AA Lecture 1

7 Steps for Energy Management
Module 9: 7 Steps for Energy Management

While this course focuses primarily on the non-technical aspects of energy management, it is
important to bear in mind that it is management of technical systems. An essential
component of the energy manager’s role is to put in place a means of routinely assessing
energy performance and identifying opportunities for savings. Module 9, adapted from a
CBLA Energy Management Workshop, Motivating Sustainable Energy Management in
Industry, concludes the course by presenting a practical methodology known as “The 7
Steps”.
Module 4 Learning Objectives
After completing this Module, you will be able to:

• Advise on the implementation of a systematic assessment of energy systems and
identification of savings opportunities.
9.1 Managing Energy Costs

Energy management takes many different forms. It may vary from capital intensive
installation of new, more efficient technology to simple maintenance and operational activities
that ensure equipment and systems use energy efficiently and effectively. It may involve “fuel
switching” to energy sources that are inherently more economical for a given application.
Since we can’t manage what we don’t understand, it is important for managers to learn how
energy behaves, how it can be most effectively used, and how energy-efficient technologies
can benefit their operations.
The truth is that most facility managers are able to devote only a small amount of time directly
to energy management. This does not rule out effectiveness, however. Experience has
shown that as an owner, manager or operator involved with an industrial or commercial
facility, you already possess invaluable knowledge about the operation of that facility. This —
together with some basic knowledge about energy and the rules by which it works — will
allow you to identify energy saving opportunities, and make changes that will save your
organization money.
9.2 Overview of the 7 Steps

In order to manage your energy costs you will need to understand:
• your present usage and what influences it,

• what opportunities there are to reduce your present usage?
The Seven Steps provides a methodical approach to developing this understanding in two
distinct stages as outlined in the following sections.
9.2.1 Understand Your Present Usage
The first phase involves gaining control of your present usage, its cost, historical and
ongoing variability, and physical distribution. This phase involves analyzing usage
starting at the point of purchase and working towards the point of use.
Industrial Energy Management Training Course Page 9-1

Figure 9.1: 7 Steps to Energy Efficiency
Step 1: Understand your energy costs
Unlike other commodities that may be sold by the pound, the cost of energy that your
facility uses is influenced by a variety of factors. The cost of electricity, for example,
depends upon:
• Demand - the rate, or how fast the electricity is used.

• Energy - how much electricity you use.
• Time-of-Use - when the electricity is used.
• Power Factor - your apparent rate of use versus your real rate of use.
Thermal fuels are simpler to understand than electricity; they are typically sold by
mass or volume, although the usable energy content of the various fuel quantities can
vary widely (as in the various grades and sources of coal, for example).
The overall objective of Step 1 is to develop a clear understanding of the

incremental cost of energy — that is, what will the next unit bought or saved be
worth?
Step 2: Compare yourself
Two kinds of comparison are pertinent: external, and internal.
External comparisons:
• How does your level of energy consumption compare to other similar industries,
facilities and sites?
• What level of consumption is achievable with the best operating practices and
industry benchmarks?
Page 9-2 Industrial Energy Management Training Course

These external comparisons will be valuable in developing realistic savings

expectations, sometime called targets.
Internal Comparisons:
• How does your consumption or energy performance this month compare with last
month, or the best month in the past two years, for example?
• How does one site in a multi-site operation compare with another?
There may be variation from month to month, or from site to site, in your level of
energy efficiency. Minimizing this variation will yield savings.
Step 3: Understand when energy is used
The cost of electricity is influenced by the demand and time-of-use. The electrical
demand profile clearly shows the rate of use of electricity over time. It is a key
management tool for the demand component of your electricity bill.
Step 4: Understand where energy is used
Treat energy as you would any other purchased product. Building an inventory of
your electrical loads and uses of thermal energy will enable you to focus on the
largest and, consequently, the most expensive consumers.
9.2.2 Identify Savings Opportunities
The second phase seeks to identify the savings opportunities in a sequence that will
be the most cost effective. We want to make sure that we concentrate on the
housekeeping measures (operational) before we invest money in new equipment
(technological measures). The key is to look for opportunities, starting at the
point of use, working back to the point of purchase.
Step 5: Match usage to requirement
The first and most important step in realizing savings opportunities is to match what
you actually use to what is needed. The key consideration here is the duration of
use and the magnitude of use.
For example, fuel savings will result from shutting down a process heater running for
12 hours when it is only actually required for an 8 hour shift. Or, there are electricity
savings available by avoiding throttling of the output of an oversized pump.
Step 6: Maximise system efficiencies.
Once the need and usage are matched properly, the next step is to ensure that the
components of the system meeting the need are operating as efficiently as possible.
In this step the impact of operating conditions, maintenance and
equipment/technology will be considered.
Step 7: Optimise the energy supply.
Steps 5 and 6 will reduce your requirement for energy. Step 7 seeks the optimum
source or sources for your overall energy requirement. This may include such
considerations as heat recovery systems, alternative tariff structures, alternative
fuels, or even larger measures such as a co-generation or combined heat and power
(CHP) system.

The 7 Steps: Step-by-Step
9.3 Step 1: Understand your Energy Costs

9.3.1 Electricity Metering
A first step in developing an energy management strategy
is understanding how your facility’s electricity use is
metered. There are various metering technologies in use
which differ in a number of ways, including the following:
• Whether or not demand is metered

• How demand is measured (kW or kVA).
• How the information is measured, stored and displayed
- thermal (dials) or electronic (digital display).
The term demand generally refers to the average value of

power measured over a given time interval. Maximum
demand is the highest demand value registered during any given period.
Energy (kWh) is the product of power over time, the sum of all the instantaneous
power measurements during a period (i.e., how much electricity was used).
These two quantities—maximum demand and energy—are measured by your electric

meter and are used to determine the amount of your monthly electric bill.
9.3.2 The Electricity Bill

The next step after developing an understanding of how electricity is metered is
applying billing tariffs to those metered values to determine your monthly costs. This
section explains tariffs or tariff structures and calculations necessary for the
conversion of metered values to cost.
The electricity bill from each utility is unique, but the information provided on the bill
on most cases will include at least the following items:
1) Kilowatt Hours Used (kWh) - This is the energy consumed since the previous
meter reading and may include values for the on/off peak periods. The
definition of the on- and off-peak periods is provided by the utility on the bill or
on the published tariff. Typically on-peak periods may be: 0:800 to 21:00 and
off peak periods: 21:00 to 0:800. Often holidays are included in the off-peak
period.
2) Billing Demand (kW and/or kVA) - This is the maximum demand experienced
during the billing period. One or both of these values may be measured and
listed. If both are provided, the power factor is at the time of the maximum
demand. Also, the value of the maximum demand for both the on-peak and off-
peak periods may be listed.
3) Tariff Code - Determines which billing tariff is applied to the energy and
demand readings. This will depend on your particular utility.
4) Days - Number of days covered by the current bill. This is important to note
because the time between readings can vary anywhere within ±5 days, making
some monthly billed costs artificially higher or lower than others.

5) Reading Date - This is in the box called "Service To - From". The days covered
and reading date can be used to correlate consumption or demand increases to
production or weather dependent factors.
9.3.3 Understanding How You Are Billed - The Tariff

The tariff determines how much a customer is charged for different units of electrical
use. The tariff applied to a customer depends on such things as:
♦ The annual kilowatt hour consumption and peak demand

♦ The voltage level at the metering point
♦ Any interruptibility agreement with the customer
♦ The nature of the operation or the facility (commercial vs. industrial)
♦ The ownership of transformers serving the customer
Rates applied to electricity demand and consumption vary from region to region in
South Africa, from season to season, and from day to day, and from hour to hour. To
illustrate, one tariff is summarized in Table 9.1. In this case a demand charge that
varies only by season is applied at R15.38 x maximum KVA in the summer, and
R17.08 x maximum KVA in the winter. Consumption charges vary by time of day,
with peak, standard and off-peak rates as shown.
Table 9.1: Sample Electricity Tariff
Summer Winter
Time of Use (Sept. to May) (June to August)
Cents/kWh (approx.) Cents/kWh (approx.)
Mon – Fri 8.9 9.9
0000 – 0600
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
0600 - 0700
Mon – Fri 27.7 41.2
0700 – 1000
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
1000 – 1800
Mon – Fri 27.7 41.2
1800 - 2000
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
2000 – 2200
Mon – Fri 8.9 9.9
2200 - 2400
Sat 8.9 9.9
0000 – 0700
Sat 15.5 17.0
0700 – 1200
Sat 8.9 9.9
1200 - 1800
Sat 15.5 17.0
1800 – 2000
Sat 8.9 9.9
2000 - 2400
Sun 8.9 9.9
All Day

9.3.4 Incremental Cost of Electricity

What will the next kWh purchased or saved be worth? A common, but incorrect
answer to this question is the average cost per kWh.
• Why is the average cost per kWh wrong? Adding or subtracting 1 kWh to or
from your consumption would obviously affect the bill differently depending on
when the change occurred. Using the summer rates to illustrate, on peak this
kWh would cost R0.277, while off peak it would cost R0.089. These are the
incremental costs per kWh, in the first instance higher than the average cost,
and in the second, lower by a significant difference.
• What if the action influenced both the demand (kVA) and energy (kWh)? If
there was a maximum demand change associated with the energy change, the
incremental cost change would be greater. That is, if the energy consumption
change was caused by a change in the maximum demand of, say 1 KVA, there
would be an additional impact on the bill equal to the demand charge of R15.38 in
the summer or R17.08 in the winter. Again, the average cost per kWh would not
properly represent this difference.
Clearly, understanding the incremental cost of electricity is important for correctly

estimating the value of energy management measures.
9.3.5 Sources of Thermal Energy

There are many thermal energy sources available. The characteristics of a selection
of sources are as follows:
Fuel Oils
• Can be transported to remote locations via train, truck, ship, etc.
• Can be stockpiled on site (with adequate storage).
• High heat content.
• On-site tank storage required.
• Larger boiler equipment necessary than for LPG.
• May need to be heated to flow and atomize properly.
• Produces more pollution on combustion than LPG.
• Potentially high sulphur content can damage stack as well as the environment if
the fuel is not burned properly.
• Non-renewable resource.
Natural Gas
• No on-site fuel storage required.
• Clean-burning, low sulphur content.
• High heat content (37.6 MJ/m³)
• Combustion equipment design is relatively compact and simple.
• Transported under pressure - potential for safety hazard if mishandled.
• Only available through pipeline distribution network.
LPG
• Clean-burning, low sulphur content.
• High heat content
• Combustion equipment design is relatively compact and simple.
• Transported under pressure—potential for safety hazard if mishandled.

