Professional Documents
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Since we can’t manage what we don’t understand, it is important for managers to learn how
energy behaves, how it can be most effectively used, and how energy-efficient technologies
can benefit their operations.
The truth is that most facility managers are able to devote only a small amount of time directly
to energy management. This does not rule out effectiveness, however. Experience has
shown that as an owner, manager or operator involved with an industrial or commercial
facility, you already possess invaluable knowledge about the operation of that facility. This —
together with some basic knowledge about energy and the rules by which it works — will
allow you to identify energy saving opportunities, and make changes that will save your
organization money.
The Seven Steps provides a methodical approach to developing this understanding in two
distinct stages as outlined in the following sections.
The first phase involves gaining control of your present usage, its cost, historical and
ongoing variability, and physical distribution. This phase involves analyzing usage
starting at the point of purchase and working towards the point of use.
Unlike other commodities that may be sold by the pound, the cost of energy that your
facility uses is influenced by a variety of factors. The cost of electricity, for example,
depends upon:
Thermal fuels are simpler to understand than electricity; they are typically sold by
mass or volume, although the usable energy content of the various fuel quantities can
vary widely (as in the various grades and sources of coal, for example).
External comparisons:
• How does your level of energy consumption compare to other similar industries,
facilities and sites?
• What level of consumption is achievable with the best operating practices and
industry benchmarks?
Internal Comparisons:
• How does your consumption or energy performance this month compare with last
month, or the best month in the past two years, for example?
• How does one site in a multi-site operation compare with another?
There may be variation from month to month, or from site to site, in your level of
energy efficiency. Minimizing this variation will yield savings.
The cost of electricity is influenced by the demand and time-of-use. The electrical
demand profile clearly shows the rate of use of electricity over time. It is a key
management tool for the demand component of your electricity bill.
Treat energy as you would any other purchased product. Building an inventory of
your electrical loads and uses of thermal energy will enable you to focus on the
largest and, consequently, the most expensive consumers.
The second phase seeks to identify the savings opportunities in a sequence that will
be the most cost effective. We want to make sure that we concentrate on the
housekeeping measures (operational) before we invest money in new equipment
(technological measures). The key is to look for opportunities, starting at the
point of use, working back to the point of purchase.
The first and most important step in realizing savings opportunities is to match what
you actually use to what is needed. The key consideration here is the duration of
use and the magnitude of use.
For example, fuel savings will result from shutting down a process heater running for
12 hours when it is only actually required for an 8 hour shift. Or, there are electricity
savings available by avoiding throttling of the output of an oversized pump.
Once the need and usage are matched properly, the next step is to ensure that the
components of the system meeting the need are operating as efficiently as possible.
In this step the impact of operating conditions, maintenance and
equipment/technology will be considered.
Steps 5 and 6 will reduce your requirement for energy. Step 7 seeks the optimum
source or sources for your overall energy requirement. This may include such
considerations as heat recovery systems, alternative tariff structures, alternative
fuels, or even larger measures such as a co-generation or combined heat and power
(CHP) system.
Energy (kWh) is the product of power over time, the sum of all the instantaneous
power measurements during a period (i.e., how much electricity was used).
The electricity bill from each utility is unique, but the information provided on the bill
on most cases will include at least the following items:
1) Kilowatt Hours Used (kWh) - This is the energy consumed since the previous
meter reading and may include values for the on/off peak periods. The
definition of the on- and off-peak periods is provided by the utility on the bill or
on the published tariff. Typically on-peak periods may be: 0:800 to 21:00 and
off peak periods: 21:00 to 0:800. Often holidays are included in the off-peak
period.
2) Billing Demand (kW and/or kVA) - This is the maximum demand experienced
during the billing period. One or both of these values may be measured and
listed. If both are provided, the power factor is at the time of the maximum
demand. Also, the value of the maximum demand for both the on-peak and off-
peak periods may be listed.
3) Tariff Code - Determines which billing tariff is applied to the energy and
demand readings. This will depend on your particular utility.
4) Days - Number of days covered by the current bill. This is important to note
because the time between readings can vary anywhere within ±5 days, making
some monthly billed costs artificially higher or lower than others.
5) Reading Date - This is in the box called "Service To - From". The days covered
and reading date can be used to correlate consumption or demand increases to
production or weather dependent factors.
Rates applied to electricity demand and consumption vary from region to region in
South Africa, from season to season, and from day to day, and from hour to hour. To
illustrate, one tariff is summarized in Table 9.1. In this case a demand charge that
varies only by season is applied at R15.38 x maximum KVA in the summer, and
R17.08 x maximum KVA in the winter. Consumption charges vary by time of day,
with peak, standard and off-peak rates as shown.
