charging applications. After the energy crises of the 1970s, significant efforts
also began to develop PV power systems for residential and commercial uses both for stand
alone, remote power as well as for utility-connected applications. During the same
period, international applications for PV systems to power rural health clinics, refrigeration,
water pumping, telecommunications, and off grid households increased dramatically, and
remain a major portion of the present world market for PV products. Today, the industry’s
production of PV modules is growing at approximately 25 percent annually, and rapidly
accelerating the implementation of PV systems on buildings and interconnection to utility
Networks [10].

Solar module which gather solar energy in the form of sunlight and convert it into direct
current (DC) electricity is the essential part of the solar systems. The more sunlight they
receive, the more electricity they produce. Briefly, solar modules are the heart of the system.
They are the power generators. Thin film PV modules are made by depositing ultra-thin
layers of semiconductor material on a glass or stainless steel substrate in a vacuum
storehouse. Laser scribing process applied in order to weld the electrical connections
between individual cells in a module. Thin-film photovoltaic materials submit great promise

10
to reducing the materials requirements and manufacturing costs for PV modules and for the
systems. PV systems have a number of abilities and unique advantages over ordinary power
generating technologies. PV systems can be designed for a variety of applications and
operational requirements, and can be used for either centralized or distributed power
generation. PV systems have no moving parts, are modular, easily expandable and even
transportable in some cases.

This part includes some features of PV systems; energy independence and environmental
compatibility are two attractive features of PV systems. First of all, the fuel which is sunlight
is free, and friend with environment no noise, no pollution. In general, if a PV system
designed well and installed properly, it requires minimal maintenance that provides a long
service lifetimes. Today, the primary limiting factor to construct a PV system is the high cost
of PV modules and equipment when compared to other alternative energy sources [11].

The aim of this research project is to present some information from numerous sources in
order to provide an objective overview of photovoltaics for power generation. The reader
can find a summary of the basics of photovoltaic power conversion, list the primary
technologies, and describe the most popular applications, and list manufacturers and
organizations involved in photovoltaic power generation.

Figure 1 - Schematic of a typical solar cell. This figure is taken from reference [12].

11
CHAPTER 2

SEMICONDUCTORS

2.1 Introduction to Semiconductors

Having right number of electrons to completely fill its valence bands makes a semiconductor is
a poor electrical conductor. Semiconductor can be modified to have an excess of electrons
becoming an n-type semiconductor or lack of electrons becoming a p-type semiconductor.
Either way, the semiconductor becomes much more conductive when increased by one
million fold or more. Semiconductor devices utilize this effect to form electrical current.

Resulting junction separates the electron surplus or lack out from the semiconductor near the
junction when doped semiconductors are combined to other semiconductors. This discharge
region is only allowing current to flow in one direction, and used to shape electrical currents
in semiconductor devices.

Electrons can be excited across the energy band gap (see Physics below) of a semiconductor
by various means. These electrons can carry their excess energy over distance scales
of micrometers before dissipating their energy into heat – a significantly longer distance than
is possible in metals. This property is essential to the operation of, e. g., bipolar junction
transistors and solar cells.

In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing
heat. These semiconductors are used in the construction of light emitting diodes and
fluorescent quantum dots.

Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful

in thermoelectric generators, as well as high thermoelectric figures of merit making them
useful in thermoelectric coolers [13].

2.5 Semiconductor Energy Bands

As silicon and germanium for intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level is just in the middle of
the two bands which are valence and conduction bands. Because conductivity depends on
temperature there is no conduction occurs at zero Kelvin. Finite amounts of electrons can

12
move to the conduction band at higher temperatures and provide some current. In extrinsic
semiconductors extra energy levels are added.

Figure 2 - Energy bands of a semiconductor.

To increase the conductivity with temperature can be modeled in terms of Fermi function,
that allows determine the amount of population of the conduction band.
Fermi Function is gave us the probability that given available electron energy state will be
kept at a given temperature. The Fermi function has the form

1
f (E)  ( E  EF ) / kT
e 1

The function indicates that at usual temperatures, most of the levels up to the Fermi level
E F are filled, few electrons have energies above the Fermi level [14].

13
Figure 3 - Illustration of Fermi function at 300 K whereas the thermal energy kT is 0.026 eV. This figure is taken
from reference [15].

There is a figure below that shows comparison energy bands of a conductor and an insulator
and a semiconductor in order to understand the energy band of a semiconductor.

Figure 4- Energy Band Diagram of a Conductor, Semiconductor, and Insulator.