Coal
• Large domestic reserves.
• Relatively inexpensive.
• Potential for use in different forms (chunk, powder, slurry, etc.).
• Higher sulphur and ash content, burns dirty.
• Large on-site storage required.
• Combustion and waste handling equipment necessarily large and complex.
• Low heat content.
9.3.5.1 Thermal Energy Content of Fuels

There are two values for the energy content of fuels, Higher Heating Value (HHV) and
Lower Heating Value (LHV). The difference between them is that the LHV does not
include the latent energy in the water formed during combustion (and thus is a lower
value). In Europe the LHV is commonly used as the energy content value while in
North America the HHV is the standard.
All thermal energy values quoted in this document refer to the HHV.
Table 9.2: Representative Heating Values of Fuels
Fuel SI Units Imperial Units
Propane 25.3 MJ/l 109,000 Btu/gal(UK)
Wood 19.9 MJ/kg 8600 Btu/lb
Natural Gas 37.6 MJ/m³ 1,008 Btu/ft³
Electricity 3.6 MJ/kWh 3413 Btu/kWh
9.3.5.2 Purchasing Natural Gas

Natural gas is an emerging thermal energy source in South Africa. Natural gas tariffs
are similar in complexity to electricity tariffs, but somewhat different in characteristics
and vary according to the specific conditions of each gas utility. The tariff applied to a
large volume customer may depend on such things as:
• Total monthly purchase.

• Maximum (negotiated) daily consumption (i.e. “Contracted Demand”).
• No. of days using an amount equal to the Contracted Demand
• No. of days exceeding the Contracted Demand (“Overrun”).
• Direct purchases at source delivered through the utility’s pipeline network.
• A clause obliging the customer to turn off the service within a given time frame
(“Interruptible Tariff”)
• Time of year the gas is purchased.
9.3.5.3 Fuel Tariffs and Billing

Propane and Fuel Oil tariffs are typically set by the fuel companies. Propane and
Fuel Oil are both sold on a per litre basis, and are delivered to the user via delivery
truck or possibly pipeline for very large consumers. The purchase price is uniform
per litre for a given fuel type, regardless of the quantity purchased. Although the
price paid per litre to the supplier can be negotiated, the contracted price will usually
be dependent on the quantities used.

9.4 Water Consumption

In many industrial operations, in addition to being a commodity with its own supply
constraints, water use and energy use are linked due to the fact that water is typically
pumped, heated or chilled. Water consumption can be analysed using the MT&R techniques
discussed in Module 7.
Energy savings accompany water savings, sometimes representing greater value in terms of
money than the water itself. Historical water costs can be determined and compared as
illustrated in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2: Historical Water Cost Example
Historical Water Cost

Sample Facility
$ $4,000
f
o $3,000
r
W $2,000
a
t
e $1,000
r
$0
Feb Apr June Aug Oct Dec
Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov
1996 1995 1994
Often the metered water volumes are used to determine the volumes for sewer charges. In
industry where there is significant evaporation of purchased water it may be possible to obtain
a credit for reduced sewer volumes.
9.5 Step 2: Compare Yourself

Consider the following questions.
• How does the present level of energy consumption in

your plant compare to that of last month or last year?
• Do you use more or less energy to manufacture your
products or operate your building than the average for
your industry?
The answers to these questions can begin to reveal the

extent of the overall energy saving opportunity for your plant
or facility. From a planning perspective the answers will also
allow you to set realistic savings targets for your energy
management program. On an ongoing basis, the analysis
necessary to answer these questions forms an important
energy management activity — that of monitoring and
targeting.

9.5.1 Tabulation of Electricity Data

Energy consumption data is available from you own accounting records. Utility and
fuel supplier invoices contain valuable information about consumption that may be
tabulated.
Table 9.3 is a generic billing history table with some columns for derived numbers:
Table 9.3: Generic Electricity Billing History
Historical Raw Data Derived Data

Billing # of Demand Energy Daily Energy Demand Total Blended Load
Month days Energy Cost % Cost % Cost Cost Factor
Monthly Demand & Energy

ABC Manufacturing and Processing
200K 800
E
n
e 150K 600 D
r e
g m
y a
100K 400
n
k d
W 50K 200
h k
V
A
0K 0
Aug 92 Oct 92 Dec 92 Feb 93 Apr 93 Jun 93
Jul 92 Sep 92 Nov 92 Jan 93 Mar 93 May 93
Energy Demand
Figure 9.3 Historical Demand and Energy Graph
Starting with the basic historical billing data, a number of calculations may be
performed on the data. Some of the major calculations which may be done are:
kWh/Day: kWh in period ÷ Days. Since reading periods can vary, kWh/day is more
useful for spotting consumption trends than billed kWh.
Load Factor: kWh ÷ (kW x Days x 24 Hrs./Day). If metered in kVA and power factor
(P.F.) is known, substitute kVA x P.F. for kW. If P.F. is not known, assume 90%.
Load factor is an indication of the percentage of time the plant is operating on peak.
Cost calculations: Cost of demand, energy and total cost.
Cost Distribution between Demand and Energy: These numbers, along with load
factor, can indicate trends or anomalies in energy and demand usage.

Energy and Demand Intensity: Dividing the annual energy consumption (kWh) and
the annual peak demand (kW or kVA) by the building area (m2.) or production can
provide useful comparisons to other similar facilities and operations.
Average Energy Cost (Blended rate): The average cost is simply the entire
electrical bill (including demand and energy costs) divided by the energy (kWh) used.
As noted earlier, it is wise not to use this number when calculating savings.
Electricity billing calculations are much more complex than that.
A simple but effective way to view electricity consumption history is in the form of a
graph as shown in Figure 9.3.
9.5.2 Tabulation of Fuel Consumption Data

Wherever possible, record data in physically measurable units (cubic meters, kWh,
etc.). Avoid units such as Rands which can fluctuate over time (e.g., via utility tariff
changes, product price changes, etc.). Where two different energy sources feed
thermal energy data into the same process, it may be necessary to convert them to a
common unit. In a spreadsheet program, units may be adjusted as needed after the
quantities are entered in their original units. Enter the data in a table such as:
Table 9.4: Sample Energy Consumption Data
ABC Widgets Inc.

Thermal Energy Breakdown
Purchased Total
Date Oil Energy
(Litres) (GJ)
Jan-94 531,000 20,521
Feb-94 559,000 21,599
Mar-94 520,000 20,081
Apr-94 420,000 16,609
May-94 445,000 17,182
Jun-94 237,000 9,137
Jul-94 256,000 9,868
Aug-94 284,000 10,964
Sep-94 193,000 7,431
Oct-94 354,000 13,651
Nov-94 497,000 19,183
Dec-94 507,000 19,557
Totals: 4,803,000 185,783
Interpolating Periodic Data (If Necessary): Normally it is easiest to analyze energy

use on an actual-month basis. In the case of fuel delivered or meters read at uneven
intervals (e.g. fuel oil delivered by truck), it is necessary to interpolate between
deliveries to attribute the fuel use to the proper month in which it was consumed.

9.5.3 Tabulation of Other Data

After gathering and tabulating energy use data, it is necessary to determine what
factors influence energy usage and what data, if any, can be gathered about these
factors. These may include:
Table 9.5: Other Data
Factor Data Units

Product Product quantities Quantities, volumes, etc.
Weather Outside air temperature Degree-days
Occupancy Occupied Time Hours, shifts, days, schedules etc.
Continuing the example of fuel consumption, we determine that weather and

production are the only two factors influencing the fuel consumption tabulated. The
weather (degree-day data from the local weather office) and production data
(numbers of widgets) for the period corresponding to the fuel data, are gathered and
entered into the table:
Table 9.6: Sample Energy/Production Analysis
ABC Widgets Inc.

