ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTIVE AND

REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND MANAGEMENT

PRACTISES IN DAIRY FARMS IN KHARTOUM STATE

By
ESHRAGA AHAMED EBRAHIM
B.Sc. (Agric) honours
University of Gezira (March,1999)

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of Master of Science

In

Tropical Animal Production (Dairy Production)

FACULTY OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM

Supervisor;
Prof: ADB EL MONEM MUKHTAR ABU NIKHAILA

31 July 2011
 ‫اﻵﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮﲪﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻗﺎل ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ث َو َد ٍم )‬
‫ﻦ ﻓَﺮ ٍ‬
‫ن َﻟﻜُﻢ ﻓِﻲ اﻷﻧﻌَﺎ ِم َﻟﻌِﺒ َﺮ َة ﻧﱞﺴﻘِﻴﻜُﻢ ِّﻣﻤﱠﺎ ﻓِﻲ ُﺑﻄُﻮ ِﻧ ِﻪ ﻣِﻦ ﺑَﻴ ِ‬
‫وإﱢ‬
‫ﻦ‬ ‫(ﱠﻟﺒَﻨ ًﺎ ﺧَﺎ ِﻟ َ‬
‫ﺼ ًﺎ ﺳَﺂ ِﺋ َﻐ ًﺎ ﻟّﻠﺸﱠﺎ ِرﺑِﻴ َ‬ ‫‪ω‬‬
‫ﺴﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺤل ﺍﻻﻴﺔ )‪(66‬‬

‫‪DEDICATION‬‬

‫‪To my decent supervisor‬‬

‫‪i‬‬
 To soul of my father

To my mother, sisters, brother and friends

To my beautiful dreams in the future

With all my love

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The full praise and thank be to Allah Almighty God who has given me the
health, strength and patient to conduct this study.

ii
 I would like to express my sincere great thanks and gratitude to Prof:
Abdel Moneim Mukhtar Abu Nikhaila my supervisor for his keen
advises,valuable constructive and tireless guidance, perfect supervisions,
continuous encouragement, and help throughout the study .
My deep appreciation and thanks are extended to the staff of the Faculty of
Animal Production. Prof. Amer Mohamed Salih, Prof. Mohammed- Khair
Abdalla Ahmed, Dr. Ibrahim Abdel -Salam Yousif for their continuous support.
With special tune of thanks to Dr. Lutfi Mohamed Musa for his statistical
designing and analysis of the data.
I am grateful and deeply indebted to Assist Ministry of Animals Resources
and Fishers specially Dr. Faisal Hassan Ibrahim, the minster of Animals
Resources and Fishers Dr. Awad El Kerim Abdelah, the Director Manager of
Animal Production, Dr. Nadia Abdelah, Head Department of Dairy Production,
Dr. Ali Abel Razig Ali Lutfi ,Mr. Esam Abdel Rahman,for their considerable
assistance. and grateful thanks also to the companies of artificial insemination, Dr.
Bakery Abdel EI Rhem, Semix Company and Mr. Abdel EI Motalp Ibrahim
Mohammed manager of Grofit company.
My thanks go to my family for their encouragements. Also my thanks extend
to my colleagues and friends for friendship, and their support. My special thanks
to Ezz Eldien Abdel El Rhman who helped me during conducting this study, and
thank to my neighbor Amal Ali Seeaid and a lot of thanks goes to Abdel-
Rahman A. Elaziz . It was a pleasure to work with those great people and to
benefit from their knowledge.
Also grateful thanks are due to dairy farms owners and labors for providing
me the information in this investigation, and to the everyone help me in my
research.
LIST OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Aia .i

iii
DEDICATION .ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .iii

LIST OF CONTENTS .iv

LIST OF TABLES .viii

LIST OF FIGURES .ix

ABSTRACT .x

ARABIC ABSTRACT .xiii

CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Types of dairy farming 4

2.2 Types of dairy breeds in the Sudan 5

2.3 Herd Size and Structure 7

2.4 Production performance 7

2.4.1 Milk yield 7

2.4.2 Lactation length 9

2.4.3 Rest (dry) period 12

2.5 Reproductive performance 14

2.5.1 Age at first calving 15

2.5.2 Calving interval 17

2.5.3 Number of services per conception NSPC 19

2.5.4 Gestation period 21

2.6 Management program 22

2.6.1 Calf rearing 22

2.6.1.1 Calf housing 23

2.6.1.2 Bedding 23

iv
 2.6.1.3 Weaning 23

2.6.2 Dehorning 24

2.6.3 Identification and recording system 25

2.6.4 Housing 26

2.6.5 Dairy feeding 28

2.6.6 Heat detection 32

2.6.7 Natural and artificial insemination 33

2.6.8 Pregnancy diagnosis 33

2.6.9 Milking practices 34

2.7 Preventive measure practices 34

2.7.1 Sanitation 34

2.7.2 Milking hygiene 35

2.7.3 Isolation 35

2.7.4 Testing 36

2.7.5 Vaccination 36

2.7.6 Culling 37

2.8 Health and veterinary supervision 37

2.9 Diseases control 38

2.9.1 Mastitis 38

2.9.2 Brucellosis 39

2.9.3 Internal and external parasites 40

2.9.4 Theileriosis 41

2.9.5 Milk fever 42

2.9.6 Foot and Mouth disease 42

2.10 Farms owners and labors 42

v
2.11 Veterinary and extension services 44

2.12 Dairy cooperatives 45

2.13 Marketing 45

CHAPTER THREE : MATERIALS AND METHOD 47

3.1 Study area 47

3.2 Experimental herds 48

3.3 Collection of data 49

3.4 Statistical Analysis 49

CHAPTER FOUR : RESULTS 50

4.1 Farms location , owners and labors information 50

4.2 Cattle breeds and sources 50

4.3 Dairy herd size and structure 53

4.4 Productive and reproductive performance 54

4.5 The best season for production and insemination 56

4.6 Dairy feeding 56

4.7 Building materials 60

4.8 Management program 62

4.8.1 Calf rearing practices 62

4.8.2 Records 62

4.8.3 Management information practices 62

4.8.4 Heat detection and type of insemination 66

4.8.5 Veterinary supervision and preventive measure practices 66

4.9 Major constrain and problems 71

4.10 Comparison between traditional rearing system (poorly managed farms) 72

and (good managed farms in productive and reproductive traits

vi
 CHAPTER FIVE: DISSCUTION 76-87

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 88-90

6.1 Conclusion 88

6.2 The main important constraints facing the improvement of dairy 89

6.3 Suggestion and recommendation 89

REFERENCES 91-116

APPENDEX 117-129

LIST OF TABLES

vii
Title of table Page
Table (2-1). Composition of lactating cows concentrate and dry cows 32
concentrate in Kennan Sugar Company Farm.

Table (4-1) (4-2) (4-3) Farms location, education and age of owners and 51-52
labors information

Table (4-4) Cattle breeds and source 53

Table (4-5) The dairy herd size and structure in dairy farms in Khartoum 54
State

Table (4-6) Productive and reproductive performance of dairy farms in 55

Khartoum state

Table (4-7) The best season for production and insemination 56

Table (4-8) (4-9) (4-10)The feed ingredients commonly used and sources in 58-59
the studied dairy farms in Khartoum state and cultivable land.

Table (4-11) The building used in Khartoum dairy farms 61

Table (4-12) (4-13) (4-14) (4-15)Management program practice in Khartoum 64-66

dairy farms

Table (4-16). Heat detection and type of insemination practices in Khartoum 68

dairy farms.

Table (4-17) (4-18) (4-19) The Veterinary supervision and preventive 69-71
measure practices in Khartoum dairy farms

Table (4-20) (4-21) (4-22) Major constrains and problems in dairy farms 73-74

Table (4-23) Comparison between traditional raring system A group (poorly 75

managed farms) and B group (good managed farms) in productive and
reproductive traits

LIST OF FIGURES
Title of Figures Page

viii
Figure: 1 Map of study area 48

ix
 ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS
AND MANAGEMENT PRACTISES IN DAIRY FARMS IN
KHARTOUM STATE
M.Sc.
ESHRAGA AHAMED EBRAHIM
Animal Production

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to evaluate the productive and

reproductive traits of the dairy sector under different management and
husbandry practices in some dairy farms in Khartoum State.
The data was collected from 150 dairy farms (survey), randomly
selected from different localities within Khartoum state. Information
pertinent to dairy management, husbandry practices and preventive measure
practices were secured through an extensive questionnaire and direct
interview with the owners farms. These farms were divided into two groups
in traditional rearing system to compare the two groups in productive and
reproductive traits under study. A group (poorly managed farms) and B
group (good managed farms)
The data were collected and subjected to statistical analysis using the
computer program (SPSS) Statistical Package for Social Science.
A descriptive statistical analysis of the data indicated the following: - The
total number of cattle in the 150 herds surveyed was 10189 heads with an
overall mean of 67.93± 7.78 head / herd. The study showed that 87.3 % of
the total dairy farms surveyed own crossbred cows with varying levels of
exotic blood. The exact crossing percentage however was not identified
because of lack of breeding records in the majority of the farms. The herd
structure was as follow: the number of milking cows was 5957 cow ( 34 %
of the total herd ), dry cows was 4227 cow ( 23 % of the total herd ) with an
overall mean of 39.71±4.98 cows / herd and 28.18± 3.06 cows / herd
respectively. The heifers comprised 13%, and calves (suckling 19%,
weaning 11%).The average daily milk production per cow/ day was found to
be18.24 ±0.59 Ibs.

x
 The data showed that the overall mean of the productive and
reproductive traits investigated as fallows ; Milk yield per lactation
3993.74±128.59 (Ib), daily milk yield / cow/ day 18.24 ±0.59 (Ib), lactation
length 7.32 ± 0.07(months) , dry period 2.01±0.01(months ) , age at first
calving 34.69± 0.25(months) , calving interval 12.01 0.03(months),
gestation length 279.90±0.1 days) , number of services per conception
1.77± 0.9
Only 33.3% of the farmers owned cultivable lands for growing their
own roughages. The study showed the great impact of poor system of
feeding from poor sources of fodders, so these affect the productivity and
quality of milk.
Most of the pens were poorly designed from local material with
minimal impact on thermal stresses .Individual calf housing was adopted in
only 0.7 % of the farms and most of farms adopted groups housing (98.7%)
in which poor environment and non hygienic measures prevail. About
(67.3%) practiced identification of calves by name and ear tags.
The study showed that (90%) of the total farms studied do not keep
farms records, and if exist it included only services records for artificial
insemination companies .The records lack accuracy in addition to that
poor supervision and insecurity in the farms
Furthermore, the study indicated that (35.3%) of the animal owners
depend on AI services while (32.7%) natural insemination and combination
(32%), indicate that the growth of awareness among farmers about the
important of AI. The study pointed to the deterioration of health and spread
of diseases. These may be attributed to the lack of veterinary and extension
services in the farms, (28% and, 6%) respectively.
Comparison between the poorly and good managed farms revealed no
significant effects in the main traits studied; The daily milk yield in the two
group 18.19±0.63 , 18.50±1.69 (Ib) ; The age at first calving 34.69±0.27 ,
35.24±0.73 (month) ; Calving interval 11.99±0.01, 12.14±0.17 (month) ;
Gestation period length 279.84±0.11, 280.24±0.24 (days) ; Number of
services per conception (N.S.C) 1.80±0.4 , 1.57±0.5 respectively .
The finding of the study highlighted most of the constraints that face
the dairy sector in Khartoum state.

xi
‫ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﺼﻔﺎت اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ و اﻟﺘﻨﺎﺳﻠﻴﺔ و اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت اﻹدارﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺰارع اﻷﻟﺒﺎن ﺑﻮﻻﻳﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم‬
‫ﻣﺎﺟﺴﺘﻴﺮ‬
‫إﺷﺮاﻗﻪ اﺣﻤﺪ إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻷﻃﺮوﺣﺔ‬
‫ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﺴﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻻﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﺘﺤﺕ ﻨﻅﻡ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺘﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺒﻌﺽ ﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻷﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﺒﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻁﻭﻡ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﻤﺴﺢ ﻤﺎﺌﺔ ﻭﺨﻤﺴﻭﻥ ﻤﺯﺭﻋﺔ ﺃﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺒﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻁﻭﻡ ﺒﺼﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﺸﻭﺍﺌﻴﺔ ﻭﺠﻤﻌﺕ‬
‫ﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﻭﺴﺎﺌل ﺍﻟﺭﻋﺎﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻤﺎﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻋﺘﻤﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺃﺴﻠﻭﺏ ﺍﻻﺴﺘﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺒﻼﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺸﺭﺓ ﻤﻊ ﻤﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺨﻼل ﺍﻟﺯﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺩﺍﻨﻴﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺴﻤﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺭﻋﺎﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺩﻱ ﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﺴﻠﻴﺔ ﻤﻭﻀﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻀﻤﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ )ﺃ( ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺃﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ )ﺏ( ﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻨﻭﻋﺎ ﻤﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻭﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺼل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﺤﺼﺎﺌﻴﺎ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺒﺭﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺴﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺭﻭﻑ ﺒﺎﺴﻡ ﻨﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺯﻡ ﺍﻹﺤﺼﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ )‪.(SPSS‬‬
‫ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻹﺤﺼﺎﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺼﻔﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﻡ ﺠﻤﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﺘﻲ ‪-:‬‬
‫ﺇﺠﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﻴﻊ ‪ 10,189‬ﺭﺃﺱ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻷﺒﻘﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ‪ 150‬ﻤﺯﺭﻋﺔ ﺃﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﺒﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻁﻭﻡ ﺒﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ‬
‫‪ 67,93±7,78‬ﺭﺃﺱ ﻟﻠﻘﻁﻴﻊ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺘﻀﺢ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺃﻥ ‪ % 87,3‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻰ ﻟﻸﺒﻘﺎﺭ ﻫﺠﻴﻥ ﺒﻨﺴﺏ ﺩﻡ ﺃﺠﻨﺒﻲ ﻤﺘﻔﺎﻭﺘﺔ ﺩﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﻨﺴﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﺍﻷﺠﻨﺒﻲ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﻘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻔﻅ ﺒﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻏﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﻤﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺘﻬﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺸﻜل ﻭﺘﻜﻭﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﻴﻊ ﻭﺠﺩ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻟﻙ ‪ 5957‬ﺒﻘﺭﺓ ﺤﻠﻭﺏ ﻭﺘﻤﺜل ﺤﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪ %34‬ﻤﻥ ﺇﺠﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻁﻴﻊ ‪ .‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﺒﻘﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ ‪ 4227‬ﺒﻘﺭﺓ ﺠﺎﻓﺔ ﻭﺘﻤﺜل ﺤﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪ %23‬ﻤﻥ ﺇﺠﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﻴﻊ‬
‫ﺒﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ‪ 39,71±4,98‬ﺒﻘﺭﺓ ﺤﻠﻭﺏ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﺯﺭﻋﺔ ‪ 28,18±3,06‬ﺒﻘﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﻟﻰ‪ .‬ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﺒﻜﺎﺭ‬
‫)ﺍﻟﻨﺩﻑ( ﺘﺸﻜل ‪ %13‬ﺃﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺠﻭل )ﺫﻜﻭﺭ ﻭﺇﻨﺎﺙ( ﺍﻟﺭﻀﻴﻌﺔ ‪ %19‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻔﻁﻭﻤﺔ ‪%11‬‬
‫ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﺴﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﻤﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺘﻬﺎ ﻜﺎﻵﺘﻲ‪:‬‬

‫‪xii‬‬
‫‪ 3993,74±128,59‬ﺭﻁل ‪ ،‬ﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﻘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻴﻭﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺴﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻠﻴﺏ‬
‫‪ 18,24±0,59‬ﺭﻁل‪ ،‬ﻁﻭل ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﺭ ‪ 7,32±0,07‬ﺸﻬﺭ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ‪ 2,01± 0,01‬ﺸﻬﺭ‬
‫‪ 34,69± 0,25‬ﺸﻬﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺭﺓ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻻﺩﺘﻴﻥ‪ 12,01± 0,03‬ﺸﻬﺭ ‪،‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺭ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺃﻭل ﻭﻻﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻁﻭل ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ‪ 279,90±0,1‬ﻴﻭﻡ ‪،‬ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻤﺔ ﻟﻺﺨﺼﺎﺏ ‪1,77±0,9‬‬
‫ﻓﻘﻁ ‪ %33,3‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻋﻴﻥ ﻴﻤﺘﻠﻜﻭﻥ ﻤﺴﺎﺤﺎﺕ ﻤﺯﺭﻭﻋﺔ ﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻑ‪ .‬ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻜﺒﺭ ﻟﻠﻨﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻐﺫﺍﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﺠﻴﺩ ﻭﻻ ﻴﺤﻅﻰ ﺒﺎﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﺒﻴﻥ ﻤﻥ ﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﻏﻴﺭ ﺠﻴﺩﺓ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺅﺜﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﻨﻭﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻴﺏ ‪ .‬ﺃﻏﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﻅﺎﺌﺭ ﺼﻤﻤﺕ ﺒﺸﻜل ﺴﺊ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﻅﻬﺭ ﻋﺩﻡ ﻤﻼﺌﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﻹﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺒﻘﺎﺭ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺍﻷﻗل ﻟﻺﺠﻬﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﻤﻤﺎﺭﺴﺔ ﺍﻹﺴﻜﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻔﺭﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻌﺠﻭل ﻁﺒﻕ ﻓﻲ ‪ %0,7‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﻓﻘﻁ ﻭﺍﻷﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﻁﺒﻕ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺒﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬
‫‪ %98,7‬ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺠﻌل ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺴﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﻻ ﺘﺘﻭﻓﺭ ﺒﻬﺎ ﻤﻌﺎﻴﻴﺭ ﻟﻠﻨﻅﺎﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﺤﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪ %67,3‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ‬
‫ﻁﺒﻘﺕ ﺘﻌﺭﻴﻑ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﺎﺕ ﺒﺎﻻﺴﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻼﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺫﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ‪ %90‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﻻ ﺘﺤﺘﻔﻅ ﺒﺎﻟﺴﺠﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻥ ﻭﺠﺩﺕ ﻓﻬﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ‬
‫ﺴﺠﻼﺕ ﺘﻨﺎﺴل ﻓﻘﻁ ﻟﺸﺭﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺢ ﺍﻻﺼﻁﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻭﻫﻰ ﺴﺠﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺭ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺒﺎﻻﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﻴﻀﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻀﻌﻑ ﺍﻹﺸﺭﺍﻑ ﻭﺇﺠﺭﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﻱ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ‪.‬‬
‫ل ﺍﻟﻤﺭﺒﻴﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺢ ﺍﻻﺼﻁﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺤﻴﺙ ﻁﺒﻕ ﻓﻲ ‪ %35,3‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ‬
‫ﺃﺜﺒﺘﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺇﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺠ ً‬
‫ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺒﻨﺴﺒﺔ ‪ %32,7‬ﻭﺒﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﻁﺒﻘﺕ ﺍﻻﺜﻨﻴﻥ ﻤﻌﺎ ﺒﻨﺴﺒﻪ ‪ %32‬ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺩل ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻭﻋﻰ ﺒﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﺒﻴﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺢ ﺍﻻﺼﻁﻨﺎﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺩﻫﻭﺭ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺇﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻤﺭﺍﺽ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﺫﺍ ﻴﻌﺯﻭ ﻟﻨﻘﺹ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺩﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻁﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺭﺸﺎﺩﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻤﺕ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻴﺩﺓ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﻤﺯﺍﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﻤﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺒﺄﻨﻪ ﻻ ﺘﻭﺠﺩ ﺍﺨﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻓﺭﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﺌﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻤﻭﻀﻊ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ‬
‫‪،‬‬ ‫‪18,19±0,63‬‬ ‫)ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﺴﻠﻴﺔ( ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ ‪ :‬ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻴﻭﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻠﻴﺏ )ﺭﻁل(‬
‫‪ 18,50±1,69‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺭ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺃﻭل ﻭﻻﺩﺓ )ﺸﻬﺭ( ‪ 35,24 ±0,73 ، 34,69 ±0,27 ‬ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺭﺓ ﺒﻴﻥ‬
‫ﻭﻻﺩﺘﻴﻥ )ﺸﻬﺭ( ‪ 12,14±0,17 ، 11,99±0,01‬ﻁﻭل ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻤل )ﺸﻬﺭ( ‪، 279,84±0,11‬‬
‫‪ 280,24±0,24‬ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻤﺔ ﻟﻺﺨﺼﺎﺏ ‪ 1,57±0,5 ، 1,80±0,4‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺙ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﺤﺩ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻨﻁﻼﻕ ﻗﻁﺎﻉ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻷﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻁﻭﻡ‪.‬‬

‫‪xiii‬‬
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Sudan occupying an intermediate position in the Middle East is
considered as one of the most important source for livestock products in
particular markets, mainly Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries. The country
occupies a vast area estimated as one million square miles stretching between
latitudes 4 and 22 North. These location characteristics of the country with a
great variation in climatic domains from desert in the North to tropical forest
in the South.
The livestock population of the Sudan was estimated to be (141)
million head according to the ( Ministry of Animal Resources & Fishers –
Information Center,2009 ) of which 41.563.000 head of cattle, 51.555.000
head of sheep , 43.270.000 head of goats and 4.521.000 head of camel . More
than 90% of the livestock in the country is owned by nomadic and semi-
nomadic tribes, with a regular system of seasonal migration mostly from
north to south and vice versa.
Livestock in Khartoum State is a strategic element in food security,
according to the estimate of the (Ministry of Animal Resources & Fishers-
Information Centre, 2009). The estimated numbers of ruminants in Khartoum
State were about 236.909 cattle, 438.218 sheep, 640.396 goats and 6.329
camels. Some of the cattle (68.5%) are actually contributing in the supply of
liquid milk, to the State. The annual per capita consumption of milk in
Khartoum State is estimated to be about 81.5 liters. This means that the need
for fresh liquid milk could amount to 465.000 tons (M.A.A.R.I., 2005). This
would certainly increase with the steady increasing number of population.
Another factor is that milk being an elastic commodity; the demand would
rise up dramatically, thus creating a sizeable gap between demand (536.000)
tons and supply (482.000) tons (M.A.A.R.I., 2010).

14
 The only way to bridge this gap between demand and supply is by
putting more effort in improving the ways and means of dairy production.
There are two systems of dairy production in Khartoum State:
The traditional husbandry system where productivity is rather low and
the other is the modern farming system where more advanced animal
husbandry is practiced.
In general productivity is not uniform, which is crippled by one of
factors including lack of breeding system, records keeping, veterinary
services , housing system, and other animal husbandry inputs are not
adequate. A small number of modern dairy farms adopting high technology
with a reasonable level of production are practice. In this sector the milk is
handled and delivered to the consumer in pasteurized refrigerated form.
The development in the milk production demands the direct
involvement of the government.
At the present time maintaining a healthy herd is a constant challenge
to dairy producer and maintaining healthy calves is the product of good
nutritional and management in addition to planned disease prevention and
control measures. Target growth rates cannot be achieved without an effective
health management program.
Many factors influence the health and performance of dairy herd. These
include the entire scope of management factor from on farm activity to the
associated business and financial interactions.
The technical production aspects of dairy development strategy need
attention in:
1. The supply of dairy stock
2. Animal health
3. Fodder production system
4. Marketing arrangements
5. Training of farmers

15
 Producers must address dairy animal health (calves, replacement
heifers and cows), reproductive performance, genetics, nutrition and udder
health (mastitis control) to be successful.
Maintenance of a healthy and profitable reproductive status can be
accomplished by proper management, included good breeding techniques, a
balanced, competent feeding program, sufficient water supply, accurate
records, also hygiene and veterinary services to minimize reproductive
inefficiency and disease.
The objective of this study is:
1. To evaluate the productive and reproductive traits of the dairy herd under
the different management and husbandry practices in Khartoum State.
2. To identify the weak links with loop and suggest corrective measures with
a final immediate objective of up grading the production level of the dairy
herd in the State.