14
2.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors

A silicon crystal is some kind a different from an insulator because at any temperature above
absolute zero temperature there is a limited probability that an electron in the across free
moving from its position, and remain a hole. This electron and the hole both contribute a
current flow when a voltage is applied. The band model of a semiconductor suggests that at
ordinary temperatures the electrons reach the conduction band and contribute to electrical
conduction.

Figure 5 - Electrons and holes. This figure is taken from reference [16].

The term intrinsic separates the features of pure “intrinsic” silicon and the doped “extrinsic”
n or p type semiconductors. Semiconductor current is both electrons and holes supply to
current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor.

Figure 6 - Semiconductor Current. This figure is taken from reference [16].

The current includes both electron and hole current which this electrons can move through
the material. Besides, other electrons can jump between cross positions to fill the gaps.

15
In an intrinsic semiconductor as silicon at above zero temperature, there were some
electrons which are excited across into the conduction band. Electron leaves a hole when it
crosses the gap. Dope additive contributes extra electrons for n-type and holes for the p-
type in order to increase conductivity [16].

Figure 7 - Effective masses of electrons and holes.

2.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Adding small percentage of foreign atoms into the silicon or germanium produces
considerable changes in their electrical properties, makes n-type and p-type semiconductors.
One of these foreign atoms which has 5 valence electrons produce n-type semiconductors by
contributing extra electrons. Also, atoms with 3 valence electrons makes p-type
semiconductors by producing a “hole” [17].

Figure 8 - Pentavalent and Trivalent Impurities. This figure is taken from reference [17].

16
 Figure 9 - P and N type Semiconductors. This figure is taken from reference [17].

In Figure 9, Sb is the element of 5A group of the periodic table, Antinomy from Latin; Stibium
that makes n-type semiconductors and B is the element of 3A group of the periodic table,
Boron that makes p-type semiconductors.

To obtain N-Type semiconductors one needs to dope silicon with pentavalent impurities
such as phosphorous, arsenic and antimony. These impurities acts as electron donors.

Figure 10 - Energy bands of n-type semiconductor.

To obtain P-Type semiconductors one needs to dope silicon with trivalent impurities such as
boron, aluminum and gallium. These are creates deficiencies of valence electrons.

17
 Figure 11 - Energy bands of t-type semiconductor.

2.5 The p-n junction diode

When a uniform p-type sample is metallurgically combined to a uniform n-type sample,

the structure yields the all-essential p-n junction. The positive and negative electrical
charges redistribute at the same time, and establishing internal electric fields that determine
gather properties of the semiconductor diode. At the instant of formation, there exist on the
n side, extending to the junction, uniform concentrations nn0 of free electrons and pn0 of
free holes. On the p side there exist uniform concentrations of pp0 of mobile holes and np0
of free electrons, also extending to the junction. The concentrations satisfy the relation

nn 0 pn 0  n p 0 p p 0  ni2

In this equation, w here ni is the intrinsic carrier density of the material at the given
temperature.

At the instant of junction formation, the intensity of electrons is much larger on the n side
than on the p side. Same condition applies to the hole concentrations, which are larger on
the p side than the n side. This large difference in carrier density sets up an initial diffusion
current. Electrons flow from the n region into the p region, and holes flow from the p region
into the n region. This flow of charge results in a region near the junction that is extinct of
majority carriers, of electrons on the n side and of holes on the p side. The fixed donor and
acceptor impurity ions in this extinction region are no longer balanced by the free charges. As
a result, an internal electric field builds up with a direction that resists further flow of
electrons from the n region and holes from the p region. The magnitude of the field is such
that it exactly balances the further flow of majority carriers by diffusion. The region around
the junction is depleted of majority carriers, and a space charge layer forms in the region of

18
high electric fields, as shown in Figure 22. Thus in the poverty of externally applied potentials,
no current will flow.

A positive voltage applied to the p side relative to the n side encourages t h e current flow
across to the junction. In contrast, a negative voltage applied to the p side relative to the n
side further is an obstacle for current to flow relative to the zero voltage. The previous
condition is referred to as forward bias and the latter as reverse bias.

These two conditions can be described in terms of the ideal-diode equation:

I  I 0 [e( qV / kT )  1.0]

Here I is the external current flow, I 0 is the reverse saturation current, q is the

fundamental electronic charge of 1.602 x 10-19 Coulomb, V is the applied voltage, k is the
Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. When large negative applied
voltage, the exponential term becomes zero when it is compared to 1.0, and I is
approximately – I 0 that I 0 is strongly dependent on the temperature of the junction and

hence on the intrinsic carrier density. I 0 is larger for materials with smaller bandgaps than

for those with larger bandgaps. The rectifier action of the diode is that its restriction of
current flow to only one direction is key to the operation of the photovoltaic device.