Thermal Energy Breakdown
Purchased Total Weather
Product
Date Oil Energy (Degree-
(000's)
(Litres) (GJ) Days)
Jan-94 531,000 20,521 723.2 48
Feb-94 559,000 21,599 658.3 64
Mar-94 520,000 20,081 589.6 59
Apr-94 420,000 16,609 379.5 64
May-94 445,000 17,182 262.8 89
Jun-94 237,000 9,137 75
Jul-94 256,000 9,868 81
Aug-94 284,000 10,964 90
Sep-94 193,000 7,431 61
Oct-94 354,000 13,651 280.3 55
Nov-94 497,000 19,183 419.8 79
Dec-94 507,000 19,557 678.6 45
Totals: 4,803,000 185,783 3992.1 810
Weather data for June to September is ignored, making the assumption that there is
no space heating during this period; this also assumes that there is no air
conditioning during the period.
9.5.4 Analysis of Data

The benefits of tabulating bills over time and doing these simple calculations are:
♦ To make an initial correlation between the energy and demand figures, and the
operation of the plant. An example of the correlation is provided in the next

section.
♦ To set a savings objective or target.
♦ To reveal, and flag any unexpected increases in demand and/or consumption.

Later we can track down and, where necessary, correct the condition causing the
increase.
♦ To confirm the savings expected from any energy conservation measures that
have been implemented. As an example, we should be able to ensure that new
Building Management Systems are delivering savings on an on-going basis.
♦ To evaluate and compare the energy and demand of one building to another or to
standards (“benchmarks”) on the basis of area, or energy density. Additional
information must be known such as heated or cooled areas (sq. ft. or sq. m.),
type of heating fuel, etc. These types of calculations are also known as energy
use intensity, energy budget, and demand density.
There are two principal types of comparisons that can be made here:
♦ Historical An internal comparison of your energy consumption, for instance July

this year to July last year, or all of 2003 to all of 2002.
♦ Benchmark An external comparison of your overall energy consumption levels

to external references or benchmarks.
The relative merits of benchmarks have been discussed in connection with monitoring
and targeting in Module 7.
9.6 Step 3: Understand When Energy is Used

9.6.1 The Demand Profile
The demand profile for a facility, building, service entrance or
any user of electricity is simply a record of the power
demand (rate of energy use) over time. Its purpose is to
provide detailed information about how the facility, as a
whole, uses energy. It is, in essence, the "electrical
fingerprint" of the facility. The demand profile builds an
understanding of when energy is used.
The simplest demand profile would be a series of manual

utility meter readings recorded monthly, daily, hourly, or, if
possible, more frequently. The particular time interval used
will depend on what the information in the demand profile is
to be used for. Table 9.7 is a sample of a manually recorded
hourly demand profile.
The information required for a monthly demand profile is

present on most utility invoices. In that case there would only be twelve values
available for a year. An alternative to the tabulation of demand readings shown in
Table 9.7 would be a graph similar to that shown in Figure 9.8. This method of
presentation facilitates comparison of the relative demand levels throughout the day,
and a quick identification of the hours of peak power demand along with start-up and
shut-down characteristics.

Table 9.7: Manual (Tabular) Demand Profile
Hour kW Hour kW Hour kW

1:00 am 45 9:00 am 120 5:00 pm 110
2:00 am 47 10:00 am 122 6:00 pm 82
3:00 am 43 11:00 am 121 7:00 pm 60
4:00 am 46 12:00 pm 100 8:00 pm 61
5:00 am 45 1:00 pm 124 9:00 pm 63
6:00 am 62 2:00 pm 135 10:00 pm 61
7:00 am 69 3:00 pm 120 11:00 pm 65
8:00 am 95 4:00 pm 123 12:00 pm 50
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hour of the Day
Figure 9.4: Graphical Demand Profile
The most commonly used form of the demand profile is similar to that illustrated in
Figure 9.5. The profile covers a period of approximately 24 hours; slightly more than
24 hours is better than less. The demand (in this case kW) appears on the vertical
axis, while the time, in hours, appears on the horizontal axis
Peak Day Demand Profile

15 minute demand interval
2000
1800
1600
Kilowatts
1400
1200
1000
800
Time of Day (00:00 - 24:00)
Figure 9.5: 15 minute Interval Demand Profile

A recording power meter was used to generate this demand profile. Readings are
generally recorded automatically, less than one minute apart. In some cases, the
readings may be adjusted by the recording instrument to match those that would be
taken from the utility meter.
The profile shown in Figure 9.5 contains real power information measured in kilowatts
(kW). More sophisticated recording power meters are capable of recording these
values and others, including three phase voltage, current, power factor and power
quality parameters. Comparing Figures 9.4 and 9.5 clearly shows the advantage of
using a recording power meter. Significantly more detail is available, although the
hour by hour profile remains a valuable starting point.
9.6.2 Analyzing the Demand Profile

The information that may be obtained from the demand profile is not limited to that
mentioned above; these are some of the most obvious items. Profiling not only the
facility as a whole, but also departments or sections, will allow the development of
detailed knowledge of the facility's power demand habits.
The demand profile is the electrical "fingerprint" of a facility's electrical consumption

patterns. Key information may be obtained by reading or interpreting the profile,
loads that operate continuously and could be shut down, loads that contribute
unnecessarily to the peak demand, or possibly loads that are operating abnormally
and require maintenance.
Many electrical loads leave behind very distinct fingerprints as they operate. By
recognizing the patterns associated with each component, it is possible to identify the
contribution of various loads to the overall demand profile.
Table 9.8: Demand Profile Factors
Information Description
The time, magnitude and duration of the peak demand period or

Peak Demand
periods may be determined.
The demand present at night (or during unoccupied hours) is
Night Load
clearly identified.
The effect of operation start-up(s) upon demand and the peak
Start-Up
demand may be determined.
The amount of load turned off at shut-down may be identified.

Shut-Down
This should equal the start-up increment.
The effect of weather conditions upon the demand for electricity

can be identified from day to night (with changing temperature),
Weather Effects
and from season to season by comparing demand profiles in each
season.
The duty cycle of many loads can usually be seen on the demand
Loads that Cycle
profile. This can be compared to what is expected.
Interactions between systems may be evident, for example, the

Interactions increased demand for electric heat when ventilation dampers are
opened.

Often the occupancy schedule for a facility is reflected in the

Occupancy Effects
demand profile, if not, this could identify control problems.
As in the case of occupancy, the effect of increased load on

Production Effects production equipment should be evident in the demand profile,
again, its absence may be evidence of problems.
A short-cycling compressor is usually easy to spot from the

Problem Areas
demand profile.
9.6.3 Obtaining a Demand Profile

Facility demand profiles may be obtained by a number of methods including:
♦ Periodic utility meter readings.

♦ Recording clip-on ammeter measurements.
♦ Basic and multi-channel recording power meters.
♦ A facility energy management system (EMS).
♦ A dedicated monitoring system.
While the first method above is the cheapest and simplest to implement, the data it
produces is limited. At the other end of the spectrum, dedicated monitoring systems
are expensive and complex to set-up and use, but yield a wealth of information, from
real power to power quality.
Whatever technique is used, it is important that the demand profile be measured at a

time when the operation of the facility is typical and, if at all possible, the peak
demand is equal to the maximum demand as registered by the utility meter for the
current billing period. This is important since the overall objective in measuring the
load profile is to identify which loads contribute to the billed peak demand.
A Dedicated Monitoring System
At a minimum, such a system would measure the power consumed at the service
entrance. Typically, such systems are implemented to provide sub-meter information
for selected parts of the overall facility. Monitoring systems are generally designed
for accurate measurements and effective data storage and presentations.
Measurements of many other parameters may be correlated with demand to aid in
the analysis of the demand profiles. Dedicated monitoring systems are generally at
the core of larger fully integrated monitoring and tracking systems.
9.6.4 Opportunities for Savings in the Demand Profile

Often, opportunities for savings can be found in the demand profile. The following
are typical examples of savings opportunities:
A peak demand that is significantly higher than the remainder of the profile
for a short amount of time is an opportunity for demand reduction by
scheduling.
A high night load in a facility without night operations presents an opportunity

for energy savings through better control or possibly time clocks.
Loads that cycle on/off frequently during unoccupied periods suggests that
possibly they could be shut down completely.

High demands during breaks in a production operation or insignificant drops

at break times suggests that equipment idling may be costly, consider
shutdown.
Make sure that systems are not starting up before they are needed and
shutting down after the need is past. Even 1/2 hour per day can save a
significant amount if the load is high.
Peak demand periods at start-up times suggest an opportunity for staged

start-up to avoid the peak.
If the billed demand peak is not evident on a typical demand profile, this
suggests that the load (or loads) which determine the demand may not be
necessary (if they only operate once in a while). Consider scheduling or
shedding these loads. Also check the billing history to see if the demand
peak is consistent.
A large load that cycles frequently may result in a higher peak demand and a
lower utilization efficiency than a smaller machine running continuously.
Consider the use of smaller staged units or machines. Such a strategy may
also reduce maintenance since machine start/stop results in increased wear
and tear.
Short cycling loads are a clue to potential maintenance savings and failure
prevention.
In some cases, non-essential loads may be temporarily disconnected during peak

periods. This practice is commonly referred to as peak shedding or peak shaving.
9.7 Step 4: Understand Where Energy

is Used
Businesses use inventories to keep track of many items. An
inventory of the uses of electricity and thermal energy will help
to develop a baseline that will allow you to focus your energy
management efforts upon the areas of greatest opportunity.
9.8.1 The Electrical Load Inventory

Making a list or inventory of all loads in a facility
answers two important questions:
♦ Where is the electricity used?
♦ How much and how fast is electricity used in

each category?
Often the process of identifying categories of use allows waste to be easily identified,
and this often leads to low cost savings opportunities. Identifying the high-
consumption loads lets you consider the best savings opportunities first.
Because the inventory also quantifies the demand (or “how fast”) associated with
each load or group of loads, it is invaluable in further interpretation of the demand
profile.
Table 9.9 is a sample load inventory taken from a small industrial plant. There are
several loads including lighting, pumps, process equipment and an air compressor.