16
 CHATPER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Types of dairy farming
Dairy farming varies widely with different conditions and in general it
may be classified on at least three types.
Williamson and Payne (1978) found three types of dairy management in
the tropics. (1) Dairy farms with low and poor standard of management (2)
Specialized dairy farms with mediate managerial skills. (3) And the third one
is the large scale dairy farms which are very few and possess high and
intensive well management. Abdalla (1995) reported that there are two major
systems for milk production in the Sudan: traditional grazing in Western,
central and Southern Sudan and modern sector around cities and urban
centers.
Cattle in the Sudan are kept under three main systems Musa (2007).
- Pastoralist system: this is the most common system in the Sudan and more
than 90% of cattle are owned by nomadic and semi nomadic tribes, with
regular seasonal migration mostly from North to South in the dry season and
from South to North in the rainy season. Animals in this sector are mainly
local zebu cattle which are low milk producers and sold for beef in periods of
cash needs. In Southern Sudan, cattle are mainly of the Nilotic type and they
play important social and cultural roles and serve as a repository for family
wealth. The number of animals owned is a measure of the social standing of
the family. Market contacts are limited and live animals are sold only to
obtain cash for purchase of food.
- Agro-pastoralist system: the dominant breeds in this system are Butana and
Kenana. The animals are kept in sedentary mixed farming system with
limited movements under what is called “Village herd”. The system has a
more market oriented approach to livestock raising. During the last two

17
decades some limited crossbreeding with Friesian has been on -going in this
sector.
- The peri-urban dairy system: is located around the main towns and is
oriented solely to the sale of fresh milk. Cattle here are mostly Kenana or
Butana crossbreds with Friesian showing variable upgrading percentages.
Local AI centers supply imported semen, but natural mating using bulls of
different grades of Friesian inheritance is widely used.

2.2. Types of dairy breeds in the Sudan

In Sudan there are two important dairy breeds, Kenana and Butana
which show considerable milk potentialities, but they are relatively few in
number as compared to the other cattle ecotypes in the country. Consequently
it is high time that the main gene pool of those superior breeds should be
conserved from being diluted through unplanned crossing to exotic breeds.
Kenana cattle homeland is located at a triangular area bounded by Sennar,
Singa, Roseiries and Kosti, while Butana cattle are found in the Butana plain
between the Nile River, Blue Nile and Atbara River (AOAD, 1984).
Recently, the demands for liquid milk have increased with the rise in
human population, therefore improvement of dairy cattle has become of
paramount importance. Several trials for improvement have been attempted in
the tropical countries with limited results due to many constraints such as
insufficient feed, endemic disease, poor farming systems, government policy
constraints and poor genotypes, Fadel- El Moula (1994). Poor genotypes of
tropical breeds impose limits on the productivity that is being achieved in the
temperate zone. Similarly, the poor genotype had also hindered the adoption
of the new innovation and technologies for improved productivity. The
indigenous stocks of dairy cattle often lack the genetic capability to achieve
the milk production potential of their production environments. The most

18
important of the environmental effects are those due to age and due to
differences in feeding and management Fadel- El Moula (1994).
So genetic and environmental factors affect cattle production and by
improving them production can be increased to a great deal. The indigenous
breed (Bos indicus) has higher level of overall adaptation to the
environmental stresses than the introduced foreign ones (Bos Taurus)
(Simpson and Evangelou, 1983).
Williamson and Payne (1978) reported that within the Sudanese breeds,
the Kenana are considered as the best milkers in Africa. Atabani (1961)
reported that Kenana dairy cows display great dairy and breed characters,
while Dahab (1966) reported from Umbenen Livestock Center, that there
were few Kenana cows that yield up to 50 lb of milk per day. Based on this
Kenana and Butana cattle and their crosses constitute the major breed for
dairy production in Sudan.
In spite of the large animal population in Sudan still the dairy products
do not satisfy what is really required because there are many constraints
facing the production: for example the exotic breeds faced problems like
environmental, managerial and health problems. (Elinazeir, 2005). All
imported bulls died of Theileria leaving only few progeny living under most
artificial conditions obtainable in one of the European managed dairy farm
near Khartoum (Bayoumi, 1964). Under all conditions of climate and
management throughout the world the milk yield of local cattle can be
increased by crossing with an improved dairy breeds (Mayson, 1977).
In Kuku dairy project the crossbred cows of 67.2% foreign blood
inheritance were the highest in production (Tibin et al., 1990). On the other
hand Ibrahim (1989) found the highest average production in cows with
62.5% foreign blood when compared with cows of 25 %, 37.5 %, 50 % and
75%. Hassan (1988) reported that cows with more than 50% foreign blood

19
yielded daily average of 25.7 Ib / day while those with less than 50 % foreign
blood yielded daily average of 20.3 Ib / day.

2.3. Herd size and structure

Atabani (1960) reported the following herds structure at Umbenen
livestock Station herd size of 529 head (12.5%) milking cows, (28.7%) dry
cows, (32.1%) heifer and (24.4%) young calves. Also he reported at
Nisheisheiba Research Station herd size of 281 head (22.4%) milking cows,
(24.2%) dry cows, (24.2%) heifer and (25.6%) young bulls. Badi (1988)
reported that at Gezira Scheme dairy herd, the milking cows represented
35.7% while the dry cows 64.3% in a herd of grade cows. For local cattle he
reported that 34.6% were milking cows and 65.4% dry. For calves and heifer
the reported percentages were 12.1% and 12.5%, respectively. Abdel-Mageed
(1988) reported at Kuku Dairy Project, an average herd size of 69.7±53.5
cows there were 35.0% milking cows, 21.9% dry cows, 13.4% heifers, 28.3%
calves and 1.2% breeding bulls.

2.4. Production performance

2.4.1 Milk yield
Milk yield is a complex character, which is affected by the interaction
between genetic and environmental factors. The trait of milk yield is always
expressed at advanced lactation, which renders direct selection for milk yield
at a younger age less efficient (Fawi, 1994). The milk yield of dairy cows
depend on four factors including genetic ability, feeding program, herd
management and health. As cows continue to be improved genetically, we
must improve nutrition and management to allow the cow to produce her
inherited potential (Wheeler, 2004).
African livestock are late maturing, slow growing and modest milk
producers, these animals do; however, respond well to improvements in their
environment. So improvements in the meat and milk production at African
20
livestock are being sought through cross-breeding with imported breeds,
relatively modest increases in output can lead to large gain in the efficiency
with which feed resources are used, and this underlies the persistent attempts
to upgrade the B. indicus breeds by using imported B. Taurus breeds with
higher additive genetic performance for meat and milk production.
(Mohamed,2006). Williamson and Payne (1978) reported that the Sudanese
breeds are the best milker in African. Ageeb and Hillers (1991) reported that
milk production of Sudanese cattle was lower than that at exotic breeds but
was higher than that of most African breeds. Abdalla (1995) reported that
Kenana and Butana are the best diary breeds of Sudan. Bayoumi (1964) found
that the Kenana cattle are good milk producing animals. The big variations in
the yield, among the individual cows show that there is a big chance for
improvement through selective breeding. Bayoumi and Danasaury (1962)
reported milk yield of 442±140 gallons per lactation for Northern Sudanese
Zebu cattle at the University of Khartoum Farm. Alim (1962) found that the
average milk production per lactation was 3129±170 lb at Atbara Dairy Farm
Research Station for Butana cattle, while for Kenana cattle at Gezira
Agricultural Research Station. Alim (1960) reported that the average yield
was 338±152 gallons per lactation. Hassan (1968) reported that the average
milk yield of local cattle vary according to the locality and type of cattle, the
highest yield was reported for Kenana cattle with average of 7 lb/day in their
natural habitat, that may be raised up to 15 lb/day under improved
management conditions, while in southern parts at Sudan an average of 1
lb/cow/day was normal.
Milking potentials of the Butana cattle and a wide variability was
documented among the different reports. Yields ranging from1395.9 to
1807.0 kg per lactation were documented by Abdalla et al. (1990); El
Habeeb (1991) and Musa (2001). Fanagaly (1980) found that the mean of 305
day of milk yield in Kenana cows at Umbenen and Nisheshiba were 1872.5

21
kg and 1367 kg respectively, while in Butana cows he found that the 305 days
milk yield was 2254.43 kg at Atbara Station. Osman (1972) reported 3.58
liters as mean daily yield of Sudanese indigenous cows at Guwazat Station.
Sid Ahmed (1986) obtained mean lactation yield of crossbred cows in Sudan
as 514.66±9.3 gallon.
Fawi (1994) showed that the average total milk yield of Friesian
crossbred cows was found to increase from the first to the eighth lactation;
she reported that the total yield increased with increase of lactation length,
being maximum for cows with a lactation length more than 13 months.
In Egypt Gubar et al. (1985) reported 4615kg for 305 day milk in Friesian x
Domiatti cows. Abdalla (1987) in study on crossbred at Khartoum University
Farm found that the average daily milk yield for crossbred having 25, 37.5
and 50% or more Friesian blood was 8.5, 7.9 and 11.7 kg, respectively.
Abdel-Mageed (1988) reported that milk yield of local cows was 5.6 kg/day
and 10.1 kg/day for crossbred. Ali et al. (1988) showed that the mean daily
yield for Friesian x zebu (Kenana or Butana) crossbred cows having 50, 62.5
and 75% Friesian inheritance were 13.2, 15.0 and 13.0 lb, respectively.
Mahomoud (1998) found that Holstein Friesian cows in Sudan produced 8.93
kg/day for winter calvers and 8.1 kg/day for wet summer calvers and 7.83
kg/day for dry summer calvers.

2.4.2 Lactation length

Lactation length is defined as the period between two consecutive
calvings during which cows are capable of producing milk or lactation. The
standard length of lactation has been taken as 305 days, which corresponds to
the optimum reproductive cycle of a cow. Both short and long lactation period
are not desirable since both increase loss of profit.
Alim (1960) reported that mean lactation length of 224± 85 days for
kenana cattle of Sudan at AIGazira Agricultural Research Station. However,

22
Alim (1962) in another experiment estimated mean lactation length of Butana
cattle in Atbara as 253±103 days. EI-Amin (1969) reported mean lactation
length of Northern Sudan Zebu at the University of Khartoum Farm as 294
days .Osman (1972) stated that the mean lactation length of Sudanese cattle at
Ghazal Gawazat was 272.05±4.8 days. The author concluded that both season
of calving and lactation number did not significantly (p>0.05) affect the trait,
but year at calving significantly (p<0.01) affected lactation length .Fangaly
(1980) revealed that lactation length of Kenana cattle at Umbenein and
Nesheshiba were 227.7±90.8 and 198±120.8 days respectively, while
lactation length of Butana at Atbara Station was 240.3±102.15 days. Sid
Ahmed (1986) found mean lactation length of Sudanese x European cattle at
Ghurashi dairy farms as 45.77±0.69 weeks, and the trait was significantly
(p<0.01) affected by year of birth and lactation number . Mohammed et al.
(1991) reported a lactation length of 207.8 days compared to 317 days
reported by Dansoury and Bayoumi (1963) for the University of Khartoum
herd. Abdalla et al. (1990) reported that the mean lactation length for Kenana
and Butana was 283±40 and 283±57 days respectively.
Several researchers investigated the effects of crossbreeding on
lactation length. Yousif et al. (1998) found that the mean lactation length for
crossbred dairy cows was 344±94 days. Fadelel- Moula (1994) found that the
overall mean of lactation length in Khartoum University Farm was 346±95
days .Rahmatalla (2002) reported that the average lactation length in
Belgeravia, Khartoum University Farm and Judiciary Farm were
366.69_+107.51, 371.46±122.90 and 344.15±188.11 days respectively. Ishag
(2000) claimed mean lactation length in Kenana Sugar Company Farm as
322.57±5.88 and 291.34±2.12 days in the first and overall calving
respectively. Ibrahim (1983) noted that average lactations lengths of Friesian
cattle in Dairy Land Farm in the first three lactations were 297.8, 266.8 and
240.3 days respectively. Mahomoud (1998) reported that the mean lactation

23
length for Friesian cattle was 241±0.5 days. Ali et al. (1988) found that the
average lactation length of Friesian x Kenana crossbred cows having 50% ,
62.5% and 75% Friesian inheritance were 306, 369 and 298 days respectively
. Ageeb and Hiller , (1991) stated that the lactation length were 275 and 255
days for Friesian x Butana and Friesian x Kenana crossbred respectively.
Fawi (1994) studied Friesian crossbred at Khartoum University Farm and
found that the average lactation length was maximum in the first and eighth
lactations and overall average lactation length was 374.63±39.2 days.
In different countries the authors studied variety of lactation length in
different breeds. Ahmed and Sivarajasingam (1998) reported an average
lactation length for Sahiwal cattle as 270.7 days while Dahlin (1998) reported
an average of 255 days for the same breed. In Irag EI-Barbary et al. (1983)
studied the economic characteristics of Frisian cattle claimed a mean lactation
length of 316.92±97.54 days. In Egyptian cattle Alim (1962) revealed that
lactation length was 260.7 days. In Ethiopia at Asela Station, Kiwuwa et al.
(1983) demonstrated that the mean lactation length for indigenous and
crossbred cows was 364±4 days. In North – East Tanzania, Msanga et al.
(2000) studied lactation length of crossbred in small holder and reported that
the least square mean for first lactation length was 331±77 days. Bulal (2000)
observed that the overall mean of lactation length for crossbred in small
holder farm was 363.5 days at Bilalo and 383.7 days at Lemmu. In Malawi,
Agymang and Khonjera, (1986) reported that the mean lactation length for
Friesian crossbred in small holder farms was 390±150 days, with a coefficient
of variation of 38%. However, the mean for cows having 50% and 75%
Friesian inheritance were 382 and401 days respectively. In Cameron, Mbab et
al. (1991) found that the average lactation length for Adamawa, Holstein,
Holstein x Adamawa (F1) and Montbeliard x Admawa (F1) and (F2)
crossbreds cows were 140, 298.5, 282.3, 258.3 and 256.8 days respectively .
In India Barhat et al. (1980) reported that the lactation length of Nogore herd

24
was found to be 280.4 days, Misrra and Basant (1982) reported the lactation
length of Haryana cattle as 270.05 days. Basu et al. (1979) claimed that
lactation length of India dairy breed was found to be 305 days. In China the
lactation length for Sanhe cows averaged about 300 days, but varies according
to the feeding and management conditions, cows kept under good conditions
have a lactation period of 300- 330 days (F.A.O.1984) . In Bangladesh, Islam
et al. (2002) reported that the lactation length of Friesian cross, Sahiwal cross,
Sindhi cross and indigenous dairy cows was 253±24.73, 256.31±24.31,
255.86±27.58 and 230.62±30.68 days respectively. Rahman and Haque
(2001) found that the lactation length of native cows in Bangladesh ranged
from 230.58_+69.51 to 266.96±78.91 days. In Vietnam Dokim (2001) studied
the lactation performance of dairy cattle breed and reported lactation length of
281.8 days

2.4.3 Rest (dry) period

The dry period is define as the period during which the cow is not
milking that mean the term refers to the period of off- milking. Ideal dry
period are at least six to eight weeks (60 days) between lactation for
regeneration of secretary tissue and to restore body condition and increase
milk yield for the first three month of next lactation. Very short rest period
lead to low milk production. In the subsequent lactation very long one are not
desirable. Smith (1959) stated that dry period is necessary in order to
accomplish one or more of the following:
1. To replenish the body with nutrients that was depleted during
lactation.
2. To repair and regenerate the alveolar system.
3. To gain new stimulation for lactation as the result of parturition.
Deficient dry cow care may result in decreased milk yield, increased
incidence of parturient health disorders and impaired fertility (Curtis et al.,

25
1986). Fadelel-Moula (1994) found that the dry period of crossbred in
Khartoum University Farm was 96±60 days. Habeeballa (1996) reported that
the dry period for crossbred cows, local breeds and pure Friesian cows were
49.5±19, 78.7±15.5 and 30 days, respectively. Alim (1962) showed mean
dry period at Butana cows at Atbara to be 159±104 days. El-Amin and Osman
(1971) reported 114 days as mean dry period of Northern Sudan Zebu.
Kalafalla (1977) in his study on Kenana cattle observed that the average dry
period was 174±5.1 days. Khalafalla (1988) reported that in Butana cattle the
average dry period was 139 days and he concluded that dry period was
longest for summer calvers (155) and shorter for winter calvers and found
first calves heifers had longer dry period than multiparious cows. Funk et al.
(1987) mentioned that cow’s dry period of 40 days or less produced markedly
less in the following lactation. Cow dry period of approximately 60 days
produced the highest milk in the following lactation. Dry periods longer than
60 days were only moderately detrimental to subsequent lactation yield.
Yousif et al (1998) studied the dry period on crossbred dairy cattle at
Khartoum University farm explained that the average dry period was 96±60
days. Rahmatalla (2002) reported that the average dry period in Belgeravia,
Khartoum University and Judiciary farms was 124.99±93.64, 108.90±81.13,
and 75.38±65.82 days respectively.
Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the merits for dry
periods, including replenishment of body condition, regeneration of mammary
tissue, and optimization of benefits from endocrine events near the time of
parturition (Annon et al., 2003; Annen et al., 2004). Days dry required for
maximum milk yield was decreased when calving interval was increased, and
the interaction was stronger as parity increased (Dias and Allaire, 1982).
Dry period of 40-60 days as a routine management practice in the dairy
industry provides a balance of maximum milk yield and profitability. There is
an extensive list of reports indicated that reducing dry period below 50 to 60

26
days result in a reduction in milk yield in the following lactation. ( Keown
and Evertett, 1986, Sorensen and Enevoldsen, 1991, Remond et al., 1992).
Adry period less than 40 days reduce milk yield in the subsequent lactation by
5 to 15%. (Grummer and Rastani, 2004) Possible advantages of reducing
length of dry period include increased income from milk production,
simplified dry cow management, decreased metabolic disorders and
alleviation of overcrowded dry cow facilities.
Sharma et al. (1982) found the overall mean dry period of Sahiwal x
Friesian cows to be 114.66±5.87 days. The mean length of first dry period of
Sahiwal cattle in India was 134.6±4.90 days, with significant effect of farm
on the character ( Chawla and Mishra, 1983). In India Patel et al. (1989)
showed that the mean dry period of pure Kankrej cows was 212.20±28.20
days and that of F1 and F2 crossbred with Jersey were 77.15±3.85 and
91.70±6.67 days respectively. In Irag EI- Barbary et al . (1983) found that the
mean dry period of Friesian cows was 95.84±70.95 days, and the trait was
found to affect milk yield significantly (p<0.01).

2.5 Reproductive performance

Fertility is the ability of male and female animals to produce viable
germ cells, mate, conceive and deliver normal living young (Ensminger,
1969). The lifetime productivity of a cow is influenced by age at puberty, age
at first calving and calving interval.
Reproductive performance is of major importance in a dairy
enterprise. The percentage calf crop is crucial for herd replacement, and milk
production is heavily dependent on regular reproduction. The rate of genetic
progress is also closely linked with reproductive efficiency.
The main traits related to reproductive performance are age at first
calving, the interval between successive calving’s and from these two, the
potential lifetime production. Under station conditions, age at first calving

27
depends not only on the rate of growth achieved by calves but is also
influenced by the management policies with regard to weight or age at first
mating and whether or not seasonal breeding is practiced. Calving intervals
are influenced by such factors as cow and bull fertility, lactation, anestrous
and possibly by other effects of lactation on fertility. Calving interval is also
affected by management policy in relation to services period, by the number
of services required per conceptions and by effects of season and year of last
calving and by the effects of age of cows.

2.5.1 Age at first calving

Age at first calving is defined as the periods of time elapse from the
date of birth of dam. First calving marks the beginning of a cow’s productive
life; it’s closely related to generation interval and, therefore, influences
response to selection. An early age at first calving reduces the unproductive
life of the cow and shortens the generation interval, thus enabling earlier
performance indication. (Musa, 2007).Under controlled breeding; heifers are
usually mated when they are mature enough to withstand the stress of
parturition and lactation. This increases likelihood of early conception after
parturition. In traditional production systems, however, breeding is often
uncontrolled and heifers are bred at the first opportunity. This frequently
results in longer subsequent calving intervals.
Heritabilities of age at puberty, first conception and first calving are
generally low, indicating that these traits are highly influenced by
environmental factors.
Bayoumi and Khalifa (1966) found that the age of animal was an
important physiological factor affecting the yield and composition of milk.
Dass et al. (1971) reported that age at first calving was a vital trait in
improving the economy of dairy cattle. He further suggested that less age at
first calving tend to reduce the cost of rearing females to maturity, the

28
generation interval and made available the records on first lactation yield
earlier , so that the estimated of producing ability of females and progeny tests
of their sires could be obtained earlier . Consequently the annual genetic gain
by selective breeding could be greater.
The average age at first calving in Bos indicus cattle is about 44
months compared with about 34 months in Bos Taurus and Bos indicus x Bos
Taurus crosses in the tropics Alim (1962) . This trait varies with breed in
temperate and tropics. Tropical dairy breeds attained the productive life at
later age than those of the temperate zone. Alim (1962) showed that mean age
at first calving of Butana cattle at Atbara government farm was 44±8 months.
However, Osman and EI- Amin (1971) studied the herd at the University of
Khartoum Farm. They found that mean age at first calving of Northern Sudan
cattle to be 44 month. Osman (1972) estimated mean age at first calving of
Sudanese indigenous cattle at Ghazal Gawazat Station to be 66.7 months,
with the youngest and oldest first calvings at 30 and 96 months old
respectively.
Several researchers studied this trait in different countries. In India,
Malhtra and Singh (1980) found that mean age at first calving of Red Sindhi
cows was 41.5±0.5 months. Chawla and Mishra (1983) estimated mean age at
first calving of Sahiwal cattle as 38.65±2.69 months. In studied of other zebu
breeds, Swensson et al. (1981) obtained a mean age at first calving of Arussi
cattle as 33.7 months. Osei and Effah- Bash (1989) compared the age at first
calving of N dama and West African Shorthorn. They found that the mean age
at first calving was 37.86 and 35.93 months respectively, and the breed
differences was not significant (p>0.05).
In India several researchers studied the effect of foreign blood on age
at first calving of Indian local breed. Patel et al. (1989) estimated mean age at
first calving of Kankrej cows to be 52.73 months and that of their F1 and F2
crosses with Jeresy were 28.43 and 31.06 months respectively. In Nigeria

29
Mbap and Ngere (1989) found mean age at first calving of Friesian cows was
37.9 and 29.4 months for imported and locally born heifers. In Temperate
regions Gadara et al .(1990) investigated the genetic and non- genetic factors
affecting milk quantity and their interaction in temperate Holstein – Friesian,
Brown – Swiss and Jersey x Zebu “Haryana” crossbred cattle . They obtained
on overall mean age at first calving of 943±7 days.

2.5.2 Calving interval

Define as the period between two consecutive calving; it influences
the total lactation yield by its effect on lactation length. The cow milked for a
period of 10 months and remains dry for 2 months, hence the interval period
between calvings must not exceed 12-13 months if there is a longer period
this affected the lifespan of the cow and lead to less productivity and lees
annual return.
Calving interval has been extensively analyzed and documented by
several research workers. It is probably the best index of cattle herds’
reproductive efficiency. Resumption of ovarian activity in the postpartum
period does not necessarily lead to conception and methods of stimulating
estrus must be considered in relation to their effect on conception and
indirectly, calving interval (Holness et a, 1980).
Pullan (1979) quoted previous work in which it was estimated that
only about 4% of Nigerian Zebu cattle calved each year, 22% calved every
other year and 73% calved irregularly. Sada (1968) suggested that, in NDama,
Sokoto Gudali and West African Shorthorn cows, calving intervals shorter
than 410 days (13.6 months) are very good, those of 411- 460 (13.6- 15.3
months) are satisfactory and those greater than 461 days (15.3 months) were
unsatisfactory . Investigation of Zebu cattle breeds revealed greater
intercalving period than European breeds. Estimates of calving interval in
Zebu cattle range from12.2 to 26.6 months. By Sadas (1968) standards, many

30
of the calving intervals were unsatisfactory. Most of the longer calving
intervals were from traditionally raised animals. In Sudan Osman (1972)
obtained a longer calving interval (447.0±8.65) for Sudanese indigenous
cattle raised under range conditions at Ghazal Gawazat experimental station.
He stated that the trait was significantly (p<0.01) affected by lactation
number, season and year at calving, in which the first calving intervals were
the longest and thereafter it shortened until the third calving interval which
did not differ significantly (p>0.05) from the fourth . In India Puberty and
Sane (1982) estimated mean calving intervals of Dangi breed of cows as
474.1±10.2 days , ranging from 301 to 1136 days, they also reported
significant (p<0.05) influence of season on calving intervals. Basu et al.
(1983) showed that the overall mean of second and third calving intervals of
Tharparkar cattle were 440.12±98.94 and 433.05±90.49 days respectively.
The authors also suggested that the period of calving had a significant effect
on calving interval. In Ghana Osei and Effah- Baah (1989) reported mean
calving interval of N dama and West African Shorthorn cattle as 18.56±0.31
and 18.57±0.43 months respectively, with breed difference being non-
significant (p>0.05) . Gondhi and Gurnani (1990) found that the mean first
calving interval of Sahiwal cows was 475.43±5.71 days.
Another group of researchers studied the crossbred cows, found that cows
showed tendency for increasing calving interval with increasing percentage of
European blood. Sid Ahmed (1986) obtained mean first calving interval for
Sudanese indigenous breed x European breed to be 481.82±5.94 days, which
was significantly (p<0.05) affected by year and year of first calving. On the
other hand, several researchers concluded that the level of European blood
decreases the inercalving period. In Sudan Marchot et al. (1982) estimated
mean calving interval of Nilotic and grade Friesian cows to be 342, 355, 343,
331, 345 and 391 days for imported cows with >50% Friesian inheritance,
imported cows with >50% Zebu inheritance, homebred cows with > 50%

31
Friesian inheritance , homebred cows with >50% Zebu inheritance, Friesian x
Nilotic cows and Nilotic cows respectively . Sada and Vohradsky (1982)
found that crossbreeding of tropical cattle (N dama, West African Shorthorn
andSokoto cows) with Jersey semen decreased calving interval by 13.3%. In
India Logar et al. (2000), showed in a study of cross bred cows calving
interval were 341, 365 days and mean calving interval is 400.2±69.1 days.
Other researchers studied the performance of the exotic breed in the
tropics found that, estimated mean calving interval for Holstein- Friesian in
Brazil as 406.5±4.2 days with significant (p<0.05) effect of year on the trait
but not parity number (Costa et al.,1982) . Mbap and Ngere (1989) reported
mean calving interval of Friesian cows in Nigera as 364 days and only year of
calving had a significant (p<0.05) effect on the trait, whereas neither season
nor parity number have had an effect on calving interval .In I rage EI-
Barbary et al . (1983) found mean calving interval of Friesian cattle as
14.67_+5.97 months with 40.75% c.v .
The days open is the part of the calving interval that can be shortened by
improved herd management. The days open period should not exceed 80-85
days if calving interval of 12 months to be achieved (Peters, 1984). This
requires re-establishment of ovarian activity soon after calving and high
conception rates. The duration of this period is influenced by nutrition
(Wiltbank et al, 1962), season, milk yield, parity (Buck et al, 1975), suckling
and uterine involution. At any time, the effects of one or more of these factors
may be confounded.