If light is allowed to effect on a p-n junction device, the equilibrium conditions of the
device are changed. Minority carriers that is, electrons in the p material and holes in the n
material are created in sufficient quantities to lower the potential energy barrier at the
junction, allowing current to flow and establish a voltage at the external terminals. The
availability of current and voltage produces usable power.

The photovoltaic device can be modeled as an ideal diode in parallel with a light induced
current generator I L , which magnitude is a function of the generation of electron-hole pairs

by the absorption of incoming light and the collection efficiency for these charge carriers as
shown in Figure 12. The current and voltage characteristics are modified by light to

I  I 0 [e( qV / kT )  1.0]  I L

19
 Figure 12 - Schematic representation of a solar cell circuit.

There will be resistive losses due to series and derivative resistance. A current – voltage
diagram, like that in Figure 12 characterizes the important operational parameters of the cell,
among which are the short-circuit current I SC , the open-circuit voltage VOC , and the current

and voltage at the maximum power point [18].

20
CHAPTER 3

SOLAR CELLS

3.1 Structure of solar cells

During the made of a silicon solar cells single crystal wafers, polycrystalline wafers or thin
films are using. Single crystal wafers are shred, (about 1/3 to 1/2 of a millimeter thick), from a
large single crystal bullion which has been stretched out at around 1400 °C, which is a very
expensive process. The silicon must be of a very high purity and have a near perfect crystal
structure so it can be absorb the sunlight [19]

Figure 13 - Single Crystal solar cells in panel. This figure is taken from reference [19].

Figure 14 - Amorphous-Si solar panel. This figure is taken from reference [19].

21
Crystalline silicon cells is directly related to solar system’s efficiency, therefore it dominates
the photovoltaic market. However, single crystals are more effective because of expensive,
cells are now often made from multicrystalline material rather than single in order to reduce
costs. According to, the modules have long lifetime (20 years and more) and their best
production efficiency is approaching 18% it can be said that crystalline silicon cell technology
is well established. Besides, amorphous silicon solar cells are cheaper but also less efficient
type of silicon cells. The silicon solar cells which are made form of amorphous thin films are
used to power a variety of consumer products. Larger amorphous silicon solar modules are
also becoming available with the improvement in the solar industry. Figure 14 shows a new
type of thin film modules are appearing on the market cadmium telluride and copper indium
dieseline which is also offer low cost with acceptable conversion efficiencies. High-efficiency
solar cells design from gallium arsenide, indium phosphide or their derivatives are used in
specialized applications such as to power satellites or in systems which operate under high-
intensity concentrated sunlight.

In Figure 15 shows below the structure of a typical silicon solar cell. The electrical current
generated in the semiconductor is extracted by contacts to the front and back of the cell. As
can been seen at the top contact structure also called finger should be allow light to
pass through that supply current to a larger bus bar. Transparent conducting oxide is also
used on a number of thin film devices. When solar cell absorbing the sunlight meantime
it should be minimize the reflection of light in order to increase the efficiency. This is
c a l l e d the antireflection coating ( ARC) w h i c h i s covered with a thin layer of dielectric
material.

22
 Figure 15 - The structure of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. This figure is taken from reference [19].

The energy transformation in solar cells is different from the classical heat engine process,
so the limitations and losses that occur in more detail. The fundamental mechanisms
responsible for losses in solar cells are explicit from the discussion of solar cell operation. A
considerable part of the solar spectrum is not utilized because of the inability of a
semiconductor to absorb the below-band gap light which causes from the heat is produced
on carrier generation in the semiconductor by photons with energy in excess of the
band gap. Losses can be reduced, a device called tandem cell because going over to more
complex structures based on several semiconductors with different band gaps. The top cell of
tandem is made of a high band gap semiconductor, and converts the short wavelength
radiation. The transmitted light is then converted by the bottom cell. This adjustment tenders
considerably the achievable efficiency for the system. High efficiency space cells operating at
close to 30% are available.