The punch press appears in the inventory twice, once for each mode of operation.
When idling, the press consumes far less power than when engaged.
Table 9.9: Sample Load Inventory for Industrial Plant
Load Description Quantity Unit kW Total kW Diversity Peak Hours Energy

Factor kW kWh
Plant Lighting 50 0.5 22.5 100% 22.5 400 9,000

Air Compressor 1 50.0 50.0 100% 50.0 732 36,600
Punch Press (Idle) 2 15.0 30.0 100% 30.0 300 9,000
Punch Press 2 75.0 150.0 10% 15.0 40 6,000
(Engaged)
Cooling Pump 1 20.0 20.0 80% 16.0 150 3,000
Total Load 133.5 63,600
The equipment data in Table 9.9 was obtained from a survey of the plant; a simple
spreadsheet was used to calculate the peak demand and energy values according to the
calculation method outlined in Table 9.10.
Table 9.10: Sample Load Inventory Calculations
Data-entry Item Units Description

Quantity (a number) The quantity of this particular item.
Unit Load kW The load in kW for one of this particular load.
Total kW kW Quantity. x Unit Load.
Hrs/Period hours The estimated hours of use per period
kWh/Period kWh Total kW x Hrs/Period
Is this load on during the peak period identified in the
On @ Peak Yes/No
demand profile?
Diversity Factor That fraction of the total load that this particular item
0 - 100%
(Div’ty Factor) contributed to the peak demand.
If the load is on peak, then this value equal to the Total
Peak kW kW
kW x Diversity Factor
Finally, the load inventory data can be represented graphically to show the distribution of
demand and energy consumption. It is interesting to note the difference between the graphs,
revealing that any given load may have a greater impact upon demand or energy depending
upon its size and mode of operation.

Cooling Pump
12%
Plant Lighting
17%
Punch Press
(Engaged)
11%
Air Compressor
Punch Press 38%
(Idle)
Plant Demand (kW)
22%
Punch Press Cooling Pump Plant Lighting

(Engaged) 5% 14%
9%
Punch Press
(Idle)
14%
Air Compressor
Plant Energy (kWh) 58%
Figure 9.6: Breakdown of Plant Demand and Energy
9.8.2 Thermal Energy Inventory

An energy flow diagram provides a way to visualize the thermal energy flows in a
facility and to begin to develop an inventory of the uses and outflows.
Often, the process of preparing a list or inventory of energy use reveals unknown or
overlooked instances of waste of energy and possibilities for heat recovery—a
technique for re-using waste heat flows.
9.8.2.1 Energy Flow Diagram

The energy consumed in industrial plants takes many forms. Typically, a facility will
purchase an energy source such as coal or fuel oil to generate heat for a variety
purposes. In most cases, electricity will be purchased for use in lighting, motors and
in some cases as a source of heat.

Solar
Process Exhaust
Energy Inflow
Boiler Stack Loss Ventilation
Exhaust
Window
Electricity Heat Loss
Energy Inflow
Wall
Heat Loss
Oil or Natural Gas

Energy Inflow
Energy System Boundary
Door Heat Loss Warm Fluid to Drain
Figure 9.7: Facility Energy System
One of the most basic principles of the world in which we live—the First Law of
Thermodynamics—is that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but simply
converted from one form to another. Energy is often purchased in a chemical form,
such as coal or oil, and then converted to thermal energy or heat. Steam, hot water
and air help to transport heat through and out of a facility. When studying and
analyzing energy usage it is necessary to define a boundary around a plant or
building which encloses the specific energy system being studied. This is depicted in
Figure 9.7.
A financial auditor balances a corporation's financial books by ensuring that the

expenses (money outflows) equal the income (money inflows). Likewise, an energy
auditor will balance all energy outflows against energy inflows. Unlike financial
systems however, this input versus output balance must exist physically; otherwise,
the facility would quickly heat up or cool down without limit. As the energy inflows are
usually metered, they are easily quantified. The Energy Outflow Inventory attempts
to account for all energy leaving the facility.
As illustrated in Figure 9.7, energy inputs cross the energy system boundary at
various points of entry. In the case of electricity, gas, and oil, these are discrete
locations such as the electrical service entrance and fuel delivery pipes. In contrast,
solar energy enters in a more diffuse way through those building walls and windows
that are exposed to the sun. Some energy outflows occur at discrete points of exit
such as drain pipes, chimneys, and exhaust fans, but some of a facility’s energy also
leaves in diffuse fashion through its walls and windows. Although incoming energy
may cross the energy system boundary in a variety of forms, energy almost always
leaves the facility in the form of heat. There are exceptions, which include certain
processing plants, where some of the incoming energy leaves in chemically-bound
form in the product that the plant produces.

The step preceding the development of an energy balance is the preparation of an

energy flow diagram. A simplified version of an energy flow diagram is shown in
Figure 9.8.
Flue Gas and

Radiation Loss System Boundary
(facility) Out-Flow
Hot Fluid Process & Air Flow

Equipment
Fuel Energy Sub-System
Boiler Plant Steam Flow
Sub-System
Process & System Boundary
Equipment (Facility) Outflows
Sub-System
System Boundary
(Facility) Inflows
Hot Product
Sub-System Inflows Process & Fluid Flow

and Outflows Equipment
Electric Energy Sub-System
Facility Energy System Boundary
Figure 9.8: Energy Flow Diagram
The process of preparing a diagram similar to this for your facility will help to develop
an understanding of precisely where energy is used. It will also provide a valuable
reference later when you begin to look for savings opportunities. Each of the flows
can be scrutinized for reduction opportunities. This diagram is also useful when
considering recovering heat from the various necessary energy outflows.
9.8.2.2 Begin to quantify flows

In conjunction with building an energy flow diagram it is useful to begin to quantify the
flows of energy in terms of rate (kW or kVA) and amount (GJ per day, month or year).
The information necessary to perform these energy calculations is readily available

for many pieces of equipment and processes:
Nameplate Ratings - equipment specifications provide thermal energy requirement

data.
Steam Flow - there may be steam flow metering available in your plant. Steam
consuming equipment will have a specified requirement for steam flow rate.
Hot Water Flows - many waste energy flows are warm or hot fluids which may be
easily quantified by the common formula:
Heat Flow Rate = Mass Flow Rate (kg/sec) x Temperature Difference (°C) x C
The resulting units are kilowatts (kJ/s), the constant C is the specific heat of the fluid.
For water the value of C=0.0042 kJ/kg.
9.8.2.3 The Energy Impact of Water Efficiency

Water efficiency and energy efficiency go hand-in-hand. Although paybacks on water
efficiency measures may be attractive on their own, they can be made all the more so
when the value of energy saved is factored in (or vice versa).

Water that is saved by efficiency measures in a plant will often have been
♦ heated
♦ or chilled
♦ and/or pumped
♦ and/or treated with chemicals (as with boiler feed water).
Saving the water also saves the intrinsic energy or the contained chemicals.
As with energy, an inventory and calculated balance of water end-use versus overall
consumption is a good starting point for the identification of opportunities. Figures 9.9
and 9.10 below illustrate the results of a water inventory and balance.
Figure 9.9: A Water Inventory and Balance
Water Consumption Breakdown

Sample Facility
5%
7%
3%
11%
60%
14%
Prod'n Service Mech Eqp

Landscape Fleet Other
Figure 9.10: A Graphical Presentation of the Water Inventory Summary

9.8.3 Benefits of Energy Inventories

Cost Allocation. Ultimately, costs for each of the uses and energy flows could be
calculated by applying the unit cost of thermal energy as calculated in Chapter 3.
This would provide a good baseline or guide as to which processes and systems are
your most expensive users of energy.
A starting point for any energy management program. It provides a reference

point against which to assess opportunities. The maximum that an energy opportunity
can save is what is presently used. The load and water inventory provides this
information.
A clear picture of where energy and water is being used. It allows you to
prioritize and concentrate your actions on the big consumers.
Benchmarks for comparison. Demand intensity (Watts/m2), energy intensity (kWh/

m2) or production efficiency (kWh/unit) broken down by component (lighting, cooling,
production etc.). These numbers can be useful when compared to design or target
benchmarks.
A framework for ongoing monitoring. It allows you to begin to

reconcile/understand increases in future consumption. The key monitoring points can
be identified from the inventory.
Energy is a manageable business expense. The load inventory provides

information that is necessary for good energy management.
9.8 Identify Savings Opportunities: A Critical Assessment

All energy consuming equipment and systems were design to meet a specific need. This may
be as simple as providing illumination in the case of a lighting
system – or far more complex as in the case of an integrated
processing plant.
In identifying energy savings opportunities we are endeavouring

to reduce the level of energy use while still meeting the original
requirement.
How can this be accomplished? To some extent the solution will

depend upon the details of each circumstance. Some common
situations are listed below. You may be able to think of a few
more:
♦ The original requirement for which the system was designed

has changed – the original system may be over or under
sized for the new requirement.
♦ The requirement is not continuous – the system was not designed to be shut down.
♦ The requirement varies with time – the system has little or no capacity control.
♦ The system/equipment is old – new technology is now available.
♦ Energy costs were not an issue when the equipment/system was designed/installed.
♦ Maintenance is deferred or absent – the equipment continues to operate.