2.5.3 Number of services per conception “NSPC”

The number of services per conception (NSC) depends largely on
the breeding system used; it’s one of the breeding efficiency measures. It is
higher under uncontrolled natural breeding and low where hand- mating or
artificial insemination is used. Values greater than 2.0 should be regarded as

32
poor. Esslemont et al. (1985) defined the term as the total number of services
given to a group of cows over a defined period divided by the number of
services which result in a diagnosed pregnancy not less than 42 days after
service, with services to culled cows being included.
Osman (1972) obtained 1.25 as mean NSPC for Sudanese indigenous
cows at Ghazal Gawazat station. The author stated that the effect of year of
calving and lactation number were not significant (p>0.05), however, season
of calving had significant (p<0.01) effect on NSPC. EI- Amin (1969) reported
that the mean NSPC for Sudanese indigenous dairy cattle was 1.5±1.03 at the
University of Khartoum Farm. In Ethiopia Swensson et al. (1981) showed that
the mean NSPC of Arussi breed raised at two locations, Viz Gobe and Asella
were 2.38±1.39 and 2.56±1.93 respectively. The authors stated that the season
of calving markedly affected the trait. Azage Tegegn et al. (1981) using 3
local Ethiopian breeds, the Barca, Horro and Boran, found that NSPC was
lower for animals from wet areas than for those from drier areas (1.74±0.6 vs.
1.98±0.07). In India Bhatnagar et al (1982) estimated an overall mean
NSPC of Tharparkar cow’s as1.6±0.08. The period of calving had significant
(p<0.05) effect on NSPC, while month of calving, dam s parity order and
differences among Sires did not exert a significant effect in the trait (p>0.05).
Crossbred cows required 0.12 and 0.14 fewer services per conception
than local Zebu cows in wet and dry areas, respectively. Osman and Russel
(1974) reported that the overall mean number of services per second, third,
fourth and fitfth conceptions of European- Zebu crossbred cows at Ghurashi
dairy farm were 1.8±0.06, 2.0±0.06, 2.0±0.06 and 2.1±0.07 respectively.
They stated that only the period of calving had significant effect on the NSPC.
EI- Amin et al (1981) concluded that NSPC did not differ significantly
between Red Butana and Red Butana crosses (average 2.6) but was influenced
by month of calving. NSPC increased over the study period, probably due to
changes in management. This was partly supported by the analysis of Busch

33
and Furstenberg (1984) of 483600 inseminations performed by 379
technicians on 623 farms in the USA, which showed that the 90 and 120 day
non- return rate differed significantly among inseminators and inseminator
effect was greater than the farm effect. However, non-return rate did not differ
among bulls. Sharma and Bhatnagar (1975) found a significant effect of parity
on NSPC in Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar cattle. The NSPC was
highest at the fourth lactation for F1 crosses with Brown Swiss, Kumar and
Bhat (1979) noted that Haryana heifers needed more services per conception
than cows. Younis et al. (1976) reported a mean NSPC of Friesian cattle
under Kuwait conditions as 2.23±0.28, they revealed that the source of animal
importation and year to year variation had significant (p<0.01) effect on
NSPC, but month of calving did not affect the trait.

2.5.4 Gestation period

Gestation period defined as the period from a date of conception to the
date that a new calf is born. The average gestation period of a cow is around
283 or 285 days. However, actual length depends on the cow ̉ s age, breeding,
and individual variations. Smaller cows have a shorter gestation period than
the older and bigger cows. The cows with poor fertility, late – maturing cows
will have a longer gestation length than those with good fertility and early-
maturing. With optimum service period, gestation period keep the regularity
of inter-calving period, hence the economical and breeding efficiency of dairy
cattle.
Swensson et al. (1981) reviewed the reproductive performance of
Arussi Zebu breed of Ethiopia. They found that the mean gestation period
were 276.2±6.1 and 276.1±6.7 days for Gobe and Asella stations respectively,
while mean gestation period of Jersey and Friesian x Arussi heifers were
275.3±6.1 and 275.2±6.5 days respectively at Asella station. In Sudan Osman
(1972) found that the mean gestation length of Sudanese cattle at Ghazal

34
Gawazat to be 287.2 days. In India Patel et al. (1983) estimated mean
gestation period of Jersey x Kankrej cows to be 282.29 and 279.20 days for
male and female delivery respectively, and that of Holstein-Friesian x
Kankrej were 281.90 and 278.27 days for males and females respectively.
Younis (1976) showed that the mean gestation length of Friesian herd at
Kuwait was 272.3±0.92 days. Source of cows, year of calving, gestation
number and age at first caving had no significant effect on the trait, but the
period and month of calving had a significant (p<0.05) effect on gestation
period.

2.6 Management program

Management is very important for dairy farms unless properly
managed cows will never obtain their full potential. The profitability is
determined largely by the productivity of individual cows and the entire herds
(Habeeballa, 1996). For sustainable dairying a mixed farming system (crop-
livestock mix) at small holder’s level is essential. It can be classified into
farms in rainfed agriculture, farms in irrigated agriculture and in plantation
agriculture. Integrated systems can also be practiced using waste management
systems (TP Sethumadhavan, 2004).

2.6.1 Calf rearing

Calf rearing is an important factor in the dairy farms since the young
calf is the future of the dairy herd. The first step in the production of calves is
to have a strong calf at birth. Weak calves are much more difficult to raise
than strong, healthy calves. The management of the cow largely determines
how strong and healthy calf will be at birth (Diggins et al., 1984).
Calves receive inadequate attention during the first few weeks of life will
result in the following:-
1. Will not meet live weight targets thus delaying age at first calving.
2. More prone to disease
35
 3. Cost more to rear.

2.6.1.1 Calf housing

When calves are newly born they are often housed in areas
contaminated by older calves and mature cows, under those condition the
mortality rate are frequently very high, often high losses may occur in herds
where even better standards of management and housing facilities are
available (Weaver et al., 1949). Alim. (1960) and Wakeem and Danasury,
(1962), reported that in the tropics high calf mortality was thought to be
partially due to environmental conditions and partly to management practices.
Roy (1980) found that mortality of calves housed in group pens was higher
than those singly penned and that was also true for mortality caused by
pneumonia.

2.6.1.2 Bedding
Bedding makes up an important part of calf environment for calf
comfort, floor fall and ventilation is also important to drain down under the
bedding material otherwise humidity will increase leading to severe disease
outbreaks (Bourne, 1973; Sainsbury, 1976). Bath et al. (1985) reported that it
is necessary to put enough bedding to keep the calf dry, but bedding materials
may be eaten by calves and cause digestive upset, manure should be removed
regularly. Mohammed (1995) in his study found that individual calf housing
was used in six farms (7.06%), and bedding practices in farms (3.5%)
respectively.

2.6.1.3 Weaning
Weaning can be a stressful time for the calf and if not carried out
properly can set back progress within the rearing program.
There is no consensus on how to provide colostrums: the calf can nurse
the cow for 4 days. After initial nursing or hand – feeding, the cow and calf

36
can be separated within 24 to 48 hours and colostrums can be bucket- fed
(Bath et al., 1985).
A/ Magid (1988) reported that at Kuku dairy project, natural calf
rearing is practiced. Farmers allow the calf with the dam for 3-7 days after
birth to consume all milk, then left with dam all the night for 15 days, later
calves are separated and kept in collective penning for all ages and only left
to suckle after milking. The same author reported that the calf is weaned
partially from the dam at 3-4 months, (the actual weaning age) but let down
stimulation before milking and for stripping after milking until the cow was
dry is practiced.

2.6.2 Dehorning
Horns that have been well trimmed and polished add to attractiveness
of show cattle of the horn breeds. Commercial dairy persons should remove
the horns for the following reasons: (Diggins et al., 1984).
1. More room needed for horned cattle in the sheds and barns.
2. Cattle with horns inflict more damage on equipment.
3. There is more danger to the operator in handling cattle with horns.
4. Horned cattle inclined to fight will keep others away from feed.
5. Cattle with horns inflict bruises on one another that may result in heavy
economic losses.
Dehorning is generally a recommended practice that reduces injuries to
both animals and handlers, bruising during transport, and aggressive behavior
in grouped cattle (Tarrant, 1990). The suitable age for dehorning is three
weeks of age, because the operation would become harder with age (Russel,
1985). Methods of dehorning depend upon the age of the animal and the
experience of the operator. (Blakely and Bade ,1982); Ewbank, (1988)
reported that young calves are often dehorned by use of a strong chemical
paste (Potassium or Sodium hydroxide). The paste is placed around the horn

37
button during the first week of age, destroying the growth or development of
the horn. The horn button can also be taken off by the use of a spoon or
electric dehorners.

2.6.3 Identification and recording system

An important function of a dairy records program is identification of
the animals in the herd for breeding, feeding, selection; calving and culling
these depend on accurate identification of animals. Methods of identification
include: Numbering, moxibustion, ear tag, snow moxibustion, tattooing, and
chain around the neck of the cow. Proper identification is necessary for
registration of animals with the purebred cattle association and for keeping
records of cows on official production testing programs. (Schmidt and Van
Vleck, 1974).
Breeding and calving records are essential to good dairy management.
The dairy manager should be able at any time to determine the Sir and dam of
a calf, it should also be known when the calf was born and breeding date of
heifers and cows and expected calving date (Diggins et al., 1984).
In Kuku dairy project, Abdel-Mageed (1988) reported that the farmer
does not keep records for his herd. Only two or three farmers keep the AI
record or service record which is incomplete.
There are many type of records: For Production, reproduction,
nutritional, health, weigh, and finical administration records. Neglect of
records keeping, computer use and management practice information is a
mistake that can lead to long-term losses in herd performance and
profitability, ( Rice et al., 1996).
Peters and Thorpe (1988) found that the importance of recording
systems as a tool for genetic improvement is a rather one-dimensional
approach. Performance recording should rather be a tool for collecting
information on production system and thus, provide data on the improvement

38
of management practices. Hence, animal recording should be considered as a
multi-purpose tool and should be implemented with sustainable participation
of dairy herd owners (Zumbach and Peters, 2002). Additionally, on-farm
animal recording appears to be a multi-purpose tool for development and also
a concrete and recognized mean for establishing personal relations between
the farmers and the extension (Flamant, 1998).

2.6.4 Housing
Housing requirement for cattle kept primarily for milk production is
very social while little or no housing is required for herds maintained only for
beef production. Experience has shown that cattle respond favorably to good
management, feeding and hygiene all of which is possible in systems with
suitable housing. As has been pointed out, cattle will be more efficient in the
production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme
heat, temperature and particularly from direct sunshine, thus in tropical and
subtropical climates shade become as important factor. So to accommodate
dairy animals in all types of weather newer, more flexible housing has been
sought by those in the industry (Leland, 2001). For sustainable dairying cattle
shed should be scientifically constructed in such a way that it should protect
the animal from adverse climatic conditions. Moreover cattle sheds would be
eco-friendly in nature. Semi –intensive system of management is more
prevalent under small holder management system. Conventional barns are
constructed under intensive system of management (TP Sethumadhavan,
2004).
The management and design of animal housing inevitably involves
compromise between the needs of animals and those of the owners, for low
cost efficiency of operation, housing basic needs are to provide feed, protect
against thermal and physical stress and protect against injury (Raw and Hill,
1989). It is also of great importance to consult veterinarians about building

39
design to avoid faults that cause difficulty to operators. Attention should be
given to drainage, roof with guttering and basic essentials for dry floor and
walls (Sainsbury, 1970). Major design parameters for permanent shade
structure include orientation, floor space, height, ventilation, roof
construction, feed and water facilities and wasted management system
(Buffington, 1983). Sufficient shade is also of high importance and has a high
significant effect on Friesian crosses in the tropics since it increases milk
yield by 18.4 %( C.A.B. 1972).
At Kuku dairy project most pens are poorly designed fences made of
barbed wire, space requirement per cow are not considered, the shade built at
the center with local materials and can only provide partial shade and they are
prone to ticks (Abdel- Mageed, 1988). In practice two types of shade, trees as
a natural shading source have the advantage of effective blockers of solar
radiation, and aids in normal cooling by provision of moisture from leaves
surface. The second shading type provides its blocking effects through the use
of properly constructed barns or sheds (Cllier et al, 1981).
The deep concern that housing should provide the best possible
environment, so that the animals would be efficiently productive. Bad
planning and poor husbandry provide high risk that ever passes from one
crisis to another (Sainsbury, 1976). Crowding of animals under shade,
possibly offers a good opportunity for infectious diseases (Dafalla, 1962).
Although housing modify the effect of climate, but it also increases the
density of pathogens and hence the disease occurrence, thus any stress that
lower the resistance, will be magnified under housing conditions (Webster,
1981).
So it is important that dairy cattle housing should be integrated with
several other systems to provide cow comfort, good health, efficient waste
handling, dry clean environment and good management practices as basic
essentials (Galton, 1984).

40
2.6.5 Dairy feeding
Dairy cow uses feed for maintenance, development of the unborn calf,
and for milk production (Diggins et al., 1984). The success of the feed
operation is dependent upon two factors:
1. The quality of the diet (energy level, balanced diet).
2. The volume of the feed consumed daily by the animals, which depends
on the palatability of the fodder and how it is distributed to the animals.
Habeeballa (1996) found that the farmers of dairy cattle in Eastern Nile
Khartoum feed their animals quantitatively and qualitatively according to
availability and price of food in the market, and they did not offer any
concentrate to dry cows and heifers because of increasing prices of
concentrate. Russel (1972) indicated that food costs for dairy cattle could be
reduced by controlled feeding to yield wise steaming up, balancing of
concentrate to quality of bulk feed, and use of home grown cereals.
Habeeballa (1996) recommended for extension services by the government to
make formulation of rations on economic basis and estimate the dairy cow
requirements for feed. Moreover the intervention of the government to avail
animal feeds to the farmers at reasonable prices through provision of
improved seeds of fodder crops and provision of concentrate ingredients at a
reasonable price. Also helping to store ingredients at the season of availability
e.g. Sorghum and restrict export of some ingredients e.g. Molasses. Oil cakes
and to encourage their production domestically. C.A.B (1990) indicated that
the feed intake of lactating cows is determined by cow size, milk yield, and
stage of lactation and energy content of the diet. Vasilatos and Wangsness
(1980) found that the cow consumed 24.2kg dry matter to produce 32.3kg of
milk. While Dodo and Allon (1994) reported that a cow consumed 20.0kg dry
matter to produce 28.7kg of milk.
Feeding high energy levels before calving and during early lactation
improved the general condition of cows and their productive and reproductive

41
performance (Ali, 1991). Hoogendroom and Griver (1970) fed dairy cows
with three dietary energy levels, and reported that the cows offered the low
energy ration lactated only for 24 weeks with low level of milk yield, whereas
those offered medium or high energy rations completed 44 weeks of lactation,
except for the cows with previous records of low productivity or low
persistency levels. It has been indicated that the dietary energy requirements
of the highly producing cow at early lactation cannot be sufficiently met, and
the cow will maintain its high milk production by utilizing its body reserves
resulting in weight loss. Similarly the requirements of dietary protein depend
on the stage of lactation, energy supply and quantity of forage consumed. The
Agricultural Research Council (A.R.C., 1984) recommended a crude protein
level of 16% in the diet of lactating cows, which can be reduced to 12%
during advanced lactation.
The basic nutrient requirements of high yielding dairy cows for protein,
energy and minerals cannot be met with roughages feeding alone. It has been,
therefore, indicated that supplementation of roughage with high energy, high
protein concentrates is required in dairy cattle feeding, to balance the
nutritional deficiencies in the roughage and to promote the activities of the
rumen micro-flora. Concentrate supplementation to roughage has been found
to result in an increase in energetic efficiency which is associated with the
improvement in the production of fermentation end- products constituting the
main energy source for ruminants (Coppock et al., 1974). Arriaga et al. (1986)
investigated the response to concentrate feeding of high milking dairy cows
on intensive grazing, and reported an increase in milk yield with concentrate
supplementation. Wheeler (2004) found that a cow weighing 550kg giving
30kg milk yield could eat 3.7% of her body weight as dry matter (DM) daily
or about 20,4kg. A bigger cow (650kg) at the same milk yield can eat 3.4% of
her weight as dry matter (22.1 kg per day). Bigger cows at higher milk yield
can eat more feed dry matter. Habeeballa (1996) found that the average dry

42
matter intake of lactating cows 9.56, 8.38, 12.05 and 9.69kg for Alkadaro,
Alhalfaya, Shambat and Kuku areas respectively. Maximum dry matter intake
depends on continuous access to fresh, clean, cool water. You should provide
water in a well-lit area within 15 meters of the feed bunk. Cows drink about 5
liters for each kg milk (e.g., a cow producing 40 liters of milk will consume
200 liters of water). Decreasing water intake by 40% result in a 16 to 24%
decline in dry matter intake and a large decrease in milk yield. Cows need
more water in hot weather (Wheeler, 2004).
Milking cows can consume daily 1.8 to 2.2% of body weight as dry
matter intake from average quality dry roughage. Roughage quality is partly
determined by fiber levels. Fiber content increase as the forage crop matures.
High fiber forage has lower palatability; reduce protein levels and is less
digestible than high quality material. High fiber forage reduce dry matter
intake. A cow can eat 3% of body weight as dry matter from excellent hay
and only 1.5% from poor hay (Wheeler, 2004). William and Paul (1978)
reported that forage could make up 60-70% of the total dry matter intake of
dairy cattle. In case of high yielding cows, it appeared that, although feeding
more concentrate increased overall lactation yield, profits per cow decreased
(Doyle, 1983). For high producing, early lactating cows, at least 40% of the
ration dry matter should come from roughage. This gives as minimum forage
to concentrate ratio of 40:60 .When corn silage is above 45% of the roughage
dry matter, a 45:55 ratio is appropriate. More roughage (less grain) can be fed
to cows in late lactation or at low production levels. Forage concentrate ratios
80:20 can support 20 kg of milk yield if roughage quality is good (Wheeler,
2004). Tibin et al. (1990) claimed that total amount of green fodder fed per
cow / day at Kuku dairy project was 16.0 kg and 15.5 kg and supplementary
feeding offered per cow per day was 9.3 kg and 8.5 kg for different two
groups in the project.

43
 (Elkhidir and Ibrahim, 1998) found that molasses could be used for
feeding dairy cows with a percentage above 50%. They showed that rations
contained molasses with ratio between 20 – 35 % were used for feeding dairy
cows in Gezira scheme. They also quoted that using molasses cubes in
feeding dairy cattle in Khartoum state increased the milk yield with ratio from
25 – 50%. Bakheit (1995) compared the performance of two groups of dairy
cows fed molasses or grain sorghum as source of energy, and his results
indicated that molasses diet increased milk yield and improved the fertility.
Idris (2000) concluded that concentrate supplements containing cane molasses
were found to improve milk production. He indicated that molasses could be
used to replace grain sorghum or sorghum brewery residues in the concentrate
mixture. He considered it necessary to develop nutritional strategies using
locally available concentrate feeds, which should consider the seasonal
availability and nutritive quality of the natural pasture and cost effectiveness
of concentrate supplementation. Ishag (2000) reported that there are three
kind of concentrate available in Kenana Sugar Company Farm. They included
lactating cow concentrate (LCC), dry cow concentrate (DCC) and liquid
molasses. He described the composition of LCC and DCC in table (2-1).

44
Table (2-1). Composition of lactating cows concentrate and dry cows
concentrate in Kenana Sugar Company Farm.

Ingredients % LCC DCC

Sorghum (Dura) 7.0 12

Wheat bran 36.0 8
Ground nut cake 36.0 23.9
Baggass 0 23.9
Molasses 20.0 31.9
Nacl 0.30 0
Urea 0.20 0
Total 100 100

2.6.6 Heat detection

The estrus cycle , for cows is the average time from one heat period to
the next, known as the estrus cycle, is 21 days, but it varies from 17 to 26
days and lasts from 6 to 36 hours, with an average duration of 18 hours for
cows and 15 hr for heifers (Diggins et al., 1984). Ovulation occurs 10 to 14
hours after the end of the heat period (Blakely and Bade, 1982). Symptoms in
dairy cattle at the early stage of heat are not pronounced, but they will show
activities like smelling other cows, attempting to amount other cows and
bellowing, restless and moving around a great deal . The most definite signs
of heat of the cow is start to be mounted by other cows or mounts other cows
herself, the vulva may be reddened, moist and swollen, mucus or bloody
discharges may occur, nervousness, anorexia, and reduction in milk yield.
Estrus usually last for 16 to 24 hours in cattle (Sastry and Thomas 1980).
Some cows have silent heat periods. It is almost impossible to know when
such cows are in heat unless a bull is present (Diggins et al., 1984).

45
2.6.7 Natural and artificial insemination
Cows may be bred naturally (direct service by a bull) or artificially
(artificial insemination performed by a trained technician) (Diggins et al.,
1984). Artificial insemination is a practice in which the semen of the bull is
transferred to the cows by a person generally known as an inseminator or
technician (Schmidt and Van Vleck, 1974; Blakely and Bade, 1982). The best
method depends upon the size of the herd, production level of the herd,
whether or not the sale of bulls is part of the dairy program, and whether
artificial insemination service is available in the community (Diggins et al.,
1984). Artificial insemination service is not available in all localities (Blakely
and Bade, 1982).

2.6.8 Pregnancy diagnosis

Examination per rectum by an experience veterinarian will reveal
whether conception has occurred,(Arthur 1975; Ewer, 1982). Diagnosis
depend on several factors the most important are: the gestation at which
examination is made, the degree of resistance, voluntary or involuntary,
offered by the animal to examination, the parity of the animal. (Arthur, 1975).
An early diagnosis of pregnancy is essential for reproductive
management as well as economic production. In general an early diagnosis of
pregnancy is required to identify non pregnant animals soon after mating or
insemination so that production time lost from infertility may be reduced by
appropriate treatment or culling to certify animals for sale or insurance
purposes, to reduce waste inbreeding programs using expensive hormonal
techniques, and to assist in economic management of livestock, (Jainudeen
and Hafez, 2000). Factors used for easy diagnosis:
1. Identify the date of artificial insemination from reproductive records.
2. Resistance degree of cow voluntary or involuntary.
3. Number of calving date registered for cow.