Other losses reduce the efficiency of devices, 50% is the achievable at maximum, some thin-
film devices it is less. Non-radiative recombination of the photo generated electron hole pairs
is the common loss mechanisms which is present in all practical devices. Such recombination
is most common because of pollution or impurities, and defects of the crystal structure, or at

23
the surface of the semiconductor where energy levels may be introduced inside the energy
gap. These levels act as stepping stones for the electrons to fall back into the valence band
and recombine with holes. Measures taken to minimize the recombination losses include
careful processing to maintain long minority carrier lifetime, and protecting the external
surfaces of the semiconductor by a layer of passivating oxide to reduce surface
recombination. The contacts can be surrounded by heavily doped regions acting as "minority
carrier mirrors" which impede the minority carriers from reaching the contacts and
recombining. The losses to current with the rejoin are often grouped under the term of
collection efficiency which is the ratio between the number of carrier generated by light and
the number that reaches the junction. Considerations of the collection efficiency affect the
design of the solar cell. In crystalline materials, the transport properties are usually good,
and carrier transport by simple diffusion is sufficiently effective. In amorphous and
polycrystalline thin films, however, electric fields are needed to pull the carriers. The junction
region is then made wider to absorb the main part of the photon flux. Other losses to the
current produced by the cell arise from light reflection from the top surface, shading of the
cell by the top contacts, and incomplete absorption of light. The last feature can be
particularly significant for crystalline silicon cells since silicon – being an indirect-gap
semiconductor - has poor light absorption properties. Measures which can be taken to
reduce these losses include the use of multi-layer antireflection coatings, surface
texturing to form small pyramids, and making the back contact optically reflecting. When
combined with a textured top surface, this geometry results in effective light trapping which
provides a good countermeasure for the low absorptivity of silicon. Top-contact shading is
reduced in some cells by forming these contacts in narrow laser grooves, or all the contacts
can be moved to the back of the cell. Another loss in commercial cells is ohmic losses in the
transmission of the current produced by the solar cell, usually grouped together as a
series resistance, which reduce the fill factor of the cell. The principal characteristics of
different types of cell in or near commercial production are summarized in table 1 below.

24
 Material Area (cm²) Best Efficiency (%) Technology
Mono or multi cryst. silicon 10 25 Plate/wafer
Amorphous silicon 5 13 Thin film
Copper indium dieseline 8 16 Thin film
Cadmium telluride 7 16 Thin film

Table 1 - Solar cell efficiencies achieved by the principal semiconductor technologies.

In addition, to crystalline silicon, much effort is focused on the manufacture of thin- film
devices which have lower material requirements. Furthermore, there is considerable
research activity in purely molecular materials and photovoltaic materials are no longer
dependent onto semiconductors. A number of research groups have showed solar cells
based on conducting polymers, often in combination with fullerene derivatives as electron
acceptors to create the p-n junction. There is much to look forward to if their success
matches the achievements of the LED technology.

Amorphous silicon is one of a number of thin film technologies. This type of solar cell can
be applied as a film to low cost substrates such as glass or plastic. Other thin film
technologies include thin multicrystalline silicon, copper indium dieseline/cadmium sulphide
cells, cadmium telluride/cadmium sulphide cells and gallium arsenide cells. There are many
advantages of thin film cells including easier deposition and assembly, the ability to be
deposited on inexpensive substrates or building materials, the ease of mass production, and
the high suitability to large applications [20].

3.2 Work principle of solar cells

We need to consider both the nature of the material and the nature of sunlight in order to
understand the operation of a PV cell. Solar cells consist of two types of material, first often
p-type silicon and secondly n-type silicon. W avelengths o f a c e r t a i n l i g h t is able to
ionize the atoms in the silicon and the internal field produced by the junction
separates some of the positive charges (holes) from the negative charges (electrons)

25
within the photovoltaic device. The holes are swept into the positive layer and the
electrons are swept into the negative layer. Although these opposite charges are attracted
to each other, because of the internal potential energy barrier most of them can only
rejoin by passing through an external circuit outside the material. Therefore if a circuit is
made, power can be produced from the cells with lighting, so the free electrons have to pass
through the load to rejoin with the positive holes.

The power gained from a PV device is regulated by;

 First, the type and area of the material,
 Second, the wavelength of the sunlight,
 Third the intensity of the sunlight.

Single crystal silicon solar cells can not convert more than 25% of the solar energy into
electricity, because of the radiation in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum
does not have enough energy to separate the positive and negative charges in the
material.

Because of the higher internal energy losses than a single crystal silicon, polycrystalline
silicon solar cells have an efficiency of less than 20% and amorphous silicon cells are presently
about 10% efficient. A typical single crystal silicon PV cell of 100 can produce about
1.5 watts of power at 0.5 volts DC and 3 amps under full sunlight (1000 ). The power
output of the cell is directly proportional to the intensity of the sunlight. It means for
example, if the intensity of the sunlight is halved the power will also be halved.