♦ The operational practices associated with system/equipment are – “the way it’s always
been operated”.
♦ The level of energy consumption is not monitored or known.
9.8.1 A Critical Assessment

The assessment of savings opportunities involves a process that begins at the point
of end-use, where the requirement is met, and proceeds methodically back towards
the point that energy is obtained or purchased:
1. Begin with the requirement.

2. Ensure that that requirement is valid today and profile any variation.
3. Next, make sure that the system operates in a way that meets the
requirement as closely as possible both in time and magnitude.
4. Now, consider the way that the existing equipment or system is operated.
5. Look for ways to operate and maintain the equipment at higher efficiencies.
6. Next, look at the existing technology – could it be modified to operate at a
higher efficiency?
7. Is new technology available that is more efficient?
8. Finally, consider the energy source – is there an alternative that is more
cost effective.
The sequence of actions in this assessment is important. It would not be logical to

install a new technology without clearly defining what the requirement was, and sizing
it to that requirement. In a similar fashion the return on investment for a piece of
energy efficient technology will depend upon the operating times – any action which
changes the operating times must at least be considered first.
There are three distinct steps in this critical assessment sequence described above.
9.9 Step 5: Match Usage to

Requirement
The first and most important step in realizing savings
opportunities is to match what you actually use to what is
needed. The key consideration here is the duration of use
and the magnitude of use.
Examples:
R Reduce the operating times of idling air compressors.
R Re-train operators in equipment operation.
R Turn-off lights in unoccupied areas.
R Provide specific task lighting – and lower area lighting.
R Moderation of chilled water temperatures with cooling
requirement.
R Match steam pressure output of boiler to maximum requirement – avoid pressure
reducing valves (PRV’s).
R Replace 1 large boiler with 3 smaller units of equal capacity and sequence their operation
to match need.
R Reduce moist air infiltration into storage coolers and freezers.
R Eliminate throttling the output of cooling pumps to match flows by:
• Trimming pump impeller
• Resizing the pump
• Installing a variable speed drive (VSD) on pump motor.

9.10 Step 6: Maximise System

Efficiencies.
Once the need and usage are matched properly, the next
step is to ensure that the components of the system meeting
the need are operating as efficiently as possible. In this step
the impact of operating conditions, maintenance and
equipment/technology will be considered.
Examples:
R Monitor combustion efficiencies daily and adjust
combustion controls accordingly.
R Repair leaking steam traps.
R Return condensate to boiler from process areas.
R Reduce piping flow restrictions in chilled water loops.
R Insulate steam pipe fittings.
R Replace air compressors with a newer, higher efficiency unit.
R Clean air filters on a regular basis.
R Clean and lubricate electric motors regularly – ensure operation at the correct voltage.
9.11 Step 7: Optimise the Energy

Supply.
The first two steps will reduce your requirement for energy.
At this point it is logical to seek the optimum source or
sources for the net energy requirement.
Examples:
R Heat Recovery – utilizing waste heat sources to
displace purchased energy
R Heat Pumps – capturing heat from low grade or heat
source waste heat source
R Co-generation – generating heat and electrical power
on-site.
R Renewables – solar, wind or other renewable sources.
R Competitive Supplier – negotiating supply contracts at
a lower net price.
These three steps together make up the second part of the Seven Steps to Energy Efficiency.
The actions taken to reduce energy consumption can be categorized into two types:
• Changing the operation of the existing systems and equipment.

• Changing the system or equipment technology
Operational actions tend to be lower in cost to implement. Often, energy savings

opportunities involving some type of operational action will be called low cost or
housekeeping measures.
In contrast, those measures that require investment in new technology will tend to have a
higher cost of implementation. These actions are sometimes referred to as retrofit
measures.
A good energy saving project will combine both operational and technological actions to
achieve attractive savings, with a good return on investment.

9.12 Assessing the Benefit

A comprehensive assessment of the benefits and costs associated with an energy savings
opportunity extend well beyond the cost of the energy involved and in many cases may
involve:
Benefits:
• direct energy savings

• in-direct energy savings
• comfort/productivity increases
• operation & maintenance cost reductions
• environmental impact reduction
Costs:
• direct implementation costs

• direct energy costs
• in-direct energy costs
• operation & maintenance cost increase
Typically, the direct energy savings and costs are the most easily quantified. The load and
energy inventories provide a good basis for these calculations.
The indirect energy savings and costs tend to be more obscure and often result from the
interaction of systems. Consequently, a strong technical knowledge is required for proper
assessment. Nevertheless, the savings and cost can be substantial and should not be
overlooked.
The most difficult impacts and those with potentially the highest cost impact are those on
comfort and productivity. While not necessarily quantifiable, these impacts must be
considered – if for no other reason than to avoid any potential negative impact. These issues
are discussed further in the next section.
9.12.1 Assessment of Disadvantages Associated with Savings

Opportunities
The assessment of savings opportunities is generally conducted from a cost/benefit
perspective. First, what are the savings (or the benefits) associated with the
opportunity, and second, what is the cost of implementation required to realize the
opportunity? Depending on the type of economic analysis used, consideration may
also be given to the cost of maintenance with and without implementation.
A further and often overlooked consideration is the indirect costs which may be
associated with the action to be taken. These can include such things as a reduction
in illumination level and heating cost increase when lighting is reduced, since energy
for lighting will contribute to building heating in the cooler season.
An extreme indirect cost could be the reduction in personal productivity due to

unexpected reductions in light levels or, possibly, a safety problem created by an
improperly located motion detector that switches lights off when a space is still
occupied. It becomes clear that even the most attractive savings opportunity may not
be attractive when all impacts are considered.
Often these costs are declared "unforeseen". A thorough assessment should

anticipate the majority of them, and clearly identify the associated risks before any
changes are implemented.

Another consideration that is neglected is the technical/economic risk associated with

the planned implementation. Savings are not always guaranteed. It is unlikely that a
motion detector installed to switch lighting in a heavy traffic area will pay back.
Replacement of a poorly loaded motor with an energy-efficient motor may result in a
lower overall efficiency owing to the partial load characteristics of the energy-efficient
motor. When the savings predicted depend on varying operating conditions or
occupant habits, there is a risk that the savings expected may not be realized, or
realized to a lesser extent.
In these cases, the indirect costs are, in fact, uncertain savings. A conservative
assessment would be based only on certain savings. If the uncertain savings actually
occurred, then this would be a bonus.
In summary, consider not only the direct costs but also the impact that the planned
implementation will have upon occupants, comfort, productivity, safety, equipment
maintenance, along with any potential interactions between the new equipment and
existing systems and the likelihood that the savings expected will be realized.
9.12.2 Savings
There are potentially three areas of savings to be directly realized from implementing
an energy savings opportunity.
The first two of these savings are associated with electricity. Savings could result
from reductions in demand, or energy, or both. This situation may be complicated by
the complex rate structures or tariffs incorporating such features as time of use
demand ratchet clauses.
The most reliable method of estimating the actual electricity cost savings is a
comparison of monthly and annual bills calculated from before and after the proposed
action. Quick estimates may be made from the incremental costs of demand and
energy:
Electrical Energy Savings:
These would simply be equal to the energy saved (kWh) times the incremental
energy rate (R/kWh), almost always the last block energy rate.
Electrical Demand Savings:
If the action implemented has a measurable effect on the peak demand, the demand
saving would be equal to kW or kVA saved times incremental demand rate (R/kW or
kVA)
Fuel Energy Savings:
While fuels are typically purchased with a simpler price structure than electricity some
natural gas rates can be quite complex involving factors such as the contracted daily
demand and interruptible contracts. In this instance, as in the case of electricity,
comparison of before and after bill calculations would yield the most reliable savings
estimates.
Quick estimates may be made from the incremental costs of fuel. In any calculation
of thermal savings the actual end-use savings must be “grossed up” by the
combustion equipment efficiency. Hence, the cost savings can be estimated from the
end-use saving by:

 End Use Savings (GJ )  1

Fuel Savings =   x x Incremental Cost
 Boiler Efficiency  GJ (
Unit
) Unit
In addition to the direct electricity and fuel savings calculated on the measure itself,
there may be other considerations:
Indirect savings such as:
• Reduced air conditioning (A/C) loads due to more efficient or switched lighting or
motors.
• Reduced maintenance costs; many incandescent lighting retrofits pay for

themselves on the basis of maintenance cost reduction alone. The energy
savings are a bonus.
• Less re-lamping labour and lamp cost from switching to a longer-life lamp.
• Increase in employee productivity from converting to a higher quality light source

or providing more effective ventilation and exhaust.
• Increase in motor life, hence reduced replacement cost, due to improved

maintenance – the direct savings would be less energy consumption from a more
efficient motor.
9.12.3 Costs
When evaluating the cost of implementing a measure, be sure to include all the costs,
including:
♦ Initial cost of implementing the retrofit (quotes by contractors).
♦ Decrease in equipment life due to increase in switching, e.g., a standard 40W

Rapid Start fluorescent tube operated for 10 hours per start will last 28 000 hours.
The same tube operated only 3 hours per start will last 20 000 hours.
♦ Any increase in maintenance costs such as higher cost lamps and ballasts,
higher cost of repairs or lower life of any replacement energy-efficient equipment.
♦ Training costs to ensure proper operation of the new energy efficient technology.
9.12.4 Environmental Impact

Measures to improve energy efficiency will reduce emissions in two ways:
♦ Energy efficiency measures for on-site combustion systems such as boilers,

furnaces or ovens will reduce emissions in direct proportion to the fuel savings.
These are termed direct impacts.
♦ Reduced electrical consumption will lead to emission reductions at the electric

power generating station, or the mitigation of other environmental impacts related
to hydroelectric stations. These are termed indirect impacts.