46
2.6.9 Milking practices
The harvesting of the milk crop is the payoff in the dairy farm
operation. Cows are usually milked by three basic methods; Nursing by the
calf, hand milking, or milking by machine (Diggins et al., 1984).
Many studies indicate that milking cows three or four times per day
causes an increase in milk production in comparison with twice daily milking.
Comparison of records of cows on official testing programs show that cows
milked three times a day produce 15 to 25% more milk than cows milked
twice a day . Cows milked four times a day produce 5 to 10 % more milk than
cows milked three times per day. All of the increase in the milk production of
cows milked four times a day over that of cows milked three times a day
probably results from better feeding and management (Schmidt and Van
Vleck, 1974). Milk production per cow per day is higher in machine milked
herds than in hand milked. Hand milking yielded 2.7 liters as opposed to
about 6.9 for machine milking per cow per day (Whittemore, 1980).

2.7 Preventive measure practices

2.7.1 Sanitation
To reduce or to minimize the chance of contact between the host and
the infective agent, adequate cleaning and disinfection is the most effective
and cheapest way to prevent diseases and their spread (Nasri, 1966). For
health supervision the dairy farmer builds shade which is easy to be cleaned
and protect from winds and dust (Ibrahim, 1969). Daily removal of dung is
known to be effective in prevention of nematode manifestation (Straat, 1979)
Management practices adopted to reduce the exposure to mastitis include
dipping teats of all cow in disinfectant after each milking which is the most
effective part of the sanitation procedure, washing of milker̉s hand thoroughly
with disinfectants, washing udder, cloth towel must be cleaned with warm
water and disinfectant, the milking parlor must be sprayed after through

47
washing with detergent solution before and after milking, renewing the
bedding materials frequently, healthy cows are milked first by separate
milkers and culling of cows with repeated clinical mastitis. (Schmidt and
Vanvleck 1974; Mustafa et al 1977; Ibrahim and Habeeballa 1978; FAO
1989, Rodenburg 2002).

2.7.2 Milking hygiene

Under normal conditions milk is contaminated with microorganisms
from various sources (Dair, 1975). Visible dirt from the udder must be
removed before milking using clan water with disinfectant (Sodium Chloride)
because cows udder’s external surface were usually contaminated even when
they appear clean (Sharpe and Barmley, 1977; Natzke, 1981). Tropical
countries suffer from problems of keeping raw milk fresh for long period of
time. In such countries milk souring is due to high ambient temperature, poor
transportation facilities and high bacteria count of raw milk that result from
unsanitary methods of milk production Elinazeir (2005). High quality of milk
start with a healthy cow in clean sanitary environment, which demand, overall
good management program (Provan, 1961; Galton, 1984). Adamovic (1996)
found that milking by hand places great strains on the hand of milkers. This
may result in damage to udders or rough handling of cows.

2.7.3 Isolation
Dairy cattle purchased at markets or via dealers present a greater risk
due to increase of contact with other cattle (Scudamore, 1989). Isolation pens
are essential for temporarily accommodation of new addition to the herd or
for cows with infectious diseases (Shephered, 1973). It is very important to
apply severe control measures of isolation and quarantines for foreign breeds
imported for improvement of indigenous livestock in Sudan (Abu baker and
Elsanousi, 1976).

48
2.7.4 Testing
Dairy farms must be under supervision of veterinarians and dairy herd
specialist throughout the country, and must be examined for disease such as
tuberculosis and brucellosis (Karib, 1962). It is also important that milkers
and milk venders should be medically tested and should be free of diseases
such as typhoid and tuberculosis (Ibrahim, 1969).
Mastitis routine testing is very important because most of mastitis
infection persist as subclinical, which will not be detected by stockmen (FAO,
1978). Due to the lack of diagnostic laboratories in most of tropical countries
diagnosis was made depending on clinical signs (Pharo, 1987).

2.7.5 Vaccination
Since 1900, when for the first time veterinary services efforts were
made for disease control, disease prevention programs passed certain
development changes (Basher, 1969).
Mohammed (1995) noticed that vaccination against contagious diseases
such as Rinder Pest, Anthrax, Black Quarter, Contagious Bovine Pleuro
Pneumonia and Hemorrhagic Septicemia were reported by 92 % of the farms
studied. Habeeballa (1996) noticed that vaccination against contagious
diseases such as Rinder Pest, Anthrax, Black Quarter, Contagious Bovine
Pleuro Pneumonia and Hemorrhagic Septicemia were reported by 72 % of the
farms studied.
In Kuwait massive abortion and human cases of brucellosis were
successfully stopped by vaccinating cows with strain 19 brucella vaccines
(Al-Khalifa et al., 1992). In dairy herd dry cow vaccination program shown to
increase the protective properties of colostrums (Roy, 1980) and reduces calf
infection (Smith, 1977).

49
2.7.6 Culling
It is useful to study the disposal pattern of dairy cows periodically in
order to arrive at priorities for research and disease control (Oconnor and
Hodges, 1963; Bakken, 1977). The number of dairy cows culled from dairy
herd increased with lactation number, the main reason being low milk yield
and udder diseases (Gartener, 1983; Shatava, 1990). The fifth lactation was
reported as the age of maximum production (Khalifa and Shafei, 1965).
Culling and slaughter are practiced for brucella control when less than
10% of herds and less than 3% of the individuals are positively infected
(FAO/ WHO, 1959; Mustafa and Fawi, 1966). Culling due to reasons other
than low milk yield cause major losses for dairy farmer. Positive cases and
suspected cows in Khartoum dairy farms tested for john’s disease were killed
and burnt (Abu baker and Elsanousi, 1976). In Sudan involuntary culling
marks the disposal of dairy cow as a result of a disease. At Umbenen dairy
center 44.2% of culled cows for low production, 15.2% culled for udder
problems and involuntary culling was 17.4% (Beshir, 1970).

2.8 Health and veterinary supervision

Animal health problems are closely linked to the kind of environment
in which the herd is kept, the management methods used and to genetic
factors related to disease resistance in the animal population (Mohamed,
2006).
In Sudan where people are not sufficiently enlightened on importance
of reporting diseases, it is not surprising to discover how misleading the
available records as a guide for prevalence of diseases, it is only when
systemic research is done that true picture becomes clear (Karib, 1962).
However, prevention and control of diseases in Sudan present many
difficulties, pitfalls and disappointment. In general owing to economic

50
exigencies, veterinary medicine in proportion more preventive and far less
curative than human medicine (Baasher, 1969).
Veterinarians in cooperation with dairy farmers must detect and treat
all subclinical diseases and conditions that interfere with maximum
production and herd health (Cole, 1976). However continuous and readiness
of farmer to seek the help of veterinarian for their sick cattle is still low in the
tropics, because of the use of traditional (Folks) medicine or farmers assume
that modern medicine is very expensive (Tjokrohoesodo and Grossman,
1975).
Farms where veterinarians are self employed and contract to
individual farms for their services showed to achieve effective performance
goal for production and disease control (Paton, 1989). Habeeballa (1996)
noticed that only 10 % of farms were under veterinary supervision.

2.9 Diseases control

2.9.1 Mastitis
Mastitis is one of the worst diseases of dairy cattle. It generally affects
high-producing cows. The disease is caused by several types of germs that
find their way into the udder, often as a result of an injury. There are two
forms of mastitis, one known as the acute and the other as the chronic form
(Diggins et al., 1984).
Mastitis is one of the most common and costy diseases of dairy cattle
(Rodenburg, 2002). Several surveys were conducted in Sudan to study the
incidence, causative agent and significance of bovine mastitis (Wakeem and
Eltayeb, 1962; Bagadi, 1970, 1974; Bagadi and Razig, 1976, Mustafa et al
1977, Adlan et al 1980, Shallali et al., 1982; 1988). those surveys have shown
that incidence of bovine mastitis was high, Staphylococcus aureas was the
most frequently isolated udder pathogen and economical losses were
tremendous. Mustafa et al., (1977) studying mastitis in Atbara dairy herd

51
found that 20 out of 35 cows were infected with mastitis. Mohammed (1995)
in his study in Khartoum State found that the incidence of mastitis ranged
between 13.3% to 46.7%. Mastitis is prevailing in Sudan among all breeds.
The infection rate reached 97% in Kenana cows, 45% in Butana cows and
32% in crossbred cows (Abdalla, 1995).
Management practices adopted to reduce the exposure to mastitis
require understanding of the period when teats are exposed to pathogens and
the primary source of pathogens (Eberhart andBuckaiew, 1972). No single
management procedure effectively prevent environmental mastitis under
controlled conditions (Hongans and Smith, 1989), however post milking teat
dipping with disinfectant, is one of the most effective procedure in reducing
the rate of clinical mastitis, together with cleaning with flushing running
water, udder cloth towel soaked in warm water with disinfectant and milkers,
hands dip in disinfectant (Pankey and Phipot, 1974; Philpot, 1975; Helir and
Bec, 1979; Oliver et al., 1989; FAO, 1989). Lowajock (1992) noticed that in
some of Khartoum dairy farms, farmers continue to maintain cow with one
functional teat and some chronic cases without culling.
Dry cow therapy is highly recommended for effective control and elimination
of pathogens of both contagious and environmental mastitis (Eberhart, and
Buckaiew, 1972; Dehart et al., 1976; Ovadia et al., 1978; Bennet, 1982).

2.9.2 Brucellosis control

Brucellosis or Bang ̉s disease is Number One in importance, not only
because of the economic losses resulting from the disease, but also because a
disease known as undulant fever, which affects human beings, may be
contracted from animals affected with it (Diggins et al., 1984). It is caused
by the bacterium Brucella abortus and it spread via infected placentas, vaginal
discharge and aborted fetuses.

52
 The main symptoms of brucellosis are abortion after 4 months and
retained placenta (Dailey, 1992). The global incidence is estimated to be
around 500.000 cases/ year, but brucellosis is under reported at a ratio of
about 1:26 (one reported to 26 unreported)(Araj, 1999). In some part of Sudan
the incidence of brucellosis ranged from 6.7% to 28.5% in dairy farms, while
incidence up to 36% was reported in livestock center in Gazira (Habeeballa
1977). Abdulla (1966) found that 3% of cattle tested in Wadi Halfa were
positive, while Shallali et al. (1982) studying herds in Sinnar found that 9.9%
of herd tested were positive.
Efficient brucella control is by elimination by slaughter or segregation
of infected and vaccination of clean ones (FAO/ WHO, 1959; Mustafa and
Fawi, 1966; Al-Khalifa et al. ,(1992), but Gameel (1983) reported that on
management of bovine brucellosis immunological problems arise because
infected cows with titre below the reactor level, are usually left in the herd
and constitute a continuous reservoir and serves as a source of further
transmission. Bakhiet (1998) suggested that a national brucellosis control
program should be formulated and special attention should be given to co-
corporation and co-ordination between public health and veterinary sectors.
Brucella abortus control is very important because it causes high
losses in term of decreasing milk, losses in calves and reduces fertility
(Dafalla, 1962; Mustafa and Fawi, 1966).

2.9.3 Internal and External Parasites

There are several different types of internal and external parasites.
Young dairy cattle are very sensitive to parasites and their ill effects. Because
of the easily recognizable symptoms of parasitism that often develop in dairy
replacement heifers including diarrhea, rough hair, weight loss, slowed
growth, delay of puberty, breeding and calving. (DQU, 1998).

53
 Management can be an important part of parasite control, by reducing
probability of infection, avoid overstocking, separate young from adult and
clean drinking water and feeds in troughs (Yakstes et al., 1985) Straat et al.
(1979) reported that prevention of nematodes in dairy calves by daily removal
of faces has limited effect on control and dairy cattle husbandry is the most
important part of prevention. Deworming reduce egg count by 83-93% in
treated herds and increase production by 1.2 kg/ day (Black and Pierre, 1986).
Treatment timed during the first 100 days of lactation was key for
maximum parasites control, treatment of cows after 100 days of lactation or
during the dry period appears to be a waste of time, money and resources
(DQU, 1998) .
Ticks is the most common external parasite found in the tropical
country, affected cattle in Sudan causes losses of animal. Prevention and
control by sprays in the place where ticks is exist. Genetic improvements in
tropical countries through introduction of foreign cattle breeds impose danger
of increasing susceptibility to tick-borne diseases (Springell, 1983).

2.9.4 Theileriosis
One of the reasons the restraint importation of exotic breeds in
Sudan, till 1945, was infection and deaths due to Theileria annulata
(Bayoumi, 1964). Theileria parva is the most important tick-borne protozoan
disease in Eastern, Central and Southern African countries including Southern
Sudan. The disease is transmitted by its efficient tick vectors Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis (Julla, 2003). The main effects of
theileriosis are reflected in reduction of production, loss of weight and death
of substantial proportion of the affected animals (Salih et al., 2003).
High morbidity and mortality rate among exotic breeds and grade
cattle was due to the high susceptibility of those cattle to theileriosis in central
South Africa (Chizyuka and Mangani, 1985). Genetic improvement in

54
tropical countries through introduction of foreign cattle breeds imposes
danger of increasing susceptibility to tick-borne diseases (Springell, 1983).
Control by immunization against Theileria is more profitable owing to
the lower mortality and high performance than unimmunized cattle. Spraying
with Acaricides twice a week maximized the benefit (Mukhebi et al., 1989).

2.9.5 Milk fever

Milk fever affects many high - producing cows, usually cows are
affected shortly after calving, but sometimes the condition will develop just
prior to calving. The condition is thought to be caused by a rapid change in
the balance of the blood calcium due to the inability of the blood calcium
regulatory mechanism to meet the sudden demand made by milk production.
Milk fever seldom affects cows later than five days after freshening (Diggins
et al., 1984).
Symptoms: Cows become dull, difficult to move, stagger, lose their
appetite and constipation during the first stage of milk fever later animals
goes into a coma (Diggins et al., 1984).
Prevention and control. Cows should have a minerals mixture
including calcium, phosphorus, and salt available at all times, vitamin D and
cows subject to milk fever should not be milk completely dry for the first few
milking after they have freshened (Diggins et al., 1984).

2.9.6 Foot and Mouth disease (F&M. Disease)

Foot and mouth disease “locally known as Abu lisan” infects all breeds
but is more deleterious to crossbred and imported breeds and in some cases
mortality rate in calves reaches up to 45 % (Abdalla, 1995).
2.10 Farm ̉s owner and labors
The main problem in milk production in all the countries of Latin
America, especially in the small producers group which is most numerous, is
the unsuitable system for feeding cows. This problem is due to inadequate

55
general management of the farm business and limited economic resources of
the farms. Nevertheless, the general low educational level of farmers and
particularly the farmer ̉s poor knowledge of specific matters such as dairy
production, cow feeding, economic farm management, etc, have contributed
to problem as well (FAO, 1990). Abdel – Mageed (1988) reported that the
farmers at Kuku need more competencies and more extension on dairy
farming practices feeding, housing, milking hygiene, food care, proper
sanitary practices and culling technique.
Mohammed Kheir (2002) studied the stock owner in Port Sudan and found
that the educational standard of the owners were, illiterate 48%, Khalwa 22%,
primary 17%, secondary 4% and university 9%.
Managing labor is one of the most difficult management problems that
involve recruitment, training, organization and supervision of manager and
herd or family employees part-time and full-time (Ligro-Toro et al., 1990).
Dairy farm workers perform a variety of task. On modern dairy farms,
workers care of herd as well as keeping up structure and equipment. On small
farms, workers mix additives in feed water in troughs. On large farms, farm
workers operate machines and other automated equipment, mix feed batches.
They herds animals into holding pens and attach automatic milking machines
to the animals. Dairy farm worker have other duties, such as washing and
spraying cows with water, insecticides and repellents, they clean barns and
cow pen to prevent infestation. They clean and sterilize milk containers and
equipment and operate automatic cleaning pumps that clean the milk pipelines
(California Occupational Guide Number 225(C.O.G), 1998). Mohammed
Kheir (2002) reported that 77% of the herd labors in Port Sudan were found to
be illiterate.

56
2.11 Veterinary and extension services
Effective control of animal disease involves :(1) recognition of the
causative agent(2) learning the growth habits and physiology of the virus or
organism involved(3) developing chemicals, vaccines and management
practices that will prevent or cure the disease (4)achieving resistance by
genetic change (Cunningham et al., 2005). Visitation and consultation by a
veterinarian, under a contract is often an integral part of a herd health plan. A
dairy herd contract may include vaccination, udder health, and foot care plans,
plus periodic visits for pregnancy testing, calf disease, and breeding problems.
The objective of all herd health programs is prevention of disease and
maintenance of normal health and high production in the herd.
Fagiri, et. Al (2000), talked about the health problems in dairy farms
and its negative effect on milk production, they stressed on the necessity of
application of regular examinations in these farms in order to protect both of
the human and animal health. Also they said that vaccination, veterinary
services and effective extension services should be available to minimize the
negative effect of these health problems.
Extension is an effective instrument only when combined with
others, such as research, provision of inputs and credit and marketing. It can
teach farmers how to produce crops and animals in the most profitable way,
as well as how to organize themselves in cooperative and other farmer’s
organization (Mohamed, 2006).
Eltahir and Yaagoub, (2005) mentioned that the extension system
reforms the technology or the research information in order to be simplified
then presented to the target group in understood and perceptible form, through
a suitable communication canal. Elkhidir, et. Al (2005) and Eltahir, et, al
(2005), pointed the present extention system needs activation and should be
supported by qualified staff and extension equipments such as audio and
visual tools, as well as sufficient transport means. Also the present extension

57
system has a weak linkage with research centers and it lacks the coordination
with other institutions.

2.12 Dairy cooperatives

A cooperative is a cultural-economic institution that allows farmers to
help themselves and thus their communities toward production improvement
and income enhancement (Abdelrahman and Smith, 1995). Millions of people
have chosen the co-operative model of business enterprise to enable them to
reach their personal and community development goals. Through their varied
activities, co-operatives have significant social economical social roles in
national economies, thus making not only personal development a reality, but
contributing to the well- being of entire populations at the national level
(International Cooperative Alliance, 2009).
As a result of the perishable nature of milk and the range of skills
involved in its production and marketing, dairying requires a number of
services that can best be provided by cooperative action. It is not surprising
therefore that the cooperative movement has featured prominently in the
development of the dairy industry worldwide (Uotila and Dhanapala, 1994).

2.13 Marketing
The number and types of markets available in a given area are
determined by the density of population in the area, the quantity of milk
produced, and the cost of transporting the dairy products to market.
There are various factors affecting dairy marketing in the Sudan such as
environmental factors (seasonal production), Post-production areas from the
areas of marketing and lack of cooling reservoirs for the conservation and
transfer of raw milk. Elniema (2008) reported that 71.7% of producer’s sale
raw milk on the farm and 5.6% in markets away from their farms 6-15 km and
18.9% in markets away from their farms 16-25 km. And the way of selling

58
milk, ranging from selling directly to consumers (35.8%) or to the retailers
(64.2%), whether it was in the evening or morning.
Traditional channels overcome of dairy marketing and modern channels
confined in some cities
A fundamental role of dairy cooperatives is guaranteeing members a
market for their milk (Ling and Liebrand, 1996), because marketing is the
main constrain that milk producers seek to overcome by acting collectively
(Uotila and Dhanapala, 1994). Dairy farmers have relied more heavily upon
dairy cooperatives to market their milk than have farmers of any other
commodity (Cropp and Graf, 2001).
Jacobson and Cropp, (1995) defined the basic marketing objectives for
joining a dairy cooperative from a producer ̉s standpoint as follows:
1. To be guaranteed (Insure) a market outlet.
2. To bargain for the best price terms possible in the marketplace.
3. To have milk marketed efficiently.
4. To have the highest quality producer milk possible shipped to the
market.
5. To be effectively represented in legislative, regulatory and public
relations areans.
Puri and Bhupal (1975) reported that the main items which should be
considered in cost of fresh milk production is cost of feed, depreciation on
animals, labor and miscellaneous cost. While Henderson (1971) said that the
main items considered in cost of milk are feed, labor(which account for 75%
of the cost of milk production), other costs include herd expenses, herd size,
use of building and equipment and cost of consumable supplies such as
washing powder.

59
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study area
This study was carried out in Khartoum State, which occupies the
centre of the Sudan, between the two Niles, the white and blue Nile. The State
was divided to three major towns: Khartoum, Khartoum North and
Omdurman.
Khartoum State is located in the semi arid zone that extends over an area
of 20971 km2 between latitude 15oN and 16.45oN and longitude 31 E and
34.4oE. The average rainfall is between 139-157mm annually, the rainy
season from July to October. In winter, dusty cold winds, while hot dry winds
in summer (Ibrahim et al., 1991). The state human populations are 5-7 million
increasing at an annual rate. Water for irrigation is abundant from the White
and Blue Niles which joint at Khartoum forming the River Nile (Ministry of
Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation of Khartoum State, M.A.A.R.I.,
2005). The study was carried from July to October 2010.
The State has an advantage of being inside the disease free zone area;
also its high intensive human population creates excellent chances for animal
products marketing, in addition to the availability of technical and scientific
experiences in different fields.

60
Figure (1): Map of study area

Source: Sudan Survey Department

3.2 Experimental herds
Hundred and fifty milking herds of varying sizes, adopting different
traditional management systems were chosen to cover the state localities. In
Khartoum North: El shegla, Kuku Dairy Project, El Sliat Dairy Project
(North, South), Wad Dafeha, Mygoma, Kafori, Shambat, Ed Babeker, El
Kriab, El Elefoon, Um Doinban, Estern Soba. In Khartoum: Wad Elsaig
,Soba Center, Kagby, Chable Aolua, El Triha, Sendos Agricultural Project, El
Gerif West, In Omdurman: El Rodohan Dairy Project. These farms divided
into two groups:
(1) Traditional rearing(poorly) : The farms with poor construction building,
had low plane of nutrition, with no technical used in feeding and milking and
poor health and milking hygienic .

61
(2) Traditional rearing (good): The farms with good building materials had
good awareness of plane of nutrition, with some technical used in feeding and
milking and good health and hygiene.
The farms were chosen according to the willingness and the desire of
farm owners to give information needed by the researcher about their herds
included in the extensive questionnaire (Appendix1).

3.3 Collection of data

Due to the lack of records in the majority of the studied farms the data
was collected through:
1. An extensive questionnaire (Appendix 1).
2. Personal contacts and interviewing of the farm owners through field
visit to check the validity of the answers.
The data collected includes: Herd size and structure, the breed and type of
cattle, information about milk yield, productive and reproductive
performance, Systems of feeding adopted in the different farms. All
management practices applied and incidence of some diseases that affect
dairy cow production such as mastitis, brucellosis, milk fever, Theileria and
etc and preventive measures applied for herd under study. Farm owners and
labors age, job, and education, localities, ownership, fodder cropping,
buildings and herd facilities, veterinary and extension services, dairy
cooperative and marketing.

3.4 Statistical analysis

The collected data was statistically analyzed (Descriptive) by Statistical
package for Social Science (SPSS) computer program to layout a descriptive
map for the traditional dairy sector in Khartoum state. The mean and the
standard deviation and standard error were calculated. Onaway ANOVAs
obtained.

62
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS

4.1 Farms location, owners and labors information:-

The data present to farms location, education, age and job of owners
and labors and farm ownership are shown in table (4-1)(4-2)and (4-3). The
distribution of the dairy farm in Khartoum State indicated that 21.3% of the
farms located in Khartoum, while 63.3 % in Khartoum North and only 15.3 %
in Omdurman. The data revealed that 48.7% of the owners were primary
level, while 21.3% of the owners were secondary level, 15.3 were University
graduates, 8.7% illiterate, 4.7% were from farms belong to University or
governmental administration and only 1.3% were post graduate level .The
data indicated that the age of most owners ranged between30-50 years (
55.3%). Most of labors were illiterates (93.3%), only (5.3%) were educated
and (1.3%) comes from the University farms or governmental administration.
The age of most labors ranged between 20-30 years (70.7 %).

4.2 Cattle breeds and source

The collected data information in table (4-4) revealed that most of the
farms investigated owned crossbred cows (87.3%) in addition of some farms
owned crossbred with local breeds ( 8.7% Kenana+ crossbred), (2.7 % Butana
+ crossbred) ,( 0.7 Friesian +crossbred) and kenana (0.7) . The levels of exotic
blood however could not be determined in these farms due to lack of records
and the owners were not able to identify the level of foreign blood. The author
belive that more than 50% exotic blood, is the major breed pedigree.
The data showed that 86% of the cows were purchased and only 6.7%
were farm bred and 7.3% were farm bred in addition to purchased stock.