Another important feature of PV cells is that the voltage of the cell does not depend on its
size, and remains fairly constant with changing light intensity. However, the current in a
device is almost directly depend to light intensity and size. When we look different sized
cells, we need to record the current density, or amps per square centimeter of cell area.

To increase the power output of a solar cell, it should keep the PV device directly facing the
sun, or by concentrating the sunlight using lenses or mirrors. However, there are limits to this
process, due to the complexity of the mechanisms, and the need to cool the cells.
Temperature affects the voltage. The current output is relatively constant at higher
temperatures, but the voltage is reduced, leading to a drop in power as the cell temperature
is increased [21].

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3.3 Types of Solar Cells

The solar cell technology is very rich corresponding to substance used and production type.
There are more than dozen of substances besides lots of them are being working progress in
order to produce a solar cell. Principal types of solar cells are as follows [4]. Solar cells can be
categorized in three parts.

 First Generation Solar Cells

- Crystalline Silicium
 Second Generation Solar Cells
- Thin Film
 Third Generation Solar Cells
- Nanotechnology based solar cells

Figure 16 - First Generation Solar Cell. This figure is taken from reference [12].

27
Figure 17 - Efficiency of First Generation Solar Cells between 2004 – and 2010. This figure is taken reference [12]

3.3.1 First Generation Solar Cells

3.3.1.1 Crystalline Silicium Solar Cells

Silicium is a substance that typically shows semi-conductor properties and one of the most
commonly using material in production of a solar cell. Besides it looks like it will keep its
position because of superiority of its technology and economic reasons however there are
other substances has photovoltaic properties. Usually, a standard lifetime of crystalline solar
cell is represented as 25 years. Ideal work temperature is about 25 degrees Celsius.

3.3.1.2 Mono-crystalline Silicium Solar Cells

This type of solar cell first obtains with a method that is called CHROZALSKI crystal pulling
method. It is still most using method in photovoltaic industry. In this method silicium oxide
goes through a phase with some chemicals in arc ovens to get pure silicium. After that a
silicium particle called core or seed sops into this solution. When core pulled out from the
cold solution, it will all over the core. After the silicium became a bullion, it cut into slices with
a cutter. It will be after these two processes. First bullion cut as rectangular blocks and then

28
these blocks are handling as a battery. Laboratory efficiency is about 25% but real life
experience efficiency is between 12% and 16%. Substance loss is disadvantage of this type
during build phase.

3.3.1.3 Semi-crystalline Silicium Solar Cells

This type of solar cells gather from combined small silicium crystallines with cooling of liquid
silicium solution. Efficiency of them is near 14% and it is bounded on losses at the edge of
combined silicium particles.

3.3.1.4 Ribbon Silicium Solar Cells

These cells are made of from silicium layers as plate to reduce substance losses. They get
with different types of methods and still in improvement phase. Laboratory efficiency
changes in between 13 and 14%.

3.3.1.5 Poly-crystalline silicium Solar Cells

This type is made from ribbon silicium technology and their structure shows polycrystalline
properties. Efficiency is about 12 - 15%. Laboratory efficiency is about 16%. Their prices are
low because of the production cost.

Figure 18 - Second Generation Solar Cell. This figure is taken from reference [12].

29
 Figure 19 - Thin Film Solar Cell layer. This figure is taken from reference [12].

3.3.2 Second Generation Solar Cells

3.3.2.1 Thin Film Solar Cells

In this technic, aim is the reduce thickness of the cell with using substances which has higher
quality to absorb light. Absorption coefficient of amorphous silicium solar cells is greater than
crystalline type solar cells’ coefficient. For example, even 1 micron thick amorphous silicium
can absorb the light radiation in a region with wavelength is 0.7, to absorb the same light
crystal silicium has to be at 500 microns thick. Therefore, amorphous silicium has advantage
because using less material for made.

3.3.2.2 Amorphous Silicium Solar Cells

Amorphous silicium solar cells are the primary sample of thin film technology of solar cells.
However, first made (a-Si) solar cells are in Schottky barrier structure, then p-i-n junction
structures are developed. Laboratory efficiency is about 27% but the real efficiency is
between 8 and 10%. High costs materials are needed during fabric phase but sometimes
firms prefer this type because of production duration is cheap.