Summer Winter
Time of Use (Sept. to May) (June to August)
Cents/kWh (approx.) Cents/kWh (approx.)
Mon – Fri 8.9 9.9
0000 – 0600
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
0600 - 0700
Mon – Fri 27.7 41.2
0700 – 1000
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
1000 – 1800
Mon – Fri 27.7 41.2
1800 - 2000
Mon – Fri 15.5 17.0
2000 – 2200
Mon – Fri 8.9 9.9
2200 - 2400
Sat 8.9 9.9
0000 – 0700
Sat 15.5 17.0
0700 – 1200
Sat 8.9 9.9
1200 - 1800
Sat 15.5 17.0
1800 – 2000
Sat 8.9 9.9
2000 - 2400
Sun 8.9 9.9
All Day
• Why is the average cost per kWh wrong? Adding or subtracting 1 kWh to or
from your consumption would obviously affect the bill differently depending on
when the change occurred. Using the summer rates to illustrate, on peak this
kWh would cost R0.277, while off peak it would cost R0.089. These are the
incremental costs per kWh, in the first instance higher than the average cost,
and in the second, lower by a significant difference.
• What if the action influenced both the demand (kVA) and energy (kWh)? If
there was a maximum demand change associated with the energy change, the
incremental cost change would be greater. That is, if the energy consumption
change was caused by a change in the maximum demand of, say 1 KVA, there
would be an additional impact on the bill equal to the demand charge of R15.38 in
the summer or R17.08 in the winter. Again, the average cost per kWh would not
properly represent this difference.
Fuel Oils
• Can be transported to remote locations via train, truck, ship, etc.
• Can be stockpiled on site (with adequate storage).
• High heat content.
• On-site tank storage required.
• Larger boiler equipment necessary than for LPG.
• May need to be heated to flow and atomize properly.
• Produces more pollution on combustion than LPG.
• Potentially high sulphur content can damage stack as well as the environment if
the fuel is not burned properly.
• Non-renewable resource.
Natural Gas
• No on-site fuel storage required.
• Clean-burning, low sulphur content.
• High heat content (37.6 MJ/m³)
• Combustion equipment design is relatively compact and simple.
• Transported under pressure - potential for safety hazard if mishandled.
• Only available through pipeline distribution network.
• Non-renewable resource.
LPG
• Clean-burning, low sulphur content.
• High heat content
• Combustion equipment design is relatively compact and simple.
• Transported under pressure—potential for safety hazard if mishandled.
• Non-renewable resource.
Coal
• Large domestic reserves.
• Relatively inexpensive.
• Potential for use in different forms (chunk, powder, slurry, etc.).
• Higher sulphur and ash content, burns dirty.
• Large on-site storage required.
• Combustion and waste handling equipment necessarily large and complex.
• Low heat content.
• Non-renewable resource.
All thermal energy values quoted in this document refer to the HHV.
Energy savings accompany water savings, sometimes representing greater value in terms of
money than the water itself. Historical water costs can be determined and compared as
illustrated in Figure 9.2.
f
o $3,000
r
W $2,000
a
t
e $1,000
r
$0
Feb Apr June Aug Oct Dec
Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov
Often the metered water volumes are used to determine the volumes for sewer charges. In
industry where there is significant evaporation of purchased water it may be possible to obtain
a credit for reduced sewer volumes.
Table 9.3 is a generic billing history table with some columns for derived numbers:
Energy Demand
Starting with the basic historical billing data, a number of calculations may be
performed on the data. Some of the major calculations which may be done are:
kWh/Day: kWh in period ÷ Days. Since reading periods can vary, kWh/day is more
useful for spotting consumption trends than billed kWh.
Load Factor: kWh ÷ (kW x Days x 24 Hrs./Day). If metered in kVA and power factor
(P.F.) is known, substitute kVA x P.F. for kW. If P.F. is not known, assume 90%.
Load factor is an indication of the percentage of time the plant is operating on peak.
Cost Distribution between Demand and Energy: These numbers, along with load
factor, can indicate trends or anomalies in energy and demand usage.
Energy and Demand Intensity: Dividing the annual energy consumption (kWh) and
the annual peak demand (kW or kVA) by the building area (m2.) or production can
provide useful comparisons to other similar facilities and operations.
Average Energy Cost (Blended rate): The average cost is simply the entire
electrical bill (including demand and energy costs) divided by the energy (kWh) used.
As noted earlier, it is wise not to use this number when calculating savings.