63
Table (4-1) (4-2) (3-3) Farms location, education and age of owners and
labors information
Table (4-1) Farms location and ownership
Item Percentage
• Farms location
1. Khartoum 21.3
2. Khartoum North 63.3
3. Omdurman 15.3
• Farm ownership
1. Rent 38.7
2. Ownership 61.3

Table (4-2) Owners and labors education

Item Percentage
• Owners education
1. Illiterate 8.7
2. Primary 48.7
3. Secondary 21.3
4. University 15.3
5. Post graduate 1.3
6. Others( From University farms or 4.7
governmental administration )
• Labors education & training
1. Yes 5.3
2. No 93.3
3. Others( No labors ) 1.3

64
Table (4-3) Owners and labors ages and jobs
Item Percentage
• Owners age (years)
1. 18-30 8.7
2. 30-50 55.3
3. 50-85 31.3
4. Others ( From University farms or 4.7
governmental administration )
• Labors age (years)
1. 15-20 13.3
2. 20-30 70.7
3. 30-40 7.3
4. Ages < 15 4.0
5. Ages > 40 3.3
6. Others (No labors) 1.3
• Owners jobs
1. Farmers 74.7
2. Traders 8.0
3. Judgers 2.0
4. Commanders 1.3
5. Veterinarian+Doctors 2.7
6. Employers 6.0
7. Pilots 0.7
8. Others ( From University farms or 4.7
governmental administration )

65
Table (4-4) Cattle breeds and source
Item Percentage
• Cattle breeds
1. Kenana 0.7
2. Crossbred 87.3
3. Kenana+crossbred 8.7
4. Butana+crossbred 2.7
5. Crossbred+Friesian 0.7
• Herds source
1. Farm bred 6.7
2. Purchase 86.0
3. Farm bred+Purrchase 7.3

4.3 Dairy herd size and structure

The dairy herd size and structure of the investigated dairy farms in
Khartoum state is shown in table (4-5). The result indicated that the total
number of cattle in the farms was 10189 heads, with a mean of 67.93±7.78
heads/ herd. The lactating cows comprised (34%) with total of 5957 head,
while the dry cows were about (23%) with total of 4227 head with mean of
39.71±4.98 and 28.18±3.06 respectively. The suckling, weaned calves and
heifers total number were 2989, 1960 and 2145 heads that comprised (19%),
(11%) and (13%), of the total herd with a mean of 19.93±1.97, 13.07 ±2.14
and 14.30±1.48 respectively. The result indicated that the breeding bulls total
number (189) head.

66
 Table (4-5) The dairy herd size and structure in dairy farms in
Khartoum State
Item Total Percentage Minimum Maximum Mean±SE SD
.no
Total No of 10189 7 900 67.93±7.78 95.32
cows
No. of 5957 34 3 600 39.71±4.98 60.99
lactating
cows
No. of dry 4227 23 0 300 28.18±3.06 37.50
cows
No. of
suckling 2989 19 0 200 19.93±1.97 24.11
calves
No. of
weaned 1960 11 0 300 13.07±2.14 26.26
calves
No. of heifers
calves 2145 13 0 134 14.30±1.48 18.13
No. of
breeding
bulls 189 0 14 1.26±0.14 1.74

4.4 Productive and reproductive performance of the studied herds

The data presented the productive and reproductive traits of the
investigated herds are showed in table (4-6). The data showed that the mean
total milk yield (TMY) was 3993.74±128.59 Ib. The minimum TMY recorded
was1557.33 Ib while maximum TMY was 9460.80 Ib.
The average milk yields (AMY) /cow / day amounted to 18.24±0.59 Ib
with34.20 Ib/day as maximum and 7.11 Ib/day as minimum. The average
lactation length (L.L) was 7.32±0.06 months. The minimum lactation length
recorded was 6 months while the maximum was 10 months. The dry period
67
(D.P) averaged 2.01±0.01 months, with minimum of 2 months and maximum
of 3 months.
The data also indicated that the average milk yield of high lactating cow
(H.L.C) was 29.49±0.82 Ib/day with 14 Ib as minimum and 64 Ib as
maximum, while the average milk yield of low lactating cow (L.L.C) attained
avalue of 10.14±0.36 Ib/ day with 4 Ib as minimum and 25 Ib as maximum.
The data showed also the mean of some reproductive traits as age at first
calving 34.69±0.25 (month), calving interval 12.01±0.03 (month),gestation
period 279.90±0.1 (day), number of services per conception 1.77±0.9

Table (4-6) Productive and reproductive performance of dairy farms in

Khartoum state
Variable Minimum Maximum Mean±S.E SD
TMY(Ib) 1557.33 9460.80 3993.74±128.59 1574.95
AMY(Ib)/cow/day 7.11 43.20 18.24±0.59 7.19
HLC(Ib) 14 64 29.49±0.82 10.04
LLC(Ib) 4 25 10.14±0.36 4.41
LL(month) 6 10 7.32±0.07 0.85
DP(month) 2 3 2.01±0.01 0.12
AC(month) 23 42 34.69±0.25 3.09
CI(month) 11 15 12.01±0.03 0.33
GP(day) 270 285 279.90±0.1 1.23
N.S.C 1 3 1.77±0.9 0.48

TMY: Total milk yield

AMY: Average milk yield
HLC : High lactating cow
LLC : Low lactating cow
LL : Lactation length
68
DP : Dry period length
AC : Age at first calving
CI : Calving interval
GP : Gestation period length
N.S.C : Number of services per conception

4.5 The best season for production and insemination

The data in table (4-7) indicated that 98.7% of the investigated farmers
agreed that the winter season is the most condition for milk production and
only 1.3% believed that autumn and winter are the best season for milk
production. However 100% of the farmers claimed that the best season for AI
is winter season.

Table (4-7) The best season for production and insemination

Item Percentage
• Best season for milk
1. Winter 98.7
2. Winter and autumn 1.3
• Best season for AI
1. Winter 100

4.6 Dairy feeding

The data on the type of ration (both roughages & concentrates) used in
the dairy farms are shown in table (4-8) (4-9) (4-10): Rations state is
practiced in table (4-8) (4-9). The result indicated that the most commonly
used roughages were the Sorghum vulgare (Abu 70). 77.3% of the
interviewed claimed to use it as the sole roughages component. Sorghum
vulgare (Abu 70) and Medicago sativa (Berseem) ranked secondly with a

69
percent of 12.7%, while only 1.3% of the interviewed farmers used Medicago
sativa (Berseem) as the roughages component.
Concerning the concentrates mixtures used in the dairy farms 42.8% of
the farmers purchase the concentrates from feed factories whereas only 15.3%
prepare their concentrates ration in the farms as TMR( Total mix ration). The
most utilized ingredients of the concentrates ration were Wheat bran + ground
nut cake (42%), whereas Wheat bran + ground nut cake + sorghum grain
(Dura) + ground nut hulls + molasses + salt lick + shell bean + limestone
(57.3%).
Salt lick stone (mineral block) used in the farms (76%), while (15.3%)
of the farms not used it and (8.7% ) of the farms sometimes used it. All of the
concentrates source were purchase, whereas 74.7% of the roughages source
were purchase, 15.3% cultivated fodders and 10% purchase + cultivated
fodders.

70
Table (4-8) (4-9) (4-10)The feed ingredients commonly used and sources
in the studied dairy farms in Khartoum state and cultivable land.
Table (4-8) Roughages ingredients and source and cultivable land
Item Percentage
• Roughages ingredients
1. Sorghum vulgare (Abu 70) 77.3
2. Medicago sativa (Berseem) clover 1.3
3. Bagasse 0.7
4. Abu 70 & Berseem 12.7
5. Abu 70 & Pioneer 2.0
6. Abu 70 & Sun flower 0.7
7. Abu 70 & Bagasse 4.0
8. Berseem & Bagasse 0.7
9. Abu 70&Berseem&Rhodes 0.7
• Roughages source
1. Purchase 74.7
2. cultivated fodders 15.3
3. Purchase + cultivated fodders 10
• Cultivable lands
1. Yes 33.3
2. No 66.7

71
Table (4-9) Concentrates ingredients and source
Item Percentage
• Concentrates ingredients
1. Farm total mix ration (TMR) 15.3
2. Purchase feed 42.8
3. Purchase feed + (TMR) 42.0
• Concentrates source
1. Purchase 100

Table (4-10) Feeding compound and salt lick stone

Item Percentage
• Feeding compound
1. Wheat bran + ground nut cake 42.0
2. Wheat bran + groundnut cake + 57.3
sorghum grain (Dura) +ground nut
hulls + molasses +Salt lick+Shell bean
+limestone
3. Bagasse 0.7
• Salt lick stone
1. Found 76
2. Not found 15.3
3. Sometimes 8.7

72
4.7 Building materials
The pens types and building materials used for pens of the cows are
shown in table (4-11). The result showed that 88% of the pens types were
traditional and 11.3% were modern. Most of pens were poorly designed; the
fences were made of barbed wire, zinc, iron bar, trees, mud and red bricks.
The data revealed that barbed wire+zinc were the most widely used (42%),
mud ranked second (24.7%), red bricks (16.7), iron bar+trees (10.7), iron
bar+red bricks (5.3%) and trees (0.7%). The pens were all shaded (100%)
except for the exercise areas, the most widely used in shade for roof (84%)
local thatches,(11.3%) made of zinc, (4%) bamboo and(0.7%) local thatched
and zinc. The data revealed that most of the pens floor was soil (95.3%) and
only (4.7%) concrete floor.

73
Table (4-11) The building used in Khartoum dairy farms
Item Percentage
• Pens types
1. Traditional 88.0
2. Modern 11.3
3. Traditional + Modern 0.7
• Pens shading
1. Shaded 100
• Fences types
1. Barbed wire + Zinc 42.0
2. Trees 0.7
3. Mud 24.7
4. Red bricks 16.7
5. Iron bar + Trees 10.7
6. Iron bar + Red bricks 5.3

• Roof types
1. Local thatched 84

2. Zinc 11.3

3. Bamboo 4

4. Local thatched + Zinc 0.7

• Floor types
1. Concrete 4.7

2. Soil 95.3

74
4.8 Management program
4.8.1 Calf rearing practices
Calf rearing practices in the farms under study are shown in table (4-
12). Traditional farm rearing system (poorly managed) comprised (86%),
while the traditional (good managed) (14%). The farms that adopt individual
housing, identification and other practices were recorded as percentage from
total number of farms surveyed. 98.7% keep their herd in group while only
0.7% of the farms utilized individual housing and 0.7% practices both. Calf
bedding types 100% of the farms have no litter bedding. About identification
& husbandry practices in the farms (67.3%) of the farms identified by name,
ear tags, (30.7%) by name and only (2%) by moxibustion. About 74% of the
farms there were no husbandry practices like dehorning, supernumerary teats
removal, Hoof trimming and others practices.

4.8.2 Records
Recording system practices in the farms are shown in table (4-13). Few
farms keep records for their herds. The analysis of questioner data indicated
that (29.3%) of the studied farms do not keep records, (50%) of the farms
keep services records which the companies used for AI only ,( 10%) milk
yield+services records and (10.7%) complete records , so it can be claimed
that (90%) of the total farms do not keep farms records.

4.8.3 Management information practices

All of these were shown in table (4-14). The majority of the farms
practices milking two times a day, 98.7% of the farms (morning & evening ),
0.7% (morning & afternoon & evening ) and 0.7 (morning or evening ).
(97.3%) of the farms practicing hand milking , while (2%) practicing
machine milking and (0.7%) practicing both (Hand & machine milking ).
91.3% of the farms fed two times a day , 4.7% feed three times and 4% feed
one time. The feeding time practices as fallows 58% of the farms (after
75
milking), 22% (Before milking &after milking), 13.3% (Before milking),
5.3% (Within milking) and only 1.3% (Before & within milking). The
technique of feeding manually (100%) of all the farms. The source of water
was 87.3% of the farms have water system at the farms, 10% purchase, 2%
water system at the farms & wells and only 0.7% purchase & water system at
the farms. The location of drinkers were (78%) under sun, (18.7%) under
shade and only 3.3% under shade & under sun.
In table (4-15) the data indicated age at puberty 17.91±0.11 (month), age at
first insemination 25.61±0.25 (month), age at weaning 4.25±0.59 (month),
birth weight 33.29±0.41 (Kg) and parity number 7.27±0.13

76
Table (4-12) (4-13) (4-14) (4-15) Management program practice in
Khartoum dairy farms
Table (4-12) Farms rearing system, housing and bedding
Item Percentage
• Farms rearing system
1. Traditional (poorly managed 86
2. Traditional (good managed) 14
• Housing
1. Individual housing 0.7
2. In group 98.7
3. Individual and in group 0.7
• Calves bedding type
1. No litter bedding 100

Table (4-13) Identification and husbandry practices and farms records

Item Percentage
• Identification
1. By name 30.7
2. Moxibustion 2.0
3. By name+ear stages 67.3
• Husbandry practices
1. Dehorning 14.7
2. Supernumerary teat removal 2.7
3. Hoof trimming 8.7
4. No practices 74.0
• Farms records
1. Services records 50
2. Complete records 10.7
3. Records not found 29.3
4. Milk yield+services records 10

77
Table (4-14) Time of milking, technology used, no. and time of feeding,
distribution of fodders , water source and drinkers location .
Item Percentage
• Time of milking
1. Morning + evening 98.7
2. Morning + afternoon + evening 0.7
3. Morning or evening 0.7
• Milking technology used
1. Hand milking 97.3
2. Machine milking 2
3. Both( Hand &machine) milking 0.7
• No. of feeding
1. One time 4
2. Two time 91.3
3. Three time 4.7
• Time of feeding
1. Before milking 13.3
2. After milking 58
3. Within milking 5.3
4. Before milking & after milking 22
5. Before milking & within milking 1.3
• Fodders distribution technique
1. Manually 100
• Water source
1. Purchase 10
2. Water system at the farm 87.3
3. Purchase & water system at the farm 0.7
4. Water system at the farm & wells 2
• Drinkers location
18.7
1. Under shade
78
2. Under sun
3.3
3. Under shade + Under sun

78
Table (4-15) AP, AI, Age at weaning, birth weight and parity number.
Item Minimum Maximum Mean±SE SD
AP(month) 13 30 17.91±0.11 1.31
AI(month) 14 30 25.61±0.25 3.11
Age at weaning(month) 3 6 4.25±0.59 0.71
Birth weight(Kg) 20 50 33.29±0.41 4.96
Parity number 4 14 7.27±0.13 1.58

AP : Age at puberty
AI : Age at first insemination

4.8.4 Heat detection and type of insemination

Heat detection and type of insemination practices in Khartoum dairy
farms are shown in table (4-16). For heat detection the data showed that heat
sign were used in (60.7%) of the farms by labors observation & bulls, while
in 37.3 of the farms by labors observation and only 2% of the farms by bulls.
The most method used for services was artificial insemination adopted in
(35.3%) of the farms, while natural mating (32.7%) and (32%) of the farms
used combination of natural & artificial insemination. The data also showed
that 74% of the farms required more than services and only 26% of the farms
needed one service.

4.8.5 Veterinary supervision and preventive measure practices

Veterinary supervision and preventive measure practices in Khartoum
dairy farms are shown in table (4-17) (4-18) (4-19) The data showed that
(59.3%) of the farms were not under veterinary supervision in Khartoum
state, while ( 40.7%) of the farms were under veterinary supervision, that
mean the disease control management is not satisfactory, although the
veterinary authorities provided vaccination to the dairy farms for controlling
contagious diseases the target diseases included Contagious Bovine Pleuro
79
Pneumonia (CBPP), Anthrax, Black quarter (BQ),Hemorrhagic Septicemia
(HS), Food and mouth disease (FMD), Contagious abortion (Brucellosis). The
result indicated that (99.3%) of the investigated farms applied annual routine
vaccination and only (0.7%) do not apply it. Brucellosis, Mastitis, Milk fever,
Internal & external parasites cases were recorded in 18%, 78%, 31.3%, and
67.3% of the studied farms respectively. Pregnancy diagnosis was practiced in
88.7% of the farms. Culling program practiced in 96.7% of the farms. The
basis of culling the result showed that 83.3% of the total farms the basis of
culling were health & productive problems, 5.3% ageing, 4.7% productive
problems, 3.3% health problems and about 3.3% of the farms were not
practices culling programs in their farms.. Disinfections for building and shed
were practiced in 89.3% of the farms. For cleaning and sanitation, weekly
dung removal was practiced in 98% of the total. 71.3% of the farms needed
udder cleaning, while only 28.7 of the total farms practice it. The program to
monitor the cleanliness of milkers only 36% of the farms fallows that
program, while 64% not fallows the program. Milking utensils 95.3% clean
them while 4.7% not fallow this and the cleaning only not enough. About
77.3% of the farms have no basis for workers health checkup and only 22.7%
fallow this program and this the main factors which lead to bad sanitation
measure. It could not ignored the cases of some disease found in the farms
include Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP), Food and mouth
disease (FMD), and Theileriosis.

80
Table (4-16). Heat detection and type of insemination practices in
Khartoum dairy farms.

Item Percentage
• Heat detection
1. By labors observation 37.3
2. By bulls 2
3. Labors observation & bulls 60.7
• Type of insemination
1. Natural insemination 32.7
2. Artificial insemination 35.3
3. Natural & artificial insemination 32
• Services
1. More services 74
2. One services 26

81
Table (4-17) (4-18) (4-19) The Veterinary supervision and preventive
measure practices in Khartoum dairy farms

Table (4-17) Veterinary supervision, vaccination program and diseases.

Item Percentage
• Veterinary supervision
1. Yes 40.7
2. No 59.3
• Vaccination program
1. Yes 99.3
2. No 0.7
• Exist of diseases
™ Brucellosis disease
1. Yes 18
2. No 82
™ Mastitis disease
1. Yes 74
2. No 22
™ Milk fever disease
1. Yes 31.3
2. No 68.7
™ Parasites( In&Ex) diseases
1. Yes 67.3
2. No 32.7

82
Table (4-18) Pregnancy diagnosis, culling and basis of culling.
Item Percentage
• Pregnancy diagnosis
1. PD 88.7
2. None 11.3
• Culling
1. Yes 96.7
2. No 3.3
• The basis of culling
1. Health problems 3.3
2. Productive problems 4.7
3. Ageing 5.3
4. None 3.3
5. Health & productive problems 83.3

83
Table (4-19) Program of disinfection and cleaning .
Item Percentage
• Program of disinfection and cleaning
™ Disinfection of building and shed
1. Yes 89.3
2. No 10.7
™ Dung removal
1. Yes 98
2. No 2
™ Udder cleaning
1. Yes 28.7
2. No 71.3
™ Program for monitoring the cleanliness of milkers
1. Yes 36
2. No 64
™ Milking utensils
1. Yes 95.3
2. No 4.7
™ Basis for workers health checkup
1. Yes 22.7
2. No 77.3

4.9 Major constrains and problems in dairy farms

The data in table (4-20) (4-21) (4-22) indicated that 72% and 94% of the
studied farms have no veterinary and extension services. 96.7% of the farms
have no facilities for processing milk, with only 2% of the farms practices
traditional processing while 1.3% had modern processing facilities. The
majority of the farms have no cooling system about 92.7%. All of the farms
do not have collection centers for milk (100%). The data revealed 96.7% of
84
the farms distribute their milk within neighbors & sale in the farms. The
result also showed that 92% of the farms depend on sale of milk as main
source of income, 6% comes from sale of milk & crops & sale of animals,
1.3% comes from crops & sale of milk and only 0.7% comes from crops.
Profitability of milk 49.3% of the farms concluded that sale of milk is un
profitable, 47.3% of the farms profitable. 80.7% of the farms did not belong
to any cooperative society, while only 19.3% of the farms belong to
cooperative. The data revealed that the constrain & problems which face the
farmers (43.3%) of the studied farms faced marketing, funding, technical,
taxes problems, the others farms (40.7%) faced marketing, technical, taxes
problems, (14% )of the farms faced marketing, funding, technical problems
and only 2% of the farms do not face any problems.

4.10 Comparison between traditional rearing system A group (Poorly

managed farms) and B group (Good managed farms) in productive and
reproductive traits:
The data in table (4-23) showed that the average of milk yield( AMY) /
cow / day and the total mean in A group(Poorly managed farms) and B
group(Good managed farms), 18.19±0.63 (Ib), 18.50±1.69(Ib) and
18.24±0.59(Ib) respectively, it’s clear that there is no significant different
between the two management in the average milk yield (AMY)/ cow/ day
(p>0.05) . The mean of the age at first calving in A group(Poorly managed
farms) and B group(Good managed farms) and the total mean (month)
34.60±0.27 month, 35.24±0.73 month and 34.69±0.25 month respectively, no
significant differences were found (p>0.05) . The mean of the calving
interval in A group(Poorly managed farms) and B group(Good managed
farms) and the total mean (month) 11.99±0.01 month, 12.14±0.19 month and
12.01±0.03 month respectively. The mean of the gestation period length in A
group(Poorly managed farms) and B group(Good managed farms) and the

85
total mean (day) 279.84±0.11 day, 280.24±0.24 day and 279.90±0.1 day
respectively. The collected data indicated that there were no significant
differences found in the traits of calving interval and gestation period length
between two management in the studied farms in the two traits (p>0.05).
The mean number of services per conception in A group(Poorly managed
farms) and B group(Good managed farms) and the total mean 1.80±0.4,
1.57±0.5, 1.77±0.9 respectively, there were significant differences obtained
between two management in the trait (p<0.05).

Table (4-20) (4-21) (4-22) Major constrains and problems

Table (4-20) Veterinary and extension services, processing and types, cooling
and collection centers.

Item Percentage

• Veterinary services
1. Yes 28
2. No 72
• Extension services
1. Yes 6
2. No 94
• Processing in the farm
1. Yes 3.3
2. No 96.7
• Type of processing
1. Modern 1.3
2. Traditional 2
3. None 96.7
• Cooling system
1. Yes 7.3
2. No 92.7

• Collection centers for milk

1. No 100

86
Table (4-21) Marketing of milk
Item Percentage
• Marketing
1. Sale in the farms & distribution within 96.7
neighbors
2. Distribution to the factories 1.3
3. Consumption on the farms 2.0

Table (4-22) Source of income, profitability, cooperative societies and

constrains

Item Percentage

• Source of income
1. Crops 0.7
2. Milk 92
3. Crops & milk 1.3
4. Milk &crops & animals 6
• Profitability of milk
1. Profitable 47.3
2. Un profitable 49.3
3. Profitable & un profitable in the specific season 1.3
4. None ( educational farms) 2
• Cooperative societies
1. Yes 19.3
2. No 80.7
• Problems & constrain
1. None 2
2. Marketing & funding &technical 14
3. Marketing & technical & taxes 40.3
4. Marketing & funding & technical & taxes 43.3

87
Table (4-23) The comparison between traditional rearing system A group
(Poorly managed farms) and B group(Good managed farms) in
productive and reproductive traits
Traits Farms management N Mean±SE SD Sig
group
1. Daily 1.A group (Poorly 129 18.19±0.63 7.13 0.86
milk manged farms)
yield (Ib) 2.B group (Good 21 18.50±1.69 7.74
managed farms
3.Total 150 18.24±0.59 7.19

2. Age at 1.A group (Poorly 129 34.60±0.27 3.05 0.38

first calving managed farms)
(month) 2.B group (Good 21 35.24±0.73 3.36
managed farms)
3.Total 150 34.69±0.25 3.09

3.Calving 1. A group (Poorly 129 11.99±0.01 0.09 0.05

interval managed farms)
(month) 2. B group (Good 21 12.14±0.17 0.85
managed farms)
3. Total 150 12.01±0.03 0.33

4.Gestation 1. Ag roup(Poorly 129 279.84±0.11 1.24 0.17

period managed farms)
length (day) 2. A group(Good 21 80.24±0.24 1.09
managed farms)
3. Total 150 279.90±0.1 1.23

5.N.S.C 1. A group(Poorly 129 1.80±0.4 0.47 0.046

managed farms)
2. B group(Good 21 1.57±0.5 0.51
managed farms)
3. Total 150 1.77±0.9 0.48

88
 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
A good understanding of dairy production systems and the relative
contribution of the different constraints in dairying is essential prior to
initiating any dairy improvement programs ( Baker and Gray 2003). The
present study gave an approximate map of the present status of the
management and husbandry practices in some dairy farms in Khartoum state.
The objectives of this study were to investigate and understand the variable
impacts on the production system and reproductive performance of dairy
animals in Khartoum state.
The analysis of the investigated farms sites revealed that 63.3% of the
farms were within Khartoum North locality, 21.3% in Khartoum locality and
only 15.3% were from Omdurman locality.
The result indicated that 48.7% of the stockowners earned in primary
level, while 8.7% were illiterate and most of the herd’s labors were found to
be illiterates (93.3%) with only (5.3%) educated and (1.3%) comes from the
University farms or governmental administration. Habeeballa (1996)
indicated that in Eastern Nile Khartoum state education status of the owners
did not affect milk production. Pagot (1993) on the other hand declared that
one of the limitations of milk production in the tropics was the sociological
factor. Fangaly (1980) found that untrained herdsmen were a constraint at Um
Benien Dairy Production Research Station. The present result is concurrent
with those of Mohammed Kheir (2002) who reported that 77% of the herd
labors in Port Sudan were illiterate.
In fact milk production in the Sudan is still dependant on traditional
methods of management, feeding and marketing; consequently there was no
difference among the different farms owned by illiterate or educated owners
in management decisions and application of new technical methods in animal
health management, breeding, feeding and husbandry.
89
 The importance of provision of a qualified manpower in dairy farms is
due to the fact that the labors in dairy farms not only do the manual works,
they even supervise and manage the whole production in the farm so they
may probably share in making decision. These are similar to the observation
previously reported by Abu eisa, (2000) Abdullah, (2002) and EIkhidir et al.,
(2005).
The study revealed that most of the farms investigated owned crossbred
dairy farms (87.3%) in addition to some farms that rear crossbred with local
breeds ( 8.7% Kenana+ crossbred), (2.7 % Butana + crossbred) ,( 0.7%
Friesian +crossbred) and pure kenana (0.7%) . The levels of exotic blood
however could not be determined in these farms due to lack of records. The
study advocated that more than 50% exotic blood in the majority of the herds.
The data showed that 86% of the herds source were purchased from
local market while 6.7% were farm bred in addition to 7.3% come from a
combination of farm bred +purchased
Other studies indicated that the grade cows comprised 67% of the herds
while 27.8% were local dairy (Tibin et al., 1990). Mohammed Kheir (2002)
found that 92.4% of the dairy herd in Port Sudan was composed of local dairy
breed.
The present result revealed that the total number of cows in the studied
farms in Khartoum state were 10.189 heads with an overall mean of
67.93±7.78 head per herd, which was greater than 1339 and 2622 heads
reported by Attia(1986) in two separate studies, and 529 and 281 heads stated
by Atabani (1960). The discrepancy between the quested figures may be
referred to the fact that both Attia and Atabani studies were executed earlier
than the present study. The gap between Attia and Atabani studies and the
present one are 25 and 51 years respectively. No doubt, the herd size had
grown during those years. The present herd size was also greater than those
reported by Habeeballa (1996) and lower than those reported by Abdel-

90
Mageed (1988) in Kuku dairy project and Mohammed (1995) 39.6±20.7,
69.7±53.5 and 82.5±137 as average herd size respectively.