Direct Indirect
Emissions Emissions
NOX, VOC, SO2, CO2 NOX, VOC, SO2, CO2
Utility
You
On-Site Utility
Combustion Power Generation
Figure 9.11: The Environmental Impact of Energy Use
Emission factors for various energy sources relate energy production to these
gaseous pollutants. Although the emission of NOx, SOx and VOCs are important
from the point of view of urban air pollution, the emission of CO2 as a greenhouse gas
is a concern in light of the climate change issue and the potential for achieving carbon
emission reduction credits.
Table 9.11 gives some typical CO2 emission factors. These factors are expressed on
a per equivalent kWh basis. The factor for electricity reflects the power generation
mix in South Africa, and the efficiency of transmission and distribution to the end-
user’s service entrance.
The factors for the fuels are calculated from the heating value of the fuel, converted to
kWh. Calculated emissions would be based on actual fuel consumption rather than
energy delivered to the end-use, because this quantity would not allow for conversion
efficiency and other losses.
Table 9.11: CO2 Emission Factors for Various Fuels
Energy Source Emission Factor (kg CO 2/ekWh)

Electricity from grid 0.90
1
Coal 0.33 (2.44 tonnes CO2/tonne coal) typical
Heavy Fuel Oil 0.26
LPG 0.21
Natural Gas 0.19
9.13 Summary
The benefits that may be derived from energy management impact on organisational
competitiveness and energy security, overall performance efficiency, product quality, and
environmental compliance. The means of achieving are within the capacity of every
organisation to develop, given a commitment to do so. While some additional competency
development related to the tools and strategies outlined in this workshop may be needed, our
experience suggests that every organisation can begin their journey towards improved energy
efficiency tomorrow.
9.13.1 How Do We Begin?

The answer to this question, of course, depends on where your organisation is today.
Some companies are well down the road towards energy efficiency, and are looking
for incremental improvements that the methods introduced in this workshop may aid.
Others truly are looking for a starting point.

International experience with energy-managing organisations suggests that virtually

every company can benefit by:
♦ Mapping out a strategic plan for the implementation or advancement of energy

management practices, beginning with efforts to prepare the organization and
gain control of current energy use—as discussed in Module 2;
♦ Assessing the organisational management climate that supports energy

management, using the energy management matrix discussed in Module 3, and
taking action to move upscale in these critical factors;
♦ Implementing energy use information management practices—using data that are

currently available to begin with, applying the techniques of MT&R discussed in
Module 7, investing in new measurement, data collection and analysis systems
when the benefit of doing so becomes apparent;
♦ Deploying knowledgeable plant personnel to assess current energy use and to

identify savings opportunities, following the user-friendly 7 Steps approach
described in this Module.
The effort does pay off! Good luck!

Problem Sheet No 3
Topic: Equation of state
1. What is the relative (%) change in P if we double the absolute temperature of an ideal gas,
keeping the mass and volume constant? Repeat if we double V, keeping m and T constant.
2. A 1 m3 tank is filled with a gas at room temperature (20◦C) and pressure (100 kPa). How
much mass is there if the gas is (a) air, (b) neon, or (c) propane?
3. A pneumatic cylinder (a piston/cylinder with air) must close a door with a force of 500 N. The
cylinder’s cross-sectional area is 5 cm2 and its volume is 50 cm3. What is the air pressure and its
mass?
4. Helium in a steel tank is at 250 kPa, 300 K with a volume of 0.1 m3. It is used to fill a balloon.
When the pressure drops to 150 kPa, the flow of helium stops by itself. If all the helium is still at
300 K, how big a balloon is produced?
5. A hollow metal sphere with an inside diameter of 150 mm is weighed on a precision beam
balance when evacuated and again after being filled to 875 kPa with an unknown gas. The
difference in mass is 0.0025 kg, and the temperature is 25◦C. What is the gas, assuming it is a
pure substance listed in Tables of Appendix.
6. A spherical helium balloon 10 m in diameter is at ambient T and P, 15◦C and 100 kPa. How
much helium does it contain? It can lift a total mass that equals the mass of displaced
atmospheric air. How much mass of the balloon fabric and cage can then be lifted?
7. Air in an internal-combustion engine has 227◦C, 1000 kPa, with a volume of 0.1 m3.
Combustion heats it to 1500 K in a constant-volume process. What is the mass of air, and how
high does the pressure become?
8. Air in an automobile tire is initially at −10◦C and 190 kPa. After the automobile is driven
awhile, the temperature rises to 10◦C. Find the new pressure. You must make one assumption on
your own.
9. A rigid tank of 1 m3 contains nitrogen gas at 600 kPa, 400 K. By mistake, someone lets 0.5 kg
flow out. If the final temperature is 375 K, what is the final pressure?
10. A 1-m3 rigid tank has propane at 100 kPa, 300 Kand connected by a valve to another tank of
0.5m3 with propane at 250 kPa, 400 K. The valve is opened, and the two tanks come to a uniform
state at 325 K. What is the final pressure?
11. A 1-m3 rigid tank with air at 1 MPa and 400 K is connected to an air line as shown in Fig.
below. The valve is opened and air flows into the tank until the pressure reaches 5 MPa, at which
point the valve is closed and the temperature inside is 450 K.
a. What is the mass of air in the tank before and after the process?
b. The tank eventually cools to room temperature, 300 K. What is the pressure inside the tank
then?
12. A cylindrical gas tank 1 m long, with an inside diameter of 20 cm, is evacuated and then
filled with carbon dioxide gas at 20◦C. To what pressure should it be charged if there is 1.2 kg of
carbon dioxide?
13. Find the compressibility factor (Z) for saturated vapor ammonia at 100 kPa and at 2000 kPa.
14. Argon is kept in a rigid 5-m3 tank at −30◦C and 3 MPa. Determine the mass using the
compressibility factor. What is the error (%) if the ideal-gas model is used?
15. What is the percent error in pressure if the ideal gas model is used to represent the behavior
of superheated vapor R-410a at 60◦C, 0.03470 m3/kg? What if the generalized compressibility
chart, is used instead?
16. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20°C and 200 kPa.
Determine the mole number and the mass of the helium in the balloon.
17. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of the air in the tire. When the
air temperature is 25°C, the pressure gage reads 210 kPa. If the volume of the tire is 0.025 m3,
determine the pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature in the tire rises to 50°C. Also,
determine the amount of air that must be bled off to restore pressure to its original value at this
temperature. Assume the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
18. The pressure gage on a 2.5-m3 oxygen tank reads 500 kPa. Determine the amount of oxygen
in the tank if the temperature is 28°C and the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
19. A 400-L rigid tank contains 5 kg of air at 25°C. Determine the reading on the pressure gage
if the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
20. A 1-m3 tank containing air at 25°C and 500 kPa is connected through a valve to another tank
containing 5 kg of air at 35°C and 200 kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is
allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 20°C. Determine the
volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.
21. Determine the specific volume of superheated water vapor at 10 MPa and 400°C, using (a)
the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) the steam tables. Also
determine the error involved in the first two cases.
22. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant-134a vapor at 0.9 MPa and 70°C based on (a)
the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) data from tables. Also,
determine the error involved in the first two cases.
23. Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10 MPa and 150 K based on (a) the ideal-
gas equation and (b) the generalized compressibility chart. Compare these results with the
experimental value of 0.002388 m3/kg, and determine the error involved in each case.
24. 0.016773-m3 tank contains 1 kg of refrigerant-134a at 110°C. Determine the pressure of the
refrigerant, using (a) the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) the
refrigerant tables.
25. Somebody claims that oxygen gas at 160 K and 3 MPa can be treated as an ideal gas with an
error of less than 10 percent. Is this claim valid? Give arguments in favor of your opinion.
26. What is the percentage of error involved in treating carbon dioxide at 3 MPa and 10°C as an
ideal gas?
27. Carbon dioxide gas enters a pipe at 3 MPa and 500 K at a rate of 2 kg/s. CO2 is cooled at
constant pressure as it flows in the pipe and the temperature CO2 drops to 450 K at the exit.
Determine the volume flow rate and the density of carbon dioxide at the inlet and the volume
flow rate at the exit of the pipe using (a) the ideal-gas equation and (b) the generalized
compressibility chart. Also, determine (c) the error involved in each case.
28. The combustion in a gasoline engine may be approximated by a constant volume heat
addition process. There exists the air–fuel mixture in the cylinder before the combustion and the
combustion gases after it, and both may be approximated as air, an ideal gas. In a gasoline
engine, the cylinder conditions are 1.8 MPa and 450°C before the combustion and 1300°C after
it. Determine the pressure at the end of the combustion process.
29. A rigid tank contains an ideal gas at 300 kPa and 600 K. Now half of the gas is withdrawn
from the tank and the gas is found at 100 kPa at the end of the process. Determine (a) the final
temperature of the gas and (b) the final pressure if no mass was withdrawn from the tank and the
same final temperature was reached at the end of the process.
30. Carbon-dioxide gas at 3 MPa and 500 K flows steadily in a pipe at a rate of 0.4 kmol/s.
Determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates and the density of carbon dioxide at this state. If
CO2 is cooled at constant pressure as it flows in the pipe so that the temperature of CO2 drops to
450 K at the exit of the pipe, determine (b) the volume flow rate at the exit of the pipe.
31. Combustion in a diesel engine may be modeled as a constant-pressure heat addition process
with air in the cylinder before and after combustion. Consider a diesel engine with cylinder
conditions of 950 K and 75 cm3 before combustion, and 150 cm3 after it. The engine operates
with an air–fuel ratio of 22 kg air/kg fuel (the mass of the air divided by the mass of the fuel).
Determine the temperature after the combustion process.
32. The gage pressure of an automobile tire is measured to be 200 kPa before a trip and 220 kPa
after the trip at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa. Assuming the volume of the
tire remains constant at 0.035 m3, determine the percent increase in the absolute temperature of
the air in the tire.
33. Although balloons have been around since 1783 when the first balloon took to the skies in
France, a real breakthrough in ballooning occurred in 1960 with the design of the modern hot-air
balloon fueled by inexpensive propane and constructed of lightweight nylon fabric. Over the
years, ballooning has become a sport and a hobby for many people around the world. Unlike
balloons filled with the light helium gas, hot-air balloons are open to the atmosphere. Therefore,
the pressure in the balloon is always the same as the local atmospheric pressure, and the balloon
is never in danger of exploding.
Hot-air balloons range from about 15 to 25 m in diameter. The air in the balloon cavity is heated
by a propane burner located at the top of the passenger cage. The flames from the burner that
shoot into the balloon heat the air in the balloon cavity, raising the air temperature at the top of
the balloon from 65°C to over 120°C. The air temperature is maintained at the desired levels by
periodically firing the propane burner. The buoyancy force that pushes the balloon upward is
proportional to the density of the cooler air outside the balloon and the volume of the balloon,
and can be expressed as
where g is the gravitational acceleration. When air resistance is negligible, the buoyancy force is
opposed by (1) the weight of the hot air in the balloon, (2) the weight of the cage, the ropes, and
the balloon material, and (3) the weight of the people and other load in the cage. The operator of
the balloon can control the height and the vertical motion of the balloon by firing the burner or
by letting some hot air in the balloon escape, to be replaced by cooler air. The forward motion of
the balloon is provided by the winds.
Consider a 20-m-diameter hot-air balloon that, together with its cage, has a mass of 80 kg when
empty. This balloon is hanging still in the air at a location where the atmospheric pressure and
temperature are 90 kPa and 15°C, respectively, while carrying three 65-kg people. Determine the
average temperature of the air in the balloon. What would your response be if the atmospheric air
temperature were 30°C?
34. Consider an 18-m-diameter hot-air balloon that, together with its cage, has a mass of 120 kg
when empty. The air in the balloon, which is now carrying two 70-kg people, is heated by
propane burners at a location where the atmospheric pressure and temperature are 93 kPa and
12°C, respectively. Determine the average temperature of the air in the balloon when the balloon
first starts rising. What would your response be if the atmospheric air temperature were 25°C?
35. A 0.5-m3 rigid tank containing hydrogen at 20°C and 600 kPa is connected by a valve to
another 0.5-m3 rigid tank that holds hydrogen at 30°C and 150 kPa. Now the valve is opened and
the system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 15°C.
Determine the final pressure in the tank.
36. A tank contains helium at 100°C and 10 kPa gauge. The helium is heated in a process by heat
transfer from the surroundings such that the helium reaches a final equilibrium state at 300°C.
Determine the final gage pressure of the helium. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
37. A tank contains argon at 600°C and 200 kPa gauge. The argon is cooled in a process by heat
transfer to the surroundings such that the argon reaches a final equilibrium state at 300°C.
Determine the final gauge pressure of the argon. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
Engineering Statics
Problem Solving Session
Contact Hours – 3hrs /week