Electricity billing calculations are much more complex than that.
A simple but effective way to view electricity consumption history is in the form of a
graph as shown in Figure 9.3.
Weather data for June to September is ignored, making the assumption that there is
no space heating during this period; this also assumes that there is no air
conditioning during the period.
♦ To make an initial correlation between the energy and demand figures, and the
operation of the plant. An example of the correlation is provided in the next
section.
♦ To confirm the savings expected from any energy conservation measures that
have been implemented. As an example, we should be able to ensure that new
Building Management Systems are delivering savings on an on-going basis.
♦ To evaluate and compare the energy and demand of one building to another or to
standards (“benchmarks”) on the basis of area, or energy density. Additional
information must be known such as heated or cooled areas (sq. ft. or sq. m.),
type of heating fuel, etc. These types of calculations are also known as energy
use intensity, energy budget, and demand density.
There are two principal types of comparisons that can be made here:
The relative merits of benchmarks have been discussed in connection with monitoring
and targeting in Module 7.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hour of the Day
The most commonly used form of the demand profile is similar to that illustrated in
Figure 9.5. The profile covers a period of approximately 24 hours; slightly more than
24 hours is better than less. The demand (in this case kW) appears on the vertical
axis, while the time, in hours, appears on the horizontal axis
1800
1600
Kilowatts
1400
1200
1000
800
Time of Day (00:00 - 24:00)
Figure 9.5: 15 minute Interval Demand Profile
A recording power meter was used to generate this demand profile. Readings are
generally recorded automatically, less than one minute apart. In some cases, the
readings may be adjusted by the recording instrument to match those that would be
taken from the utility meter.
The profile shown in Figure 9.5 contains real power information measured in kilowatts
(kW). More sophisticated recording power meters are capable of recording these
values and others, including three phase voltage, current, power factor and power
quality parameters. Comparing Figures 9.4 and 9.5 clearly shows the advantage of
using a recording power meter. Significantly more detail is available, although the
hour by hour profile remains a valuable starting point.
Many electrical loads leave behind very distinct fingerprints as they operate. By
recognizing the patterns associated with each component, it is possible to identify the
contribution of various loads to the overall demand profile.
Information Description
While the first method above is the cheapest and simplest to implement, the data it
produces is limited. At the other end of the spectrum, dedicated monitoring systems
are expensive and complex to set-up and use, but yield a wealth of information, from
real power to power quality.
At a minimum, such a system would measure the power consumed at the service
entrance. Typically, such systems are implemented to provide sub-meter information
for selected parts of the overall facility. Monitoring systems are generally designed
for accurate measurements and effective data storage and presentations.
Measurements of many other parameters may be correlated with demand to aid in
the analysis of the demand profiles. Dedicated monitoring systems are generally at
the core of larger fully integrated monitoring and tracking systems.
A peak demand that is significantly higher than the remainder of the profile
for a short amount of time is an opportunity for demand reduction by
scheduling.
Loads that cycle on/off frequently during unoccupied periods suggests that
possibly they could be shut down completely.
Make sure that systems are not starting up before they are needed and
shutting down after the need is past. Even 1/2 hour per day can save a
significant amount if the load is high.
If the billed demand peak is not evident on a typical demand profile, this
suggests that the load (or loads) which determine the demand may not be
necessary (if they only operate once in a while). Consider scheduling or
shedding these loads. Also check the billing history to see if the demand
peak is consistent.
A large load that cycles frequently may result in a higher peak demand and a
lower utilization efficiency than a smaller machine running continuously.
Consider the use of smaller staged units or machines. Such a strategy may
also reduce maintenance since machine start/stop results in increased wear
and tear.
Short cycling loads are a clue to potential maintenance savings and failure
prevention.
Often the process of identifying categories of use allows waste to be easily identified,
and this often leads to low cost savings opportunities. Identifying the high-
consumption loads lets you consider the best savings opportunities first.
Because the inventory also quantifies the demand (or “how fast”) associated with
each load or group of loads, it is invaluable in further interpretation of the demand
profile.
Table 9.9 is a sample load inventory taken from a small industrial plant. There are
several loads including lighting, pumps, process equipment and an air compressor.
The punch press appears in the inventory twice, once for each mode of operation.
When idling, the press consumes far less power than when engaged.
The equipment data in Table 9.9 was obtained from a survey of the plant; a simple
spreadsheet was used to calculate the peak demand and energy values according to the
calculation method outlined in Table 9.10.
Finally, the load inventory data can be represented graphically to show the distribution of
demand and energy consumption. It