The justification mentioned earlier is valid also to explain the differences

in herd size.
The data pertaining to herd structure revealed that the lactating cows
represented 34% of the total herd and the dry cows represented 23 % of the
total herd. These results differ from what was reported by Atabani (1960)
studying dairy herd at Umbenien and Nisheisheiba Research Station, where
he found that milking cows at Umbenien were very low 12.5% and dry cows
were 28.7% while in Nisheisheiba, milking cows were 22.4% and dry cows
were 24.2%. The result also differ from what was reported by Badi (1988) in
his study dairy herd in Gezira Scheme,he found that the milking cows
comprise 35.7% while the dry cows were 64.3% in a herd of grade cows. The
present result however is in agreement with the result reported by Abdel-
Mageed (1988) at Kuku Dairy Project that milking cows were 35% while the
dry cows 21.9%. From this study the lactating cows represent 60% of adult
cows while the dry cows were 40%. The present results fairly comply with the
66% reported by Mohammed (1995). This may indicate to an improvement in
the management system.
The result revealed that suckling, weaning, and adult calves
represented 19%, 11%, and 13% respectively. The heifers represented 13% of
the total herd while the calves represented 30%, Badi (1988) reported
comparable data for heifers 12.8% and different percent for calves 12.1%.
The majority of farm owners care only for herd size without any consideration
for reproductive and fertility management, Sumberge (1992) in Gambia in his
study of livestock development reported that herds may contain many
uneconomic and infertile animals.

91
 Essawi, et. al, (1996), emphasized and imbalance in dairy herds which
entails negative effects on the performance of the dairy farms, EIkhidir, et.al
(2005), also stated that the owners do not value the cows according to its
productivity, and they also used to keep old cows within the herd.
Dairy cattle reproductive efficiency depends upon the regular
production of offspring. This efficiency is influenced by several factors such
as (1) milk yield (2) lactation length( 3) dry period (4)age at first calving (5)
calving interval (6) gestation period (7) number of services per conception,
The average daily milk yield/ cow in the present study amounted
to18.24±0.59 Ib, which was less than the 20.2±10.2 Ib reported by Abdel-
Mageed (1988), and 20.2 Ib reported by Tibin et al. (1990) for grade dairy
cows in Kuku Dairy Project. However the average daily milk yield in this
study was greater than values reported by Habeeballa (1996) in Eastern Nile
Khartoum state and Mohammed (1995) in some dairy farms in Khartoum
state who reported average daily milk as 15 and 16.9 Ib respectively, and not
differ more than values reported by Elinazeir (2005) reported a comparable
milk yield of 18.95±5.99 Ib . Different management systems can exert
substantial effects on milk yield in some dairy farms in Khartoum state.
The Lactation length found in this study averaged 7.32±.07 month,
(219.6 ± days). Elinazeir (2005) stated that the mean lactation length was
269.85± 18.97 days in crossbred in some dairy farms in Khartoum state,
which was longer than the result obtained in this study .The present result
however was shorter when compare to the lactation length of graded cows in
Bulgravia, University of Khartoum Farm and Judiciary Farm as stated by
Rahmatalla (2002) as 366.69±107.51, 371.46±122.90 and 344.15±188.11
days respectively. The present result was also longer than the result reported
by Ahmed et al. (1986) as 207 days in grade cows belonging to the Rahad
Scheme. Lactation length is a management controlled factors and differences

92
between result highlights the different management policies adopted in the
dairy farms in Khartoum state.
The data revealed that the average dry period (D.P) was 2.01±0.01
months (60.3± days). The result was shorter when compare to the results of
Habeeballa (1996) for crossbred cows in Eastern Khartoum state( 49.5±19
days )and Elinazeir (2005) in some dairy farm in Khartoum state
(42.48±28.56 days). Fadel-Mula (1994) and Yousif et al (1998) however
reported a longer dry period for crossbred cows in Khartoum University Farm
(96±60 days).
Funk et al. (1987) mentioned that cow dried for a period of 40 days or
less produced markedly less in the following lactation. Cow is dried for
period of approximately 60 days produced the highest milk in the following
lactation. Dry periods longer than 60 days were only moderately detrimental
to subsequent lactation yield.
The variation in the length of dry period (D.P) maybe referred to the
effect of different management policies adopted in the different farms.
The age at first calving is a vital trait in dairy economy; it signifies the
commencement of productive life of the heifer. In this study the overall mean
age at first calving was found to be (34.69±0.25months) this result was
similar to that reported by researchers in Bos Taurus and Bos indicus X Bos
Taurus crosses in the tropics. The result however is lower than the result
obtained by Osman and El- Amin (1971) for studied herd at the University of
Khartoum Farm (44 months) and Fadel-Moula (1994) ( 46±13 months) . The
differences in the cited data may be attributed to breed and nutrition aspects
that exist between the different studies.
The calving interval is one of the most important traits denoting the
breeding efficiency of dairy cattle, the optimum calving interval is assumed to
be 365 days.

93
 The overall mean calving interval in this study was 12.01±0.03 months
(365 days) .This is comparable with the results reported by Logar et al. in
India (2000) in their study of cross bred cows (365 days). A similar result was
also reported by Marchot et al. in Sudan (1982) in their study of Nilotic and
grade Friesian cows (355 days for imported cows with > 50% Zebu
inheritance). The present result was lower than the results reported by
Osman (1972) who obtained 447±8.65 days as mean calving interval for
Sudanese indigenous cattle , Malhotra and Singh (1980) reported a mean of
calving interval ( 447±9.01 days) for Red Sindhi and Fadel-Moula (1994)
obtained 449±100days for crossbred cows in the University dairy herd .
The differences in mean calving interval between different studies could
be due to the variation in breeding systems concerning the service time,
failure of cows to conceive after one service and exhibition of silent heat.
Inadequate feeding might also be another reason for differences. High means
of this trait above the optimum might be due to increase in the percentage of
total foreign blood that was not supported by further improvement in feeding
and management systems, in addition to the hot, humid and dry climatic
conditions.
Gestation period is a reproductive trait that keeps the regularity of calving
interval at a standard service period. The overall mean of gestation period in
the present study was calculated to be 279.90±0.1 days. This result obtained
was similar to that reported by Patel et al. (1983) for Friesian x Kankrej cows
(278.27 days) , while it is higher than the result obtained by Swensson et al.
(1981) , Costa et al. (1982) for Arussi and Holstein-Friesian and Younis
(1976) for Friesian cattle . They obtained (276.2±6.1, 276.1±6.7), 276.1±0.73
and 272.3±0.92 days respectively. The mean of gestation period reported
however fit well within the range of gestation period for the bovine family
(270-283 days).

94
 The period of time from calving to the next fertile service denotes the
service period. Under optimum management, regular services period and
constancy of gestation period allow the intercalving to be adjusted at yearly
interval. The overall mean number of services per conception (N.S.C) in this
study was 1.77±0.9. This result is higher than that resulted by researchers in
their studied Fadel-Moula (1994); Osman (1972) for Sudanese indigenous
cattle and Sid Ahmed (1986) for Sudanese indigenous x European breed they
obtained 1.25±0.61 and 1.52±0.04 respectively, and lower than that obtained
by Kaushik et al.(1979) for zebu Taurus crossbred heifers 2.17±0.19
The probable cause of parities variation in N.S.C could be the low
conception rate exhibited by some individuals in the herd. Also flare- up of
reproductive problems and inefficient methods of heat detection may be
responsible for some of this variation.
Both breed of the sir and percentages total foreign blood seemed to have
no effect on N.S.C. This shows that the N.S.C is a trait of managerial nature
and could be controlled by developing effective methods of heat detection, as
well as improving nutrition and general husbandry in the farm.
The data in this study revealed that the major roughages component of
the studied farms was Sorghum vulgar (Abu 70) 77.3% of the farms depended
on it as the main roughages. The legumes fodders, Medicago sativa (Berseem)
was found in only 1.3% of the farms while a mixture of Sorghum vulgar(
Abu 70) + Medicago sativa ( Berseem ) was used by 12.7% of the studied
farms.
On the other hand the data documented that only 33.3% of the farmers
owned arable lands to grow their own roughages. Elinazeir (2005) in his
study of dairy farms in Khartoum state claimed that 35% of the farmers own
arable lands for roughages cultivation. Habeeballa (1996) stated that 50 % of
farm owners do not cultivate roughages, instated they depend on the market to
obtain their needs of the roughages.

95
 It was also evident from the study that concentrate mixes prepared in the
farm included major ingredients composed of Wheat bran (W.B), Ground nut
cake(G.N.C), Sorghum grain (Dura) and Molasses in addition to Salt lick.
Being illiterates and untrained farm owners depended on experiences in
concentrate preparation with no consideration to quality and nutritional
requirements. Habeebaalla (1996) recommended for extension services by
the government to prepare balanced and economic rations and avail them to
farmers to boast milk production in the state.
More over the author agreed that government is required to provide
improved fodder crops seeds and concentrate mixes ingredient at reasonable
prices. Storage of concentrate ingredient at season of availability e.g.
molasses and oil seed cakes cannot be overlooked.
The result of this study documented that 74.7% of the total consumed
roughages were purchased from local market while 100% of the concentrates
mixes were purchased. This situation constitutes a major economic dilemma
since the feeding of dairy cattle comprises about 70% of production costs. In
this study Abu esia,(2001) advocated that nutritional cost in dairy farms
exceeds 55% of the production costs. The suggested interventions would
substantially decrease the cost of production and boost the dairy production
sector in the state.
The present result concluded that 88% of the housing facilities can be
described as poor. Both shading and individual animal space were not
considered dependently in the pens of the studied farms.
Since 87.3% of the studied farms reared cross bred cows with variable
pedigrees, the both shading and adequate animal space are highly desirable.
The impact of shading, adequate spacing, shading materials, and pens bedding
play a pivotal role in alleviating the harsh tropical environment on the
crossbred cows. Thermal stress impacts on productive and reproductive
performance need no emphasis. Badi, (1988) emphasized this fact and stated

96
that one of the major constraint facing crossbred cows was the lack of
crossbred strategy and absence of national breeding policy.
The study also revealed that group housing was the dominant adopted
system 98.7% of the investigated farms practiced group housing and only
0.7% used individual calf rearing. This type of housing (group) with no
consideration for age or physiological station of the animal added to the short
coming of the poorly designed pens and corrects
Abdullah, (2002), emphasized the importance of cows separation inside
the herd to dry and milking cows, in order to facilitate the supervision and the
management. Individual calf housing is play a crucial role in calf mortality as
stated by Alim (1960) and Wakeem and Dansoury (1962) the authors reported
that the current standard of calf management and environmental condition
were the most reasons for calf mortality in the tropics.
EIkhidir, et.al (2005) also pointed to the intensive number of cows inside the
pen and the poor shade.
Identification and husbandry practices in the farms (67.3%) of the farms
identified by name and ear tags are the most popular, (30.7%) by name and
only (2%) by moxibustion. About 74% of the farms there were no husbandry
practices like dehorning, supernumerary teats removal, hoof trimming and
others practices.
Record provide guidelines to evaluate and improve production and profit
of the dairy herd although of this the majority of owners in this study tend to
evaluated their business to improve their work on visible observation and
daily income without depending on accurate information or records. The data
indicated that (29.3%) of the studied farms do not keep records, (50%) of the
farms keep services records which the companies used for AI only ,( 10%)
milk yield+services records and (10.7%) complete records , so it can be
claimed that (90%) of the total farms do not keep records . This finding
highlight the importance of the finding of Essawi,et.al (1996) and Elkhidir,

97
et.al (2005), who reported that there is an absence of records system as well
as poor care and management in dairy farms.
Modern technologies for milking and feeding for milking cows were rarely
used in the farms under study. Milking parlor were used in only (2%) of the
farms, hand milking used (97.3%) of the farms while only (0.7%) used a
combination of the two system. This result confided the previous reports of
Barrett and Larken (1974) who reported that machine milking was not widely
used in the tropics and often cows dry off themselves. Also Williamson and
Payne (1978) reported that modern technologies as milking machine in small
holders dairy farms are completely in economic and indeed undesirable
because of surplus labors. All of the farms practices manually feeding
(100%).
The current result demonstrated ovum detection was preferred in
(60.7%) of the farms by combination of labors observation & bulls, while in
37.3 of the farms by labors observation and only 2% of the farms by bulls.
Blakely and Bade (1982) reported that the heat period varies from 17 to 26
days and last from 6 to 36 hours, with an average duration of 18 hours for
cow and 15 hours for heifer. The most method used for services was artificial
insemination which was adopted in (35.3%) of the farms, while natural
mating (32.7%) and (32%) of the farms used combination of natural &
artificial insemination. Use of artificial insemination in many farms may be
due to the stockmen knowledge and role of many companies about
importance of these services improving of the herd and the productivity. Also
the data showed that about 74% of the farms required more services while
only 26% needed one service. .
This may be due to unskilled of inseminator or deterioration semen quality
used or reproductive problems in the herds.
The first thing to provide for a good productive cow is a safe and
hygienic environment ( Matthewman, 1993). The data showed that (59.3%) of

98
the farms were not under veterinary supervision in Khartoum state, while
(40.7%) of the farms were under veterinary supervision. Paton (1989) found
that dairy farms with resident veterinarians showed to achieve performance
goals for production and disease control. Vaccination program against
contagious diseases such as Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP),
Anthrax, Black quarter (BQ),Haemorrhagic Septicemia (HS), Food and
mouth disease (FMD), Contagious abortion (Brucella) was practiced in
(99.3%) of the investigated farms provided by veterinary
authorities.Mohammed ( 1995) repoted that vaccination against contagious
diseases was practiced in 92.9% of total farms, while that against brucella and
foot and mouth disease were rarely used in only 3.5% of the farms. Bassher
(1969) claimed that preventive measures in Sudan face many difficulties,
pitfalls and disappointments, owing to economic exigencies. Also FAO
documents (1989) reported that in tropical countries management practices
and preventive measures are not adequate and practices such as isolation and
quarantine facilities were not common. The drugs were not available and the
farmers face difficulties in the price. The most common cases of diseases
recorded at the farm studied were mastitis (78%), brucellosis (18%), Milk
fever (31.3%), Internal & external parasites (67.3%). Abdalla (1995) reported
that mastitis in Sudan was common among all breeds and especially in high
milkers. Genetic improvements in tropical countries through introduction of
foreign cattle breeds impose danger of increasing susceptibility to tick-borne
diseases (Springell, 1983).
Pregnancy diagnosis and culling program were practice in 88.7%, 96.7% of
the farms respectively. This result differ from what reported by Lwajock
(1992) who reported that in some dairy farms in Khartoum state, farmers
continue to maintain cows with only one functional teat without culling.
From the present data it was obvious that there were no significant
differences between the two systems (poorly+ good managed farms in the

99
productive and reproductive traits studied in dairy farm in Khartoum state.
Both systems can be categorized as traditional rearing that by an optimum
housing facilities, and optimum management practices including feeding,
breeding, health and marketing polices are lacking.

100
 CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 The current study concluded that:

• Management and husbandry practices in 150 dairy farms in Khartoum
state such as calf rearing, housing, feeding, breed type, herd size and
structure, milking hygienic, preventive measures practices.
• Studying of productive and reproductive trait under management of
these farms. The data showed that the overall mean of productive and
reproductive traits investigated as fallow:
Traits Mean ± SE
Milk yield per lactation (Ib) 3993.74±128.59
Daily milk yield / cow /day (Ib) 18.24 ±0.59
Lactation length (months) 7.32 ± 0.07
Dry period (months ) 2.01±0.01
Age at first calving (months) 34.69± 0.25
Calving interval (months) 12.01± 0.03
Gestation length (days) 279.90±0.1
Number of services per conception 1.77± 0.9
• The data indicates that the traits were largely under the effect of
environmental and managerial factors rather than genetically ones.
Thus it could be decreased by proper nutrition from birth onwards;
Insemination of heifers immediately after sexual maturity is attained
and controlling deleterious diseases that affect young calves.
• Dairy sector as a vital investment in the field of animal production
needs a lot of work in many trends such as genetic and environmental
setup which have a great impact on dairy cattle
• Production performance as one of a major important in dairy farming.
It is true that the milk yield is heavily dependent on regular
101
 reproduction, and also the rate of genetic progress is closely linked with
reproductive efficiency.

6.2 The main important constraints facing the improvement of dairy:

1. Instability of management policies and feeding system concerning the
quality, quantity and feed processing methods.
2. Water supply during the dry season is a major problem in areas and
cost of feeding
3. Poor recording system and irregularity of performance tests.
4. Absence of veterinary and extension services in addition of the present
extension system has a weak linkage with research centers and it lacks
the coordination with other institutions.
5. Unavailability of management facilities.
6. Lack of cooling units and collection centers in the farms.
7. Absence of cooperative societies which help the farmers in availability
of feed and marketing of milk.
8. Funding, technical, taxes and marketing problems.
9. Lack of expert technical staff and labors, no cultivable lands

6.3 Suggestion and recommendation:

1. Enhancement enforcing legislation and laws for milk production and
dairy farming to protect both producer and consumer.
2. Formulation of rations on economic basis
3. Make plane of breeding programs through the modern technique as
artificial insemination and embryo transfer
4. The need to reduce the degradation of farm animal genetic resources
and establish programmes for their conservation and sustainable use is
well recognized.
5. Establishment of milk collection centers and co-operative unit

102
6. To maintain a healthy herd, important to establish veterinary and
extension services unit.
7. Important to establish sound recording system, utilizing computers, as
tools for records keeping and training staff because records keeping are
the sole source of information and it is t necessary for future planning
to improve production potential of the herd. So a complete set of
records is essential for good reproductive management.
8. Establishment of proper system based on scientific measure, as using
breeding policy for replacing heifers, systematic crossbreeding and
avoidance of inbreeding and culling of mediocre cows.
9. Encouragement of investment in dairy sector. Availability of
production and processing milking facilities like refrigerator car,
milking tools and laboratories.

103
 REFRENCE

Agroekonomik” Beograd, Serbia.

Abdalla, E. A.; Nasr, A.M.; Khalafalla, A. M. and EI- Shafie, S. A.
(1990). The influences of Age on lactation length and milk yield in
Kenana and Butana cows. Sudan. J. Anim.Prod. 3(2): 93-100.
Abdalla, E. A/ (1966). Incidence of animal brucellosis in Wadi Halfa Sud. J.
Vet. Sci.Anim. Husb., 7, (1):29-31.
Abdalla, M. O. M. (1987). Astudy of Yield and Composition of Milk Yield
of Grade cows on the University Farm. Thesis of M.Sc. Animal
Production. Institute of Animal Production. University of
Khartoum.
Abdalla, M. O. M. (1995). Dairy cattle in Sudan. Sheikan Insurance and
Reinsurance Co. Ltd. Agricultural Insurance Workshop, Khartoum,
September 27- 29, (1995).
Abdel – Mageed, O. A. (1988). Diary husbandry practices at Kuku dairy
project. M. Sc. Thesis, Institute of Animal production, University of
Khartoum.
Abdelrahman, A. H. and Smith, C. (1995). Cooperatives and agricultural
development: Acase study of groundnut farmers in western Sudan .
Community Development Journal, Vol. 31, No. 1, January 1996,
pp:13-19.
Abu baker, M. I. and Elsanousi, S. M. (1976). Survey of John ̉ s disease in
Khartoum. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 16 (2): 94-97.
Adamovic, M.; Galovic, B, and Siojanoric, L. (1996). PKB INI
Adlan, A. M., Shommien, A. M., EIAmin, E. D. M(1980). Asurvey of
bovine mastitis in four dairy farms in the Sudan. Sudan. J. Vet. Res
2:37-40.

104
Ageeb, A. G. and Hillers, J. K. (1991). Production and reproduction
characteristics of Butana and Kenana cattle of the Sudan. World
Anim.Rev., 67:49-56.
Agricultural Research Council, London (1984). The Nutrient Requirements
of Ruminant Livestock Supplement. No. 1. Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux, Farham Royal.
Agymang, K, and Khonjera, L.P.N. (1986). Evaluation the Productivity of
Crossbred Dairy Cattle on Small Holder and Government in the
Republic of Malawi. ILCA Research Report No. (12).
International Livestock Center for Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ahmed, H.A., Subaei, M. A. and Ibrahim, A.H. (1986). Marketing of Dairy
Products of the Rahad Agricultural Scheme. The Rahad
Agricultural Corporation (Agricultural Economics Section (15, 18-
82).
Ahmed, M. and Sivarajasingam. S. (1998). Analysis on the productive
and reproductive traits in Sahiwal cows. Proceedings of the 6th
world congress on Genetics applied to Livestock production,
Armidale, NSW, Australia, January.3:399.
AIkhalaf, S. A., Mohamad, B. T. and Nicoltti, P. (1992). Control of
brucellosis in Kuwait by vaccination of cattle, sheep and goat with
brucella abortus strain 19 or brucella melitensis Rev. J. Tropical
Anim. HIth. Prod., 24 (1): 45-49.
Ali, E.I. (1991). Effect of level of concentrate feeding prior to calving on
subsequent post- calving performance of dairy cows, M.Sc. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.
Ali, T. E.; Ahmed, F.A. and Ombabi, y. A. (1988). Productivity of
crossbred Zebu cattle with different levels of Friesian blood. Sudan.
J. Anim. Prod. 4 (2): 69-70.

105
Alim, K. A. (1960). Reproductive rate and milk yield of Kenana cattle in
village herd. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Alim, K. A. (1962). Environmental and genetic factors affecting milk
production of Butana cattle in Sudan. J. Dairy Sci., 15: 242-253.
Allaire, F.R. (1981). Economic consequences of replacing cow with
genetically improved heifer. Dairy Sci., 64:1985 – 1989.
Annen, E.L., M.A McGuire, J.L. Vicini, and R.J.Collier. (2003). Effect of
Polsilac and dry period management strategy on milk yield.J. Dairy
Sci.86(SuppI.1): 154. (Abstr.).
Annen, E.L; Coller, R.J; McGuire, M.A. and Vicini, J.L. (2004). Effect of
Dry Period Length on Milk Yield and Mammary Epithelial Cells. J.
Dairy Sci. 87:E 66-E76.
Arab Organization for Agricultural Development A.O.A.D. (1984). Study
on evaluation of local, crossbred and purebred cattle in Arab
Countries. The inter-country reports. 101-208.
Araj, G.F. (1999). Human brucellosis : A classical information disease with
persistent diagnostic challenges. Clinical laboratory Science, 12(4):
207-212.
Arriaga, A.E. Jordan, C.M. and Holmes, H. (1986). The effect of
concentrate supplement on high yielding dairy cows under two
systems of grazing. J. of Agric. Sci. 107:453- 461
Arthur, G. H. (1975). Veterinary reproduction and obstetrics. (Fourth
Edition). Printed by Great Britain by William Clowes And Sons,
limited. London, Beccles and Colchester.
Atabani, Y. I. (1960). Studies on Kenana cattle of Sudan. I. Kenana- breed.
Sudan. J.Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 1:77-83.
Atabani, Y. I. (1961). Studies on Kenana cattle of Sudan. Sudan. J.Vet. Sci.
Anim. Husb., 2: 194- 195.