3.3.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenoide Solar Cells

This type of solar cells consists of coming together elements in first, third and sixth groups of
periodic table. Its absorption coefficient is very high. This compound (CIS) is made of from
copper, indium, and selenium are called as CIS solar cells. With the contribution of the

30
gallium in the compound obtained greater efficiency. However, as increase in the number of
elements in the compound makes situation complex to control properties or contributions of
elements for the system. For small area laboratory cell efficiency is about 20% but 1m² solar
module efficiency is about 16%. There are two methods in production, first vaporizing the
elements in a vacuum simultaneously. Second, reacting the copper indium thin film alloy with
selenium in a suitable environment which is also called selenization. In both cases, purpose is
to establish a diode between the plates.

3.3.2.4 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells

This type of solar cells is made with simple methods and they are cheap. It has the shortest
energy payback time of all solar technologies. However, experimental efficiency is up to 17%,
for 8m² solar module’s efficiency is about 9-10%.

Figure 20 – Schematic display of third generation solar cells. This figure is taken from reference [12].

31
Figure 21 - Schematic spectrum display of third generation solar cells. This figure is taken from reference [12].

Figure 22 - Schematic efficiency display of third generation solar cells. This figure is taken from reference [12].

32
3.3.3 Third Generation Solar Cells

Third Generation or as known as multi-junction solar cells enhance poor electrical

performance while maintaining very low production costs. Current researches are targeting
conversion efficiencies of 30% - 60% while retaining low cost materials and manufacturing
techniques. But, these researches are still ongoing for this technology and there are no solid
conclusions so far. It will be big progress about energy subject if they are in fabric because
they submit super high value efficiency comparing to present ones.

3.3.3.1 Super tandem Cells

This type of solar cells is combined other type of solar cells which has different energy
spectrum to utilize sunlight’s large energy spectrum. It also use lens sort of a magnifying
glass. Theoretically they have 86% efficiency but for obtained result for a sample of 1 cm² cell
type the value is about 35%. Until now, these tandems cells have been producible only by
using very special, expensive semi-conductor materials, and at very high costs.

3.3.3.2 Intermediate Solar Cells

Solar cell materials with more than one bandgap offer the possibility to increase the
efficiency of the solar cell beyond that of a single bandgap cell. According to this expression,
intermediate band solar cell is one such possibility, where an intermediate energy band is
placed in the otherwise forbidden bandgap of the solar cell material. Having the ideal
bandgaps efficiency can be 63.2%. Ordinary single bandgap cell has an efficiency limit 40%.
However, even since for Intermediate solar cells there is no accessible efficiency value.

33
Figure 23 - The Efficiency and product cost comparison of All Generations. This figure is taken from reference
[24].

In the light of the material presented so far, we demonstrate the behavior of a typical one
bandgap solar cell which is just a p-n junction below. The p-n junction is an effective interface
between n and p type semiconductors where excess electrons and holes. The presence
of a strong electric field is the fundamental characteristic feature of the junction which is
indicated by the slope of the edges of the conduction and valence band in the
junction region.

In equilibrium case, the electrochemical potentials on the two sides of the junction are equal,
and there is no net electric current at (a). At (b), electron hole pairs are created in the
semiconductor, and they are separated by the electric field of the junction with the band gap
of the semiconductor E g playing the role of the outgoing energy.

I  I1  I 0 [eqV / kT  1]

34
Figure 24 - Semiconductor p-n junction in equilibrium (a) and under illumination (b). This figure is taken from
reference [19].

The resulting I - V characteristic has shown in Figure 25. The photo generated current I1

is equal to the current produced by the cell at short circuit ( V  0 ). The open circuit
voltage VOC (when I  0 ) can easily be obtained as

kT
VOC  ln[1  I1 / I 0 ]
q

The maximum power P produced by the conversion device is reached at a point that on
the characteristic where the product IV is maximum. This is shown graphically in Figure
25 below where t he position of the maximum power point represents the largest area of
the rectangle shown. This is usually defines the fill-factor if it called as ff then it will be,

Pmax Vm I m
ff  
VOC VOC I l

In this equation, Vm is the voltage and I m is the current at the maximum power point.

35
 Figure 25 - The I -V characteristic of an ideal solar cell.

Semiconductor which occurs in a broad spectral range rather than in a narrow spectral line is
the primary difference for a semiconductor solar cell in the nature of optical absorption. As
can been seen that a semiconductor plate which is quite thick can absorb the all photons

with energy in excess of the semiconductor band gap E g [21].