Instructor : Dr. Maryam Masood
Email : maryammasoodksk@gmail.com
Contents
•  Practice Problems
Revision Problem 1
Revision Problem 2
Revision Problem 3
Revision Problem 4
Engineering Statics
Problem Solving Session

Contents
Revision Problem 1
It is desired to remove the
spike from the timber by
applying force along its
horizontal axis. An
obstruction A prevents direct
access, so that two forces,
one 1.6 kN and the other P,
are applied by cables as
shown. Compute the
magnitude of P necessary to
ensure axial tension T along
the spike. Also find T.
Revision Problem 2
As part of a test, the two
aircraft engines are revved up
and the propeller pitches are
adjusted so as to result in the
fore and aft thrusts shown.
What force F must be exerted
by the ground on each of the
main braked wheels at A and
B to counteract the turning
effect of the two propeller
thrusts? Necglect any effects
of the nose wheel C, which is
turned 90°and unbraked.
Revision Problem 3
A rear-wheel-drive car is stuck in the snow between other parked
cars as shown. In an attempt to free the car, three students exert
forces on the car at points A, B, and C while the driver’s actions
result in a forward thrust of 200 N acting parallel to the plane of
rotation of each rear wheel. Treating the problem as 2D,
determine the equivalent force-couple system at the car center of
mass G and locate the position x of the point on the car centerline
through which the resultant passes. Neglect all forces not shown.
Revision Problem 4
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the reactions
by pin at b and rocker at A as shown in the figure. Neglect the
weight of the beam.
Engineering Statics


Lecture Contents
•  Vectors & Vector Operations
•  Parallelogram law and triangle rule
•  Concept of Force
•  2D Force Systems
•  Rectangular Components
Vectors
A physical or mathematical quantity that

requires both magnitude and direction for its
complete description.

e.g. Force
Momentum Direction

Vector Addition
Parallelogram Law
The two vectors V1 and V2 ,treated as free vectors, can be

replaced by their equivalent V, which is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by V1 and V2 as its two sides.
! ! ! !
V2 V2 V V
!
! ! V2
V1 !
V1 V1
! ! !
V = V1 + V2
Vector Subtraction
The difference between the two vectors is
easily obtained by adding - V2 to V1 , where
either the triangle or parallelogram procedure
may be used.
The difference V' between the two vectors is
expressed by the vector equation :
! ! !
V ' = V1 − V2
Components of Vector
Any two or more vectors whose sum equals a
certain vector are said to be the components
of that vector.
Force
Force is the action of one body
on another.
A force tends to move a body in

the direction of its action. The
action of a force is characterized
by its magnitude, by the direction
of its action, and by its point of
application.
SI Unit - Newton
Point of Application
! Vectors: “Magnitude”, “Direction”
External
!
“Point of Application”
!
F effect
F F The external
consequence
! ? of these two
F
=
Internal
Effect – forces will be
stress
the same if
….
-  Rigid Body
Fixed Vector Free Vector Sliding Vector
E.g.) Force on rotating motion, E.g.) Force on

Principle of
couple rotation Transmissibility
non- rigid vector
rigid-body
body F
Rigid Body
F
F
Rotational motion occurs
point of action at every point in the
object. line of action
External & Internal Effects
Forces acting on rigid
bodies are divided into two
groups: Applied
Principle of Transmissibility
External forces A force may be applied at any point

Reactive on its given line of action without
altering the resultant effects of the
Internal forces – Body force external to the rigid body on
weight which it acts.
! !
c F F
?
=
Classification of Force
Contact Force – result from
contact between two objects

Body Force – Gravitational force on

a body

Summation of Force
•  Concurrent Forces
! !
F1 + F2
!
F2

•  Non-concurrent Forces
! !
! F1! + F2!
F2!
!
F1 !
F1!
Summation of Force
Sum of three or more vectors
P + Q + S = (P + Q) + S = P + (Q + S)

Law of Sine and Cosine
Practice Problem 1
The screw eye in figure is
subjected to two forces F1
and F2. Determine the
magnitude and the direction
of the resultant force.
Answers
FR = 213N
θ= 54.8°
Practice Problem 1
Practice Problem 2
Determine the magnitude
and direction of the resultant
FR = F1 + F2 + F3 of the
three forces by first finding
the resultant F’ = F2 + F3
and then forming FR = F’ +
F1
Answers
FR = 19.2 N;
θ = 2.37 °
Practice Problem 2
Rectangular Components of Force
F = Fx +Fy
F = Fxi + Fyj

Components of Force
Practice Problem 3
The two forces shown act at
point A of the bent bar.
Determine the resultant R of the
two forces.
Answers
R =︎ 2.35i ︎-3.45j kN

The units will be kN instead of kips
Practice Problem 4
The cable AB prevents bar
OA from rotating clock- wise
about the pivot O. If the
cable tension is 750 N,
determine the n- and t-
components of this force
acting on point A of the bar.