106
Attia, E. E. (1986). Some breed characteristics and milk recording of Kenana
cattle in village herd. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Azage Tegegn, Galal E S E and Beyene Kebede. (1981). Astudy on the
reproduction of local zebu and F1 crossbred (European x Zebu )
cows. 1. Number of services per conception, gestation length and
days open till conception. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural
Sciences 3: 1-14.
Baasher, M. M. (1969). The role of management and control of animal
diseases in Sudan. Sudan. J.Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 10(1): 21-32.
Badi, A.M.I. (1988). Dairy herd type, structure and management practices in
the Gezira scheme. J. Anim. Prod., 1 (1): 7-13.
Bagadi, H.D. (1970). The aetiology of bovine mastitis in three areas in the
Sudan. Trop. Anim. Hlth Prod. 2: 28-34.
Bagadi, H.D. (1974). The incidence of mastitis organisms in relation to
advancement of lactation. Br. Vet. J. 130:33-35.
Bagadi, H.D. and Razig, S.A. (1976). Response of mastitis organism to
cloxcillin . Vet. Rec., 98:245.
Baker R L and Gray GD (2003). Appropriate breeds and breeding schemes
for sheep and goats in the tropics: the importance of characterizing
and utilizing disease resistance and adaptation to tropical stresses.
In : Kosgey I. S. (2004). Breeding objectives and breeding
strategies for small ruminants in the tropics. PhD. Thesis,
Wageningen University.
Bakheit, A.O. (1995). Utilization of molasses energy for milk production.
M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Bakheit, M.R (1998). The possible occurrence of Human Brucellosis in
Kordofan. The Sudan J. Vet. Res. (1997-1998) 15.63.
Bakken, G. (1987). Bovine mastitis control strategy. Irish Vet. J., 41 (3):
235 – 241.

107
Barhat, N.K. and Chowdhary, M.S. (1980). Astudy on production and
reproduction traits of Nagauri cattle. Indian. Vet. J. (1980). 57(11):
909-912.
Basu, S.B. ; Bhantagar, D.S. ; Taneja, V.K. ; Rao, V.P (1979).
Comparative performance of India dairy breed. Indian. J. of Dairy
Sci. 32(4):479-499.
Basu, S.B., Bhatnagar, D.S. and Taneja, V.K. (1983). Genetic analysis of
second and third records of Tharparkar cattle. Indian J. Anim. Sci.,
52 (11): 1007-1011.
Bath, D.L., Dickinson, F.N., Tuker, H.A. and Appleman, A. (1985).
Dairy cattle, Principles, Practices, Problems and Profits (3 rd Ed.).
Lee and febiger, Philadelphia, USA.
Bayoumi, M.S. (1964). Some breeding problems of cattle improvement with
special reference to Sudan conditions. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim.Husb.,
17(1): 38-40.
Bayoumi, M.S. and Danasoury, M.S. (1962). Effect of lactation number and
month of calving on milk production in herd of Sudanese cattle.
Ind. J. Dairy Sci. 16 (1): 36-40.
Bayoumi, M.S. and Khalifa, H.A. (1966). Yields and composition of milk of
Sudanese cow as affected by the age of the cow. Indian J. Dairy
Sci., 19:167-171.
Bennet, R.H. (1982). Teat dip component of coliform mastitis control.
Dairy and Food Sanitation, 2:110-114.
Berrett, A. and Larkin, P. J. (1974). Milk and beef Production in the
Tropics. Oxford University Press, Great Britain, pp. 134.
Beshir, M.B. (1970). Causes of culling cows at Umbenen Centre. Sud. J.
Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 11 (1): 21-26.

108
Bhatnagar, D.S., Taneja, V.K. and Basu, S.B. (1982). Effects of various
factors on some reproductive traits in Tharparkar cows. Indian J.
Dairy Sci., 25 (3) : 331-333.
Bhatnagar, D.S., Taneja, V.K. and Basu, S.B. (1982). Effect of genetic and
environmental sources of variation on total lactation yield in
Tharparkar cattle. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 52 (1): 1-3.
Black, E. and Pierre, G. (1986). Efficiency of morental on milk production.
J. Dairy Sci., 69: 1134-1140.
Blakely, J. and Bade, D.H. (1982). The science of Animal husbandry. 3 rd.
Edition. Publishing Company, Inc. Hall Company. Virginia, The
United States of America.
Bourne, F. J. (1973). Housing and respiratory diseases in cattle. The
Veterinary Annual, 15:23-26.
Buck N G. Serena ZE and Stangaord H G. (1975). Artificial insemination
in Botswana British Veterinary Journal 13: 385-391.
Buffington, D.E., (1983). Shade management systems to reduce heat stress
for dairy cows. Transaction of the ASAE . 26(6):1798-1802.
Bulale, A.I., (2000). Smallholder dairy production and dairy technology in
the mixed farming system in Arsi Highland, Ethiopia. Dissertation,
Humboldt Universitat Berlin, ISBN 3-89574-391-7.
Busch W and Furstenberg L. (1984). The environmental influences upon
the reproductive performance in cattle. 10th International Congress
on Animal Reproduction and Artificial insemination , 10-14 June
1984. University of IIIinois, Urbana- Champaign, IIIinois, USA.
Paper No. 132. 3 pp.
C.A.B. International (1990). The Nutritional Requirements of Ruminant
Livestock. Technical Review by Agricultural Research Council
Working Party (1-6).

109
C.A.B. (1972). The effect of shade and cooling on milk production.
Commonwealth Bureau of Dairy Science Annolated bibliography,
17 : 1950-1971.
California Occupational Guide Number 225 (C. O. G.) (1998). Labor
Market Information. State of California , Employment.
Development. Department Labor Market Information Division,
Information Service Group, (916): 262-2162.
Chawla, D.S. and Mishra, R.R. (1983). Non –genetic factors affecting
production traits in Sahiwal cattle. Indian Vet. J., 59 (1):44-48.
Chizyuka, H.G. and Mangani , M.P.C. (1985). Immunization against
theileriosis in Africa. A.D. Ireven Nairobi, pp. 41, as cited by
Lessard, P., Eplattenier, R.L., Norval, R.A.I., Kundert, K.,
Dolan, T.T., Groze, H. and Perry, B.D. (1990), Geographical
information system for studying the epidemiology of cattle disease
caused by Theileria parva. Vet. Rec., 126 : 255-262.
Cole, J.F. (1976). Preventive medicine program for dairy cattle in Southern
Ontario. The Vet. Annual, 16: 7-12.
Collier, R.J.: Ely, R.M.: Sharama , A.K; Periera, R.M. and
Buffington, D.E. (1981). Shade management in subtropicak
environment for milk yield and composition in Holstein and Jersy
cows. J. Dairy Sci. 64:844.
Costa, C.N., Milagres, J.C., Castro, A.C.G. and Garcia, J.A. (1982).
Effects of season and age at calving on the lactation curve of
Holstein-Friesian cows. Revista da Sociedade Bresileria de
Zootecnia , 11(2) : 320-330 (Anim. Breed Abst., 51 (6), No.
3456).
Costa, C.N., Milagres, J.C., Silva, M. De. A.E., Reis, A.N. Dos and
Garcia, J.A. (1982). Genetic and environmental factors affecting
milk yield in a herd of Holstein –Friesian Minas Gerais. Revista

110
 da Sociedade Bresileria de Zootecnia , 11 (1) : 70-85 (Anim.
Breed Abst., 51 (4), No. 2054).
Cropp,B. and Truman Graf, T (2001). The History and role of dairy
cooperatives. Dairy marketing in America. Oho: National Dairy
Shrine, 2005. Pp 2. (book journal ).
Cunningham et al., (2005). Animal Science and Industry. (7th Ed).
Curtis, C.R; Erb, H.N. and Sniffen, C.J. (1986). Path analysis of dry
period nutrition, post partum metabolic and reproductive disorders
and mastitis in Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 68:2347.
Dafalla, E.N. (1962). Incidence of animal and human brucellosis in Sudan .
Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 3 (2) : 80-88.
Dahab, A.M. (1966). Symposium on milk industry, November, 1966.
Cited by Hassan, M. Y. (1968). Some physiological factors
affecting milk production in Sudan. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb.,
9(1): 29-34.
Dahlin, A. (1998). Genetic Studies on Sahiwal In Pakistan. Acta. Uni. Ahric.
Sci. J. No. 99,72.
Dailey, R.A. (1992). Abortion in dairy cows and heifers. The National Dairy
Data base (1992) / NDB / Reproduce / Text 1 / Ra 100200. TXT.
Dairy Quality University (D. Q. U.). (1998). Parasite control- strategies
for Dairy Cattle in the 1990s. Dairy quality Assurance center. Inc.
Danasoury, M.S. and Bayoumi, S.M. (1963). Service period, calving
interval, lactation period and their effects on milk in Sudan dairy
cattle. J. Anim. Prod. U.A.R.3: 45.
Dass, S.K., Bhatnagar, D.S. and Gurnani, M. (1971). Relative
importance of the factors affecting age at first calving in Tharparkar
cattle. Indian Vet. J., 48 (12) : 1241-1248.

111
Dehart, D.A., Natzke, R.P. and Oltenacu, P.A. (1976). Effect of coliform
challenge at milking time in new udder infection. J. Dairy Sci., 59:
1124-1139.
Dias, F.M. and F.R. Allaire. (1982). Dry period to maximize milk
production over two consecutive lactations. J.Dairy Sci. 65: 136.
Diggins, et al., (1984). Dairy production (5th Ed).
Dirar, H.A. (1975). Studies on the hydrogen peroxide preservation of cow
milk. Sudan. J. Food Sci. Technol., 7: 66-71.
Do Kim, T. (2001). Study of Suitable Techniques To Use The Improved
Local Cattle for Milk Production in Smallholders. Ruminant
Division, Department of Agricultural Extension, Ministry of
Agricultural and Rural Development, No. 2, Ngoc Ha, Ba Dinb,
Hanoi, Vietnam.
Dodo, R.G. and Allon, M.S. (1994). Nutrition, Feeding and calves:
variation and relationships among feeding, chewing and drinking
variables for Lactating Dairy Cows. J. Dairy Sci 77: 132-144.
Doyle, C.J. (1983). Evaluating feeding strategies for dairy cows:
Amodelling approach. Anim. Prod., 16(1): 47-57.
Eberhart, R.J. and Buckaiew, J.M. (1972). Evaluation of hygienic and
dry period therapy program for mastitis control. J. Dairy Sci. 55:
1683-1691.
EI Habeeb, E.A. (1991). Variation in reproductive and milk production in
Butana and Kenana dairy cattle in the Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.
EIbarbary, A.S. ; AIhakim, M.K. ; Shalie, A.A. (1983). Some of
economic characteristics of Friesian cattle in Irag. J. of Indian Vet
Sci., 60: 735-739.

112
EIKhidir, A.O. and Ibrahim, E.S. (1998). The Scheime of Production
and Distribution of Molasses Cubes. (Animal Production Research
Center, Khartoum North) (25-28) (In Arabic).
El - Amin, F. M. (1969). Environmental and Genetic Factors influencing
Reproduction and Milk Yield of Sudan Indigenous Dairy Cattle.
M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
El - Amin, F. M. and Osman, A.H. (1971). Some dairy characteristics
of Northern Sudan Zebu cattle 1. The components of the lactation
curve. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad), 48 (3): 197-200.
El - Amin, F.M, Simeri N A and Wilocx C. (1981). Breed and
environmental effects on reproductive performance of crossbred
dairy cows in the Sudan. Memoria, Asociacion Latinoamericana de
production Animal 16: 151 ( Animal Breeding Abstracts 52:6458 ).
Elinazeir , B.A. (2005). An Assessment of Management and Husbandry
Practices in Some Dairy Farms in Khartoum State. M.Sc. Thesis
Univesity of Khartoum.
Elniema, A.M. (2008). Surveys on Some Livestock Keeping Practices in
Urban and Peri-urban Parts of Khartoum North Province. Sudan.
Ph.D. Thesis University of Khartoum.
Ensminger M E. (1969). Animal Science. Interstate Printers and Publishers,
Danville, IIIinosis. USA. 1253 pp.
Esslemont, R.J., Bailie, J.H. and Cooper, M.J. (1985). Fertility
management in dairy cattle. Collins, 8 Grafton Street, London,
WI, pp. 139.
Ewbank, R. (1988). Animal Welfare. In Management and welfare of farm
Animals. UFAW Hand book (3rd Ed.). Bailliere Tindall, London.
Fadelel Moula, A.A. (1994). Factors affecting reproductive and
productive performance of crossbred dairy cattle in the Sudan.
M.Sc. thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan. F24.

113
Fangaly, O.A. (1980). Reproduction and Yield of Kenana and Butana cattle
herds in the Sudan . M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum,
Sudan.
FAO (1978). Milking, Milk production hygiene and udder health, FAO
Animal production and health paper 78.
FAO (1984). Livestock breeds of China. Chapter 5. Dairy and milk / meat
dual – purpose cattle breeds, No 46. pp 63 – 68. Rome 1984.
FAO (1989). Milking, Milk production hygiene and udder health, FAO
Animal production and health paper 59.
FAO (1990). The Technology of traditional milk products in developing
countries. Animal production and health paper 85 Rome 1990.
FAO / WHO (1959). Expert committee on brucellosis, 3 rd report
publication.
Fawi, N.M.T. (1994). Study of some aspects of the performance of Friesian
crossbred dairy cattle under University of Khartoum Farm condition
M.Sc. Thesis U of K Sudan N5.
Flamant, J.C. (1998). The impact of socio-economic aspects on the
development and outcome of animal recording systems. In:
Trivedi, K.R. (ed), International Workshop on Animal Recording
for Smallholders in Developing Countries, Anand (India) 20-23
October 1997. ICAR Technical Series No. I., pp. 267-317.
Funk, D.A.E Freeman and P.J. Berger. (1987). Effects of Previous days
open, previous days dry. And present day open on lactation
yield.J.Dairy Sci.70: 2366 – 2373.
Gabar, H. ; EI – Kashab, S. ; Ali, H.M. (1985). Milk Yields and age at
first calving of Domiatti and their crosses with European cattle. In
proceedins of the 3 rd AAAP Animal science congress, May 6 -10
(1985) voI. 3: 21 – 24.

114
Galton, D.M. (1984). Dairy herd management. Yearbook of Agric., Animal
Health Livestock and pets, 113 – 117, USA.
Gameel, S.M.A. (1983). Dairy cow disposal from herd health records.
British Vet. J., 139 : 513 – 521.
Gartener, J.A. (1983). Dairy cow disposal from herd health records. British
Vet.J., 139: 513 – 521.
Godara, B.R., Arora, K.C., Pander, B.L. and Khanaa, A.S. (1990).
Genetic and non genetic factors affecting quantity and quality traits
and their inter – relationship in temperate x Zebu crossbred cattle.
Tropic. Agric. (Trinidad), 67 (1) : 49 – 52.
Gondhi, R.S. and Guranani, M. (1990). Breeding efficiency and
producing ability as constrating traits in Sahiwal cows. Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 60 (4) : 482 – 483.
Grummer, R.R. and Rastani, R.R. (2004). Why Reevaluate Dry Period
Length. American Dairy Science Association, 2004. J. Dairy
Sci.87: (E. Suppl.) : E 77 – E 85.
Habeeballa, N. (1977). The Incidence of Bovine Brucellosis in Five Dairies
and two livestock Improvement Centers in Sudan. Sud. J. Vet. Sci.
Anim. Husb. Vol., (1977) 18: 47 – 50.
Habeeballa, A.M. (1996). Assessment of Dairy Farming Practices in
Eastern Nile, Khartoum State. M.Sc. Thesis, University of
Khartoum.
Hassan, A.H, (1988). Study on yield and composition of milk of grade
cattle cow on the University Farm. M. Sc. Thesis, University of
Khartoum.
Hassan, Y.M, (1968). Some physiological factors affecting milk production
in Sudan. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 9(1): 29 – 34.
Helir, A. F. and Bec, C.G. (1979). The use of cholrine teat dip in the control
of mastitis. Aust.J. Dairy Technol., 43: 9- 12.

115
Hendorson, J. L. (1971). The fluid milk industry, third edition. The avi
publishing company, INC wostport, connecticuticut. London,
England. Pp 487.
Holness D H. Hale D H and Hopley J D H. (1980). Ovarian activity and
conception during the post-partum period in Afrikander and
Mashona cows. Theriogenology 14: 375 – 381.
Hongans, J.S. and Smith, K.L. (1989). Practical look at environmental
mastitis. J. Dairy Sci. 172: 547 – 551.
Hoogendroon, L.A. and Griever, M.C. (1970). Effect of varying energy
and roughage in ration for lactating cows on feeds intake and milk
production. J. Dairy Sci. 53; 1028 – 1041.
Ibrahim, A.E. and Habeeballa (1978). Brucellosis in Mcaseriya cows of
Sudan. J. Trop. Vet. Med. And prod. 11, 245 – 246.
Ibrahim, M.T. (1969). Basic sanitary principles applicable in milk
production. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 10(2): 64 – 68.
Ibrahim, M.T. (1983). Study of milk composition and some production
trait of Friesian and Sudanese grade dairy cattle. M.Sc. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.
Ibrahim, M.T. (1989). Study of milk composition and some production
trait of Friesian and Sudanese grade dairy cattle. M.Sc. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.
Ibrahim, F.H., Awad, K.A. and A/zim, I. (1991). Ticks control in
Khartoum State. Cited by Idris, O.F., Osman, M.O. and Ahmed,
A.A., Tick control strategy in Khartoum State Ministry of
Agriculture and Animal resources, Department Laboratories and
Vet. Research.
Idris, M.O.A. (2000). The Effect of Feed Supplementation on the
performance of Nomadic Dairy Herds. M.Sc. Thesis, U of K.

116
International Cooperative Alliance (I.C.A.), (2009). I.C.A,
http://www.ica.coop/coop/index.htm1#significance.
Ishag, A.I. (2000). Impact of Genetic and Non – genetic factors on
Productive and Reproductive Traits of Crossed Cows Raised under
Sudan Conditions. M.Sc. Thesis, U of K.
Islam, M.N. M.N.Islam, M.M. Rahman and S. Faruque (2002).
Reproductive performance of Different Crossbred and Indigenous
Dairy Cattle under Small Holder Farming Condition in Bangladesh.
Online Journal of Biological Sciences 2 (4): 205 – 207.
Jacobson, R. and Cropp, R., (1995). Dairy cooperatives and their role in the
United States. Dairy markets and Policy issues and options, a
project of Cornell University ̉s program on Dairy Markets and
Policy. No. M-9.
Jainudeen, M.R. and Hafez, E.S.E (2000). Pregnancy Diagnosis,
Chapter 28, page 395, From Hafez, E.S. and Hafez. B. (2000).
Reproduction in farm animals (7th Ed.). Lippincott Wiliams and
Wilkins.
Julla. I.I. (2003). East coast fever (Theileria Parva infection of cattle) in
Sudan: An over view. Sudan. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb 42 (1,2): 141 –
146.
Karib, E.A. (1962). Bovine tuberculosis in the Sudan. Sud. J. Vet. Sci.
Anim. Husb., 3(1): 9 – 19.
Kaushik, S.N., Koul, G.L. and Garg, R.C. (1979). Reproductive
efficiency in Zebu Taurus crossbred heifers. Indian J. Dairy Sci.,
32 (3): 321 – 323.
Keown, J.F., and R.W.Everett. (1986). Effect of days carried calf, days dry,
and Wight of first calf heifer, on milk yield. J. Dairy Sci.69: 1891 –
1896.

117
Khalafalla, A.M. (1977). The Reproduction performance of a herd of
Kenana cattle (a Northern Sudan Zebu). M. VSc. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.
Khalafalla, A.M. (1988). A note on the dry period in a herd of Butana
cattle ( A northern Sudan Zebu ). Sudan. J. Anim. Prod. Vol. 1, part
2, 1988 pp 117 – 120.
Khalifa, M.A. and Shafei, M.M. (1965). Milk yield of Sudanese cattle as
affected by age of the cow. Sud. J.Vet.Sci. Anim. Husb., 6(1):24-
30.
Kiwuwa, H. ; Trail, J.C.M. ; Kurtu, M.Y. ; Worka, G. and
Anderson, F.M. (1983). Crossbred Dairy Cattle In Arsi Region,
Ethiopia. ILCA Research No. (11). International Livestock centre
for Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kumar S and Bhat P.N. (1979). Reproductive performance of Hariana
cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 49: 1001 – 1008.
Leland S. Shapiro (2001). Introduction to Animal Science.
Ligero – Toro, F., Mcgilliard, M. and James, R.E. (1990). Production
changes related to management in Virginia dairy herd. J. Dairy Sci.,
73: 2564 – 2569.
Ling, K.C. and Liebrand , C.B., (1996). Dairy cooperatives ̉ role in
managing price risks. USDA Rural Business-Cooperative Service,
RBS Research Report 152.
Logar, A; Oresnik, A; Kovac, M. (2000). Fertility and milk yield of
cows in Bohinji area. Zbornik-Biotehniske-Fakultete- Univerze-
V-L JubiJani. Kmetijstvo, Zootehnika, 2000, 76: 2, 119 - 130; 21
ref.
Lwajock, V.L. (1992). Genetic and molecular studies on multiple
antibiotic resistance of bovine mastitis. M. V. Sc. Thesis,
University of Khartoum.

118
Mahomoud, A.A. (1998). Effect of season on age and milk yield of
Holstein heifers at first calving and first milk lactation. M.Sc.
Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
Malhotra, P.K. and Singh, R.P. (1980). Estimation of life-time
production in Red Sindhi cattle using Ridge-Trace criterion.
Indian J. Anim. Sci., 50 (3): 215 – 218.
Marchot, P., Smith, G.A. and Moen, P.A. (1982). An experience of
smallholders dairy farming in the Southern Sudan. Proceeding of
the International Colloquium on Trop. Anim. Prod. For the benefit
of man, Antewerp, December, 17-18, 1982. Antewerp, Belgium,
338 – 344 (Anim. Breed. Abst., 51 (5), No. 2697).
Mason, I, L. (1977). Maintaining crossbred population of dairy cattle in
tropics. FAO Animal Production and health paper 1. Animal
Breeding selected articles from the world Animal Review, 1: 40 –
47.
Matthewman, R.W. (1983). Dairying. The Tropical Agriculture. CTA
center of tropical veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh
Scotland, U.k. Macmillan
Mbab, D.A. ; Tawah, L.C. and Messine, O. (1991). Performance of
Dairy Cattle in Adamawa Cameron. Cattle Research Network News
Letter No. (3): 10 – 12.
Mbap, S.T. and Ngere, L.O. (1989). Productivity of Friesian cattle in A
Subtropical environment. Tropical Agric. (Trinidad), 66 (2) :121 –
124.
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation of Khartoum
State (2005). Annual Report.
Misra, R.K. ; Basant Singh, B.P. (1982). Genetic studies on the economic
characters of Haryana cattle. Indian Vet. J. 57(7): 566 – 572.