36
CHAPTER 4

PHOTOVOLTAICS

4.1 Introduction to Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics is basically a high technology approach to converting sunlight into electrical

energy. The electricity is direct current and can be used that way, converted to alternating
current or stored for later use. Theoretically, a photovoltaic device is a battery which only
consumable is the light powered by sun. There are no moving parts at least not in the atomic
way; operation is suitable for the environment. Photovoltaic devices have lots of benefits that
make them usable and acceptable to all inhabitants of our planet. Photovoltaic systems
are modular, and so their electrical power output can be engineered for virtually any
application, from low powered consumer uses for example wristwatches, calculators and
small battery chargers.

Figure 26 - Grid contact structure of a PV cell. This figure is taken from reference [19].

37
In addition, incremental power needs today are easily provided in PV systems, unlike more
conventional approaches such as fossil or nuclear fuel which require multimegawatt plants to
be economically feasible. To understand the many aspects of photovoltaic power, we must
understand the fundamentals of how the devices work. However, photovoltaic cells come in a
variety of forms, the most common structure is a semiconductor material into which a large
area diode, or p-n junction. Electrical current is taken from the device through a grid contact
structure on the front that allows the sunlight to enter the solar cell, with a contact on the
back the circuit has been completed, and just under the grid there is an antireflection
coating which minimizes the amount of sunlight reflecting from the device below in Figure 27.

Figure 27- Schematic depiction of a basic solar cell that shows the important features. This figure is taken from
reference [20].

Although photovoltaic technologists today use many other varieties of semiconductors,

crystalline-silicon concepts represent a reasonable compromise for this discussion because
they are well known [22].

Silicon is representative of the diamond crystal structure. Each atom is covalently bonded to
each of its four nearest neighbors; each silicon atom shares its four valence electronic
with the four neighboring atoms, forming four covalent bonds. The valence band has 4N

38
availability energy states and 4N valence electrons and is therefore filled. On the other hand,
the conduction band is completely empty at absolute zero. Therefore, the semiconductor is a
perfect insulator at absolute zero. As the temperature of the solid is raised above absolute
zero, energy is transferred to the valence electrons, making it statistically probable that a
certain number of the electrons which are called intrinsic carriers will be raised in energy to
such an extent that they are free to conduct electrical charge in the conduction band. The
amount of energy required to bridge the valence and conduction bands is referred to as the
forbidden gap or energy gap E g , which is 1.12 eV at room temperature for silicon. Even

at room temperature, amount of conductivity is still quite small. At 300 K there are
1.6 x 1010 intrinsic carriers per cubic centimeter; the material is still a very good insulator
22
compared with a metal, which has approximately 10 carriers per cubic centimeter. To
modify the conductivity to more useful values, we need to introduce small controlled
amounts of impurities into the host materials. By substituting, the silicon, which is in column
IV of the periodic table, with either column-III materials (boron, aluminum, gallium or
indium) or column-V materials (phosphorous, arsenic or antimony), one can increase and
control precisely the number of conduction band electrons or valence band holes. A column-
V additive completes the covalent bond and leaves an additional, loosely bound electron that
can be transferred to the conduction band by an energy of about 40-50 meV, set the
ionization energy. Column-III impurities leave the covalent bond missing of one electron.
An electron from the valence band can transfer to the empty site and satisfy the bond
requirement. In effect the hole moves, because the transferred electron leaves behind a hole.
The amount of energy required to thus place the hole in the valence band ranges from 45 to
160 meV. By varying the density of the doping impurities, one can design the silicon to
range from a poor conductor of electricity to a near-metallic conductor. Silicon that has
been doped with column-III elements is called a p-type semiconductor; that doped with
column-V elements is called an n-type semiconductor [23].

39
4.2 Performance Efficiency

Because of its importance for describing and comparing the performances of photovoltaic
devices, efficiency must be measured carefully. In the past, and to a certain extent even
today, efficiency results have been controversial. The most important factor affecting the
accuracy of the efficiency measurements is the light source used to illuminate the cell. One
typically uses a light source that has a carefully controlled spectrum. This so called solar
simulator must be accurately duplicated by each group who hoping to make the
measurement, or critical correction factors must be applied that take into account a number
of factors characterizing the differences in spectral quality among the various solar
simulators.

For each photovoltaic material the simulator must duplicate what the cell experiences in the
real world under natural sunlight. Control solar cells can be very helpful in correcting for the
material differences. Besides, one must accurately know and be able to duplicate from
measurement to measurement the density of the light and the junction temperature.
Another critical factor in determining the accuracy of an efficiency measurement is that the
definition of the area of the cell, as the short circuit current measurement is strongly
dependent on the cell area. Much discussion has gone into determining whether the total
area.