Answers
TT = -672 N;
TN = 333 N
Practice Problem 4
Practice at Home
•  Problem F 2-1 – F 2-6 (Hibbeler)

•  Problem 2/1 – 2/9 ( Meriam & Kraige)
Questions
Engineering Statics

Lecture Contents
•  Course Learning Outcomes
•  Course Contents & Weekly Schedule
•  Assessment Schedule
•  Basic Concepts
•  Revision of Concepts
•  Problem Solving Standard Procedure
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course you should be able to
•  Describe position, forces, and moments in terms of vector forms in
2D and 3D.
•  Determine rectangular, nonrectangular components and resultants
of 2D and 3D force systems.
•  Simplify systems of forces and moments to equivalent systems.
•  Draw complete free-body diagrams and write appropriate
equilibrium equations from the free-body diagram, including the
support reactions on a structure.
•  Apply the concepts of equilibrium to various structures.
•  Evaluate forces in trusses, frames and machines.
•  Understand and apply the concepts of friction and analyze systems
that include frictional forces.
Course Contents
•  Basic Concepts
•  Force Systems (2D & 3D)
•  Resultants of Force Systems
•  Equilibrium (2D & 3D)
•  Free Body Diagrams
•  Plane Trusses
•  Method of Section and Method of Joints
•  Frames and Machines
•  Friction (Concept and applications)
Assessment Schedule
Mid Term Exam 30%
Quiz (4) 20%
Homework Assignment 10%
Final Exam 40%
Textbook : Engineering Mechanics, Statics by J.L. Meriam & L.G. Kraige
Recommended Books:
•  Engineering Mechanics, Statics by R.C. Hibbeler & S.C. Fan
•  Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Statics by Ferdinand P. Beer &
E.Russell Johnston Jr.

Assignment Schedule
Assignment Date of Submission
1 25/11/16
2 6/1/16
Textbook : Engineering Mechanics, Statics by J.L. Meriam & L.G. Kraige
Recommended Books:
•  Engineering Mechanics, Statics by R.C. Hibbeler & S.C. Fan
•  Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Statics by Ferdinand P. Beer &
E.Russell Johnston Jr.

“The scientist describes what is.
The engineer creates what never was.”
Theodore von Karman
The objective of this course is to introduce the students to

the practical application of the behavior of physical bodies
when subjected to forces or displacements, and the
subsequent effect of the bodies on their environment.
Mechanics
Mechanics is the branch of physical science
that deals with the state of rest or motion of
bodies under the action of forces.
Equilibrium
Statics
Rigid Bodies
Dynamics
Mechanics Deformable Bodies
Accelerated Motion
Fluid
Fundamental Concepts
Scalars & Vectors
Scalars Vectors
Time Displacement
Volume Velocity
Mass Acceleration
Density Force
Speed Moment
Energy Momentum
Temperature
How to represent a vector quantity?

Fundamental Principles
Newton’s Laws of Motion
•  1st Law A particle remains at rest or continues
to move with uniform velocity (in a straight line
with a constant speed) if there is no unbalanced
force acting on it.
FR= 0 a = FR /m = 0
•  2nd Law : The acceleration of a particle is

proportional to the vector sum of forces acting
on it, and is in the direction of this vector sum.
F = ma
Fundamental Principles
3rd Law: The forces of action and reaction between

interacting bodies are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction, and collinear (they lie on the same line).
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

A particle attracts every other particle in the universe
using a force that is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
m1 m2 GM
F =G W = mg, g =
r2 R2
System of Units
Four fundamental quantities – Dimensions
Dimension Symbol SI Units US Units
Mass M Kg Slug
Length L m ft
Time T s sec
Force F N lb
Problem Solving Standard
Procedure
•  Read the problem carefully (preferably twice!!)
•  Write the given data, required result and relevant
assumptions
•  Draw free body diagram for the problem
•  State the principles to be applied to your solutions
•  Make sure you are using consistent units and
representations throughout
•  Always write units with quantities
•  Make calculations
•  Review your answer for errors and always check
if the results seem reasonable
Practice Problem 1
A lunar lander module has a mass of 250 slugs on
Earth. Calculate
(a)  its mass in SI units, and
(b) its weight in SI units.
If the module lands on the moon,
where g is 5.30 ft/s2, determine
(c) its weight in SI units, and
Answers
(d) its mass in SI units. a)  3648kg
Calculate all the answers to four significant digits.b)  35.77kN
c)  5.916 kN
gearth = 9.807 m/s (32.17 ft/s ) (average),
2 2
d)  The mass is
gmoon = 1.622 m/s2 (5.321 ft/s2) (average), independent from
the gravity and
1 slug = 14.59 kg will remain
constant.
1 foot = 0.3048 m
Practice Problem 2
From the gravitational law calculate the weight (gravitational
force with respect to the earth) of an 80 - kg man in a
spacecraft traveling in a circular orbit 250 km above the
earth's surface. Express W in both newton and pounds.
1 lb = 4.448 N
5.972 × 1024 kg = Me
G ︎ 6.673(10︎-11) m3/(kg ︎/s2).
Radius of Earth 6371 km Answers
WSI = 728 N
WUS= 163.6 lb

Practice Problem 3
A concrete column has a diameter of 350mm and a
length of 2 m. If the density (mass/volume)of concrete
is 2.45 Mg/m3, determine the weight of the column in
kN.
Answers
W= 4.621kN

Engineering Statics – Session 2016
Homework Assignment 1

1. Determine the direction θ (0° < θ <180°) of the force F = 40lbs so that it
produces a) the maximum moment about point A and b) the minimum
moment about point A. Compute the moment in each case.

Figure 1

2. Replace the 800 lb force acting at point A by a force- couple system at (a)
point O and (b) point B.
Figure 2
3. The members of a truss are pin connected at joint O. Determine the
magnitudes of F1 and F2 for equilibrium. Set θ = 60°.
Figure 3
2 Engineering Statics – Session 2015

4. Replace the force system acting on the beam by an equivalent force and couple
moment at point B.

Figure 4
5. Replace the three forces acting on the shaft by a single resultant force.
Specify where the force acts, measure from end A.
Figure 5
All problems must be solved and a clear solution with diagrams where
necessary should be provided.
Late assignments will not be entertained unless prior arrangement was made
with the instructor.
Dr. Maryam Masood

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7 Steps for Energy Management

Module 9: 7 Steps for Energy Management

Module 4 Learning Objectives

After completing this Module, you will be able to:

9.1 Managing Energy Costs

9.2 Overview of the 7 Steps

• your present usage and what influences it,

9.2.1 Understand Your Present Usage

Industrial Energy Management Training Course Page 9-1

Figure 9.1: 7 Steps to Energy Efficiency

Step 1: Understand your energy costs

• Demand - the rate, or how fast the electricity is used.

The overall objective of Step 1 is to develop a clear understanding of the

Step 2: Compare yourself

Two kinds of comparison are pertinent: external, and internal.

Page 9-2 Industrial Energy Management Training Course

These external comparisons will be valuable in developing realistic savings

Step 3: Understand when energy is used

Step 4: Understand where energy is used

9.2.2 Identify Savings Opportunities

Step 5: Match usage to requirement

Step 6: Maximise system efficiencies.

Step 7: Optimise the energy supply.

Industrial Energy Management Training Course Page 9-3

The 7 Steps: Step-by-Step

9.3 Step 1: Understand your Energy Costs

• Whether or not demand is metered

The term demand generally refers to the average value of

These two quantities—maximum demand and energy—are measured by your electric

9.3.2 The Electricity Bill

Page 9-4 Industrial Energy Management Training Course

9.3.3 Understanding How You Are Billed - The Tariff

♦ The annual kilowatt hour consumption and peak demand

Table 9.1: Sample Electricity Tariff

Industrial Energy Management Training Course Page 9-5

9.3.4 Incremental Cost of Electricity

Clearly, understanding the incremental cost of electricity is important for correctly

9.3.5 Sources of Thermal Energy

Page 9-6 Industrial Energy Management Training Course

9.3.5.1 Thermal Energy Content of Fuels

Table 9.2: Representative Heating Values of Fuels

Fuel SI Units Imperial Units

Propane 25.3 MJ/l 109,000 Btu/gal(UK)

Wood 19.9 MJ/kg 8600 Btu/lb

Natural Gas 37.6 MJ/m³ 1,008 Btu/ft³

Electricity 3.6 MJ/kWh 3413 Btu/kWh

9.3.5.2 Purchasing Natural Gas

• Total monthly purchase.

9.3.5.3 Fuel Tariffs and Billing

Industrial Energy Management Training Course Page 9-7

9.4 Water Consumption

Figure 9.2: Historical Water Cost Example

Historical Water Cost

1996 1995 1994

9.5 Step 2: Compare Yourself

• How does the present level of energy consumption in

The answers to these questions can begin to reveal the

Page 9-8 Industrial Energy Management Training Course

9.5.1 Tabulation of Electricity Data

Table 9.3: Generic Electricity Billing History

Historical Raw Data Derived Data

Monthly Demand & Energy

Figure 9.3 Historical Demand and Energy Graph

A high night load in a facility without night operations presents an opportunity

High demands during breaks in a production operation or insignificant drops

Peak demand periods at start-up times suggest an opportunity for staged