119
Mohamed, N.Y.A., (2006). An evaluation to the factors influencing milk
production and dairy herds health in Khartoum and Khartoum
North Towns. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Mohammed Kheir, O.A. (2002). A Study of Some Limitations of Dairy
Cattle Production in Port Sudan District. M. Sc. Thesis, University
of Khartoum.
Mohammed, A.M. (1995). Impact of dairy husbandry practices on
performance of dairy cattle in Khartoum State. M. Sc. Thesis,
Univesity of Khartoum.
Mohammed, Mahassin, A. ; Bayoumi, M.S and Badi, A.N.I. (1991).
Productive performance of dairy cows under Gezira Prevailing
condition. Sudan J. Anim. Prod. 4(2): 95.
Msanga, Y.N. Bryant, M.J. Rutam, I.B. Minjia, F.N. Zylstra, 1.
(2000). Effect of environmental factors and of the proportion of
Holstein blood on milk yield and lactation length of crossbred dairy
cattle on smallholder farms in north – east Tanzania.
Mukhebi. A/M., Wathanga, J., Perry, P.P., Irvin, A. and Morzaria, S. P.
(1988). Financial analysis of East Cost Fever, control strategies on
production under farm conditions. Vet. Rec., 125 (6): 456 – 459.
Musa, L.M.A., (2001). Environmental and Genetic Factors influences in a
herd of Butana cattle. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Musa, L.M.A., (2007). Characterization and utilization of dairy cattle in
Sudan.
Mustafa, A.A., Abbas, B. and Ghalib, H.W. (1977). Incidence, control
and economic significance of mastitis in dairy herds. Sud.J. Vet.
Sci. Anim. Husb., 18: 70 – 76.
Mustfa, A.A and Fawi, M.T. (1966). Control of disease are pre requisite to
development (2 nd. Vet. Conf). Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 7,
46 – 73.

120
Nasri, N.E. (1966). Present status of disease control. Sud .J. Vet. Sci. Anim.
Husb., 7 (2): 34 – 43.
Natzke, R.P. (1981). Elements of mastitis control. J. Dairy Sci. 64: 1431 –
1442.
Oconnor, L.K. and Hodges, I. (1963). Dairy cows disposal from herd. J.
Anim. Prod., 12:87 – 90. Cited by Gartner, J.A. (1983), Dairy
disposal from herd health record. British Vet. J., 139: 513 – 521.
Oliver. S.P, King, S.H., Torre. P.M., Shull, F.P., Dowlen, H.H.,
Lowis, M.I. and Sordillo, I.M (1989). Prevention of bovine
mastitis by post – milking teat disinfection containg chorous acid
and chlorine dioxide in soluble polimer gel. J. Dairy Sci., 72: (11):
3091 – 3097.
Omer, E.B. (2005). Comparative study of machine and hand milking under
Sudanese condition. Thesis, University of Sudan Science and
Technology.
Omer, M.H.B. (2002). Genetic and phenotypic influences on production in a
herd of Kenana cattle. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Sudan Science
and Technology.
Omer, S.K.M. (2010). An assessment of Kuku dairy cooperative production
system. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Osei, S.A. and Effah-Baah, K. (1989). Reproductive performance of N ̉
dama and West African Shorthorn cattle in the humid forest zone
of Ghana. Tropic. Agric. (Trinidad), 66 (3): 257 – 258.
Osman, A.H. (1972). Studies on Sudanese Indigenous Cattle. 11-
Environmental Factors Influencing Reproductive Rate and Milk
Production under Range Conditions Trop Agric. (Trinidad) 49 (2):
143 – 158.
Osman, A.H. and El-Amin, F.M. (1971). Some dairy characteristics of
Northern Sudan Zebu cattle. 11. Inheritance of some reproductive

121
 and milk production traits. Tropic. Agric. (Trinidad), 48 (3) : 201
– 208.
Osman, A.H. and Russell, W.S. (1974). Comparative performance of
different grades of European-zebu crossbred cattle at Ghurashi
dairy farm, Sudan. Tropic. Agric. (Trinidad), 51 (4): 549 -558.
Ovadia, H., Flesh, J. and Nelken, D. (1978). Prevention of mastitis with
levamisole. J. Med. Sci., 14: 394 – 396. Cited by Lwajock, V.L.
(1992). M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Pagot, J. (1993). Animal Production in the Tropic, Macmillan Press Ltd.
London and Basingstook, 98 – 142.
Pankey, J.W and Philot, W.N. (1974). Hygiene in prevention of udder
infection comparative efficiency of four dips. J. Dairy Sci., 58: 202
– 204.
Patel, A.M. and Patel , J.M., Patel, K.S., Mansouri, M.N. and
Dave, A.D. (1989). Effect of inter-se mating among Jersey x
Kankrej crossbreds. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 59 (5) : 609 – 610.
Patel, J.M., Patel, K.S. and Patel, J.P. (1983). Anote on birth weight of
Kankrej x Jersey and Kankrej x Holstein- Friesian halfbreds.
Gujarat Agric. Univ. Res. J., 8 (2) : 139 – 141 (Anim. Breed. Abst.,
5 (8), No. 5381).
Paton, D.J. (1989). Dairy health management in Canada. Indian Dairyman,
41 (10): 511 – 514.
Peters A R. (1984). Reproductive activity of the cow in the postpartum
period. 1. Factors affecting the length of the postpartum acyclic
period. British Veterinary Journal 140: 76 – 83.
Peters, K.J. and Thorpe, W. (1988). Current status and trends in on-farm
performance testing of cattle and sheep in Africa. Proc. 11 1rd
World Congress sheep and beef cattle breeding, 1 : 275 – 293.

122
Pharo, H.J. (1987). Analysis of clinical records from dairy cooperative in
Bangladesh. Tropical Anim. Health Prod., 19 (3): 30 – 33.
Philpot, W.N. (1975). Prevention of infection by hygiene. Annual Bulletin,
85: 155 – 164.
Provan, A.L. (1961). Market milk. Veterinary Annyal third issue, edited by
Pool, W.A. (1961), 359 – 364.
Pullan N B. (1979). Productivity of White Fulani cattle on the Jos Plateau,
Nigeria, 1. Herd structures and reproductive performance. Tropical
Animal Health and Production 11: 231.
PurbeyL.N. and Sane, C.R. (1982). Studies on age at first calving, season
of calving and calving interval in Dangi breed of cows. Indian Vet.
J., 59 (3) : 205 – 208.
Puri, T. R. and Bhupal, S. (1975). Statistical studies on the economics of
milk production. Indian Journal of dairy science 17. pp 29 – 35.
Rahman, M.M. and M.N. Haque. (2001). Productive and Reproductive
Performances of Native Cows under Farm Conditions. Online
Journal of Biological Sciences 1 (11) : 1085 – 1087.
Rahmatalla, S.A. (2002). Productive, Reproductive and Nutritional Factors
Leading To Culling of Cows in three Dairy Farms in Khartoum
North. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Raw, E. and Hill, F.W.G. (1989). Animal housing design as perceived
by animal. The Vet. Annual, 29: 1:8.
Remond B., A.Ollier and G. Miranda. (1992). Milking of cows in late
pregnancy: Milk production during this period and during the
succeeding lactation. J. Dairy Res. 59:233 – 241.
Rice, D.N. and Rogers, D. (1996). Common infectious diseases that cause
abortion in cattle. University of Nebraska, Institute of Agriculture
and Natural Resources.

123
Rodenburg. J. (2002). Mastitis prevention: Environmental control.
Livestock @ omafra. GOV.ON.CA. Queen ̉s printer for Ontario.
Roy, J.H.B. (1980). Factors affecting susceptibility of calves to disease J.
Dairy Sci. 63: 650 – 656.
Russel, K. (1972). The principles of Dairy Farming. Farming press LTD.,
229 – 242.
Russel, K. (1985). The principles of Dairy Farming Revised and Updated,
10th edition, Kenslator farming press, London, pp. 236.
Sada I. (1968). The length of the gestation period, calving interval and
service period in indigenous West African cattle: N ̉Dama, West
African Shorthorn and Sokoto Gudale. Ghana Journal of
Agricultural Science 1: 91 – 97.
Sada, I. and Vohradsky, F. (1982). Crossing tropical cattle breeds for
milk production. XXI International Dairy Congress, Vol. 1,
book 1, Moscow, USSR, Mir (Publishers), 59 – 60 (Anim. Breed.
Abst., 51, No. 3473).
Salih, D.A; El Huseein, A.M; Majid, A.A. and Hassan, S.M (2003).
Molecular Techniques in the diagnosis of tick- borne disease in the
Sudan : Overview. Sudan. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb: 42 (1,2): 207 –
218.
Sanisbury, D.W.B. (1970). Conversion and adaptation of farm buiding
with particular reference to health. Vet Rec., 87 : 672 – 675.
Sanisbury, D.W.B. (1976). Animal health and intensification. World Rev.
Anim. Prod., 12 (2): 38 – 45.
Sastry, N.S.R, and Thomas, C.K (1980). Farm Animal Management 3rd
edition, Skylark Printers, New Delhi.
Schmidt, G.H. and Van Vleck. L.D. (1974). Principles of Dairy Science.
W.H. Freeman and Company / San Francisco. Printed in the United
States of America.

124
Scudamore, J.M. (1989). Outbreak of brucellosis in Southwest England
during 1984 – 1986. The State of Vet. J., 42 (120): 68 – 75. Cited
by Dunkan, A.L. (1990). Health security in cattle herd. In Practice
, 2 (1).
Shallali, A.A., Salwa, M.E., Dirdiri, N.I., Harbi, M.S.M. and Shamat,
A.H. (1982). Preliminary survey of mastitis and brucellosis in
some dairy farms in the Blue Nile Province. Sud J. Vet. Sci. Anim.
Husb., 4:37 – 40.
Shalli, A.A. Harbi, M.S.M.A. and El Bashir. S.M. (1988). Incidence
of mastitis and brucellosis in Um Benin Dairy Farm. Sud. J. Vet.
Sci. Anim. Husb., 27: 82 – 84.
Sharma R C and Bhatnagar D S. (1975). Influence of sex of the calf and
order of lactation on the reproductive efficiency in dairy animals.
Indian Veterinary Journal 52: 813 – 822.
Sharma, J.M., Dhingra, M.M. and Gurung, B.S. (1982). Factors
affecting age at first calving in Friesian x Sahiwal crossbred cattle.
Livestock Adviser, 7 (10): 52 – 54 (Anim. Breed. Abst., 51 (5),
No. 2843).
Sharma, J.M., Dhingra, M.M. and Gurung, B.S. (1982). Note on the
genetic and non –genetic factors affecting some production traits in
crossbred (Friesian x sahiwal) cattle. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 52 (1):
42 – 45.
Sharpe, M.E and Barmley, A.J. (1977). Incidence of human pathogenic
bacteria and viruses in raw milk. Dairy Industries International, 42:
24 – 56.
Shatava, M. (1990). Culling cows at large farms. Mezhunar Agrom. ZH
1990, No. 1, 82 – 87, Dairy Sci. Abst., 1990.
Shepherd, C.S. (1973). Handling pens for dairy and suckler cattle. The Vet.
Annual, 15th issue: 19 – 20.

125
Sid Ahmed, S.E. (1986). Performance of crossbred dairy cattle in the
Sudan. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Simpson, J.R. and Evangelou, P. (1983). Livestock development in Sub-
Saharan Africa. Boulder. West Vuew, X111: 407.
Siraj , A.A.A. (2003). Effect of season of calving and age at first calving on
some productive and reproductive traits of crossbred dairy cattle in
Belgravia Dairy Farm.
Smith, P. (1977). Proposed calf hood immunization program for
commercial dairy herd. J. Dairy Sci., 62: 249 – 253.
Smith, V.R. (1959). Physiology of Lactation. Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, pp. 210.
Sorensen, J.T., and C. Enevoldsen . (1991). Effect of dry period length
on milk production in subsequent lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 74: 1277 –
1283.
Springell, P.H. (1983). The cattle tick in relation to animal production in
Australia. Selected articles from world Animal review. FAO
Animal production and health paper No. 63, 1983, Rome,pp. 1- 6.
Straat, H. (1979). Preliminary investigation in the control of
trichostrongylosis in calves in Kenya. J. Tropical Anim. Health
prod., 11: 71 – 83.
Sumberge, J.F. (1992). Livestock development policy. Tropical Anim.
Health Prod., 24 (4): 193 – 203.
Swensson, C., Schaar, J., Brannang, E. and Meskel, L.B. (1981).
Breeding activities of the Ethio-Swedish integrated rural
development project. 111. Reproductive performance of Zebu and
crossbred cattle. Wld. Anim. Rev., 38: 31 – 36.
Tarrant, P.V. (1990). Transportation of cattle by road. Appl. Animal
Beh.Sci. 28: 153 – 170.

126
Tibin, I.M, Abdel-Magid, O.A. and Babiker, S.A. (1990). Dairy husbandry
practices at Kuku dairy project. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 29
(2): 11 – 17.
Tjokohoesodo, S. and Grossman, M.L. (1975). Current state of dairy
husbandry in Indonesia. World Rev. Anim. Prod., 11(4): 45 – 60.
TP Sethumadhavan, (2004). Sustainable Dairy Farming : An Overview .
Uotila, M. and Dhanapala, S.B., (1994). Dairy development through
cooperative structure. Experiences in dairy development. In: World
Animal Review (FAO), no. 79, pp. 16 – 22, 1994.
Vasilatos, R. and Wangsness, P.J. (1980). Feeding Behavior of Lactating
Dairy Cows as Measured by time – lapse Photography. J. Dairy Sci
63: 412 – 416.
Wakeem, A.A. and El Tayeb, A. (1962). Asurvey of the causal
organisms of chronic mastitis in a herd and its treatment with
Oxytetracycline. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 3: 28
Wakeem, A.A. and Dansoury, M.S. (1962). Study of calf losses in herd of
Sudanese dairy cattle. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim.Husb., 3: 125 – 131.
Weaver, E., Horwood, R.E. and Smiley, E.S. (1949). Losses in calf in dairy
herd. Mich Quart. Bull., 32, p.42. Cited by Davis, L.R., Aulery, K.,
Herlish, G.E. and Haukin, H. (1954). Outdoor individual peris for
nursing dairy calf. J. Dairy Sci., 37: 560 – 562.
Webster, A.J.F. (1981). Adaptation of building and their effect on health.
Vet. Rec., 108: 183 – 187.
Wheeler, B. (2004). Guidelines for Feeding Dairy cows. Livestock @
omafra. gov. on.ca.. Queen ̉s printer for Ontario.
Whittmore, W. G. (1980). Lactation of the dairy cow. Longman Group. Ltd.
New York, USA.
William M. E. and R.M. Paul (1978). Dairy cattle feeding and
management. John Willey and Sons.

127
Williamson, G. and Payne, W.J.A (1978). An introduction to Animal
Husbandry in the tropics, 3rd edition English Language Book
Society, London, U.K.
Wiltbank JN. Rowden W W. Ingalls J E, Gregory K E and Koch R M.
(1962). Effect of energy level on reproductive phenomena of
mature Hereford cows. Journal of Animal Science 21: 219 – 225.
Yakstes, J.J., Johnstone, c. and Currero, J. (1985). Parasites of cattle.
M.S.D diversion of merk. Rahway, New Jersey, USA.
Younis, A.A., Aboul-Naga, A., Kotby, S. and Salman, A.A. (1976).
Astudy of some reproductive traits in a Friesian herd kept under
Kuwait conditions. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 46 (11): 576-579.
Yousif, L.A. ; Fadel-Moula, A.A. and Abu-Nekheila, A.M (1998).
Productive performance of the Crossbred Dairy cattle in the Sudan.
Proceeding. 8th . Arab Veterinary Conference., (24 – 28) March,
Khartoum 1998, J. Vet. Sci. Anim, Husb, PP. 524 – 539.
Zumbach, B. and Peters, K.J. (2002). Sustainable breeding programmes for
smallholder dairy production in the tropics. 7th world congress on
genetics applied to livestock production, August 19-23, 2002,
Montpcllier, France.

128
 ‫اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
‫إﺳﻤﺎﻋﻴﻞ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻓﻘﻴﺮى‪ ،‬ﺁزهﺮى اﻟﺤﺒﻮﺑﻰ ‪ ،‬أﺑﻮﺑﻜﺮ ﺁدم )‪ – (2000‬ﺳﻼﻻت أﺑﻘﺎر اﻟﺤﻠﻴﺐ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺴﻮدان‬
‫وﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة اﻟﺘﻨﺎﺳﻠﻴﺔ واﻻﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ واﻟﻤﻌﻮﻗﺎت – ورﺷﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ إﻧﺘﺎج وﺗﺼﻨﻴﻊ وﺗﺴﻮﻳﻖ‬
‫اﻷﻟﺒﺎن )ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻨﻌﻤﺔ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﻖ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ )‪ – (2008‬أﻧﺘﺎج اﻷﻟﺒﺎن ﻓﻰ اﻟﺴﻮدان – اﻟﻨﻈﻢ‪ ,‬اﻟﻤﻌﻮﻗﺎت وﻣﻘﺎرﺑﺎت اﻟﺤﻠﻮل‬
‫)ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ أﺣﻤﺪ ﻋﻴﺴﺎوى ‘ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺳﻴﺪ ‘ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ رﻣﻀﺎن )‪ – (2000‬ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻷﻟﺒﺎن‬
‫وﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﻬﺎ‪ -‬ورﺷﺔ‬
‫ﺣﺴﻴﻦ إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ ﺣﺎﻣﺪ أﺑﻮ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ )‪ (2000‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻧﺘﺎج اﻷﻟﺒﺎن – اﻟﺠﺰء اﻻول‪ -‬ورﺷﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫– إﻧﺘﺎج وﺗﺼﻨﻴﻊ وﺗﺴﻮﻳﻖ اﻻﻟﺒﺎن‪ -‬اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم – ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺴﻴﻦ إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ ﺣﺎﻣﺪ أﺑﻮ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ )‪ – (2001‬اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﻳﺎت إﻧﺘﺎج اﻷﻟﺒﺎن ﺑﺎﻷراﺿﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮوﻳﺔ‪ -‬اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﻧﺼﻒ اﻟﺴﻨﻮى اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺪ وآﻴﻞ وزارة اﻟﺜﺮوة اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫واﻟﻤﺪراء اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮآﺰ واﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎت ‪ 15-14‬ﻓﺒﺮاﻳﺮ )ﻣﺪﻧﻰ( )ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺻﺪﻳﻖ ادم ﻋﺒﺪ اﷲ‪ -‬إﻧﺘﺎج اﻷﻟﺒﺎن وإدارة ﻣﺸﺎرﻳﻌﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻮدان‪ -‬اﻟﻤﺎزن ﻟﻠﻄﺒﺎﻋﺔ‪2002 -‬م )ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺁدم اﻟﻄﺎهﺮ وﺳﻨﺎء ﻋﺜﻤﺎن ﻳﻌﻘﻮب )‪ - (2005‬اﻟﺘﻨﺴﻴﻖ ﻓﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺧﺪﻣﺎت ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻧﺔ واﻹرﺷﺎد‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻻﻳﺔ – ورﺷﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻔﻌﻴﻞ دور ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻧﺔ واﻹرﺷﺎد ﻓﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺜﺮوة اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫)ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﺮ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻀﺮ‘ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ اﻷﻣﻴﻦ‘ ﻋﺜﻤﺎن ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ‘ وﻣﺎﺟﺪة ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﺣﻤﺪ )‪2005‬م(‪ -‬دور ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻧﺔ واﻹرﺷﺎد ﻓﻰ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺜﺮوة اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﻻﻳﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم‪ -‬ورﺷﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻔﻌﻴﻞ دور ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻧﺔ واﻹرﺷﺎد ﻓﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺜﺮوة اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫– اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم )ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫وزارة اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ واﻟﺜﺮوة اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻴﺔ واﻟﺮى – وﻻﻳﺔ اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم – إدارة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻰ )ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬

‫‪129‬‬
 Appendix. 1
Questionnaire on farm management and husbandry practices in some
dairy farms in Khartoum state

1. The stock owner :‐  
Name                                      Age            Job                       Phone No.  

Education level:
Illiterate        Primary          Secondary          Graduate         Post graduate    Other          

Veterinary supervision: Yes No

2. The Farm:‐  
Location Area
Farm ownership: Rent ownership
Cultivable lands: Yes No

3. Farm building :  
Pens types: (1) Traditional a. Local thatched b. Bamboo
(2) Modern a. Normal zinc b. American zinc

Pens shading: Shaded Not shaded

Fences types: Barbed wire + zinc

Iran bar
Trees
Mud
Red bricks

Floor type: Concrete Soil

130
4. Farm labors :  
No. of labor Ages Education and training

5. Stock :  
No. of cows No. of lactating cows No. of dry cows
No. of heifers No of suckling calves No. of weaning
No. of breading bulls

Herd source: Farm bred Purchase Both

Breed type : Kenana Butana Crossbred Frisian

Mortality: disease At birth Both Other None

6. Lactation performance :  
Total milk yield / day
Average milk yield (Ib)
High lactation cow (Ib)
Low lactation cow (Ib)
Lactation length (month)
Dry period (month)

• Milking process :  Hand milking            Machine milking  
• Time of milking :   Morning + evening  
Morning + afternoon + evening  
Morning or evening  
 
 

7. Reproductive performance :  
Age at first calving (month) 
Calving interval       (month) 
Gestation length        (day) 
Number of services per conception   

131
                         Age at puberty (month) 
Age at first insemination (month) 
Age at weaning (month) 
Birth weight (kg) 
Parity number 

8.  Feeding system :  

Roughages types      source   
Concentrate types     source                  purchase + TMP  
Compound of feeding:   A. ……. B. ……. C. …… D. ………. 
        F. …….. E. ………. 

No. of feeding: One time Two Three

Time of feeding: Before milking after within
Regularities and distribution: Concentrate before roughages
Roughages before concentrate
Fodder distribution technical: Manually
Mechanical

Salt lick stone: Found

Not found
Sometime

Water source: Purchase Water system Wells

Drinker location: Under shade under sun under shade + Sun
9. Farm management:  
• Farm rearing system :  Traditional          a. Poor managed         b. Good managed 

• Calf rearing practice :  
     Housing: Individual            In group  

Identification and husbandry practice:

132
 By name Moxibusion Tattoo
Ear tags Numbering Dehorning
Supernumerary teat removal Castration Hoof trimming

Bedding: Made of wood liter other

• Heat detection :  By labors observation              By bulls 
 By Labors + Bulls  

• Types of insemination :   Natural        Artificial         Natural +artificial  

• Pregnancy Diagnosis:   PD           U. S 
• Records :   Milk yield    Services records              Nutritional  
Health Mortality Administration

10. General principle of disease  control :  
• Sanitation :  
- Disinfection of building and pens   Yes       No  
- During removal         Yes       No 
- Udder Cleaning         Yes       No 
- Program to monitor milkers     Yes       No  
- Milking utensils          Yes       No 
-  Basis for worker checkup               Yes       No  
 
• Vaccination program       Yes       No  
H. S     Anthrax   C. B. P. P     FMD 
BQ    Brucellosis      other  
 
• Culling :  Yes       No  
Basis of culling:  Health problem       Production            Aging            Other 
          

11.  Diseases :  

133
 - Brucellosis         Yes              No  
- Mastitis              Yes              No 
- Milk fever            Yes               No  
- Parasites           Yes               No  

12.  Veterinary services :     Yes       No  

Extension services                Yes       No 

13.  Marketing program:  

 Sale in the farm & distribution within the neighbor  
Distribution to the factory  
Consumption on the farm  
 
• Processing  : Yes       No  
    Type of processing:   Modern              traditional     none 
• Cooling system :       Yes                No 
• Collection center:       Yes                 No  

14. Economical ispect:  
• Sources of income :   Crops     Milk                Crop + Milk 
• Profitable     Unprofitable      Profitable+ unprofitable           None    
• Cooperative society :     Yes       No  

15. Problems and constrains :  
Marketing      Funding          Technical          Taxes         None  

16. General Notes:  
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

134
Appendix. 2
Table 1: Estimated amount of milk production in the in Khartoum state
(demand and supply 2006-2010 (Tons)

Year Total of demand Total of supply

2006 497670 458080

2007 51250 494100

2008 496000 446000

2009 515000 463000

2010 536000 482000

Source: M. A. A. R.I (2010).

135
 Appendix .3

Plate (1) Farm with poor construction building

Plate (2): Farm with good construction building

136
 Plate (3): Good management ……. good production

Plate (4): Feed ingredient commonly used in dairy farm in Khartoum

State

137
Plate (5): Roughages ingredient (Abu 70) in dairy farm in Khartoum
State

Plate (6) : Cattle in exercise area in dairy farms in Khartoum State

138
Plate (7): Water trough in dairy farms in Khartoum State

Plate (8): Water system in dairy farms in Khartoum State

139
Plate (9): Milking parlor in dairy farm (Eastern Nile) in dairy farms in
Khartoum State

140
Plate (10): Survey in dairy farms in Khartoum State (Extension service
unit -Ministry of Animal Resources and Fishers 2010)

Plate (11): Survey in dairy farms in Khartoum State (Extension service

unit -Ministry of Animal Resources and Fishers 2010)

141
Plate (12): Survey in dairy farms in Khartoum State (Extension service
unit -Ministry of Animal Resources and Fishers 2010)

Plate (13): Survey in dairy farms in Khartoum State (Extension service

unit -Ministry of Animal Resources and Fishers 2010)

142