4.3 Photovoltaic cell materials

Single crystal silicon has been the material of choice for high-performance, highly reliable
solar cells since the successful deployment of silicon photovoltaic systems for space
power. Most of the terrestrial photovoltaic power systems sold today are also crystalline
silicon. The need to lower the cost of terrestrial photovoltaic power has focused research
efforts on alternative materials as well as on less expensive.

Crystalline silicon is made by growing large cylindrical single crystals, called boules. The
boules are sliced into thin wafers, from which photovoltaic devices are made. Slicing is an
expensive and material-wasteful process. Several approaches have been investigated to
minimize the cost of the original silicon material and to eliminate the slicing step.

40
A less expensive material, polycrystalline silicon, by passes the expensive and energy
intensive crystal growth process. The molten silicon is instead cast directly into either
cylindrical or rectangular plates. The polycrystalline material has a large number of
crystallites separated by particle boundaries. The material has poorer crystalline quality, and
light-induced electron-hole pairs can rejoin at the grain boundaries without producing
current in the external circuit. Although polycrystalline materials result in less efficient
solar cells than crystalline silicon, they are sufficiently cheaper that they are commercially
viable. The cast material must still be sliced, however, leading to a loss of about half of the
material.

Another approach to producing less costly materials is to avoid most of the sawing
altogether. Several techniques that produce silicon in sheet form have been developed. The
first commercial success was the edge defined film-fed growth (EFG) ribbon process, in which
polycrystalline silicon is grown by extracting the crystallizing silicon melt through a graphite
die. By this technique, thin strips of polycrystalline silicon can be grown either as multiple
separate ribbons or as polygons of material that can be separated into silicon blanks for
fabrication into finished solar cells with minimal loss of material. An alternative approach has
been to grow the ribbon from parallel supporting dendrites. By carefully controlling the
thermal profiles, one can grow a film of nearly single-crystal material. Other techniques, such
as horizontal ribbon growth and spin casting, have also been demonstrated. Regardless of the
approach, ultimately the cost of silicon solar cells will depend on the starting material.

The lowest-cost approach would be to minimize the required amount of semiconductor

material. Thin films have been developed that are only a few micrometers thick. Such films
are produced by a number of vapor-deposition approaches carried out with in-line, highly
automated systems. The techniques are adaptable to a number of semiconductor materials
that are optimized for solar cell operation. It has been shown that silicon, with its bandgap of
1.12 eV, is not optimal. Materials with bandgaps nearer to 1.5 eV, such as GaAs and CdTe,
have higher theoretical efficiencies. Thin films are cheaper than crystalline structures but
typically have lower efficiencies. Ultimately, however, thin films will be necessary for
producing low-cost electricity, because the bottom line-the cost per watt-is more important
than efficiency.

41
CONCLUSION

We present a subjective perspective of PV materials and panels. The most important and
widely used material is silicon. It dominates the present world market, particularly in its
crystalline form but amorphous silicon is also of importance. Silicon solar cells are still
heavily dependent on the materials base of the semiconductor industry. Crystalline silicon
still has a large potential for cost reduction in its conventional form and even more so in the
crystalline thin film and PV panel version. Solar electric, a process whereby electricity is
created directly by sunlight, holds exceptional promise now for the future. Energy from the
sun will, by photovoltaic transformation, supply an ever-increasing amount of the world's
power needs, and this unending form of energy will be produced without degrading the
environment. Partly because of its perceived energy self-sufficiency, Turkey has been slow to
appreciate the significance of photovoltaics, however, other countries are very much alert to
the benefits that electricity through PV can offer.

The BIPV used as exterior solar shading devices is a means of producing electricity on site and
of reducing cooling loads and peak loads in buildings. Designing and assessing such a BIPV
system, which acts as both a shading element and a power generation element,
requires a multidisciplinary approach. The BIPV system gives rise to gains in terms of heat
and light in winter, spring and autumn, and it controls such gains in summer, when they are
less desirable.

The efficiency of the sunshade module varies considerably depending on the month and the
season, due to the shadows cast by other PV panels and the tilt, the orientation and the
surface temperature variation of the PV panel. Therefore, the influence of the shadow cast by
other PV panels should be carefully considered during the design phase. Precisely, the
maximum and minimum values of the efficiency in July and January are, respectively, 20.4%
and 4.2%.

Based on this investigation, the key point we suggest is that a photovoltaic system has a
future in order to fill up the need power generation for the mankind.

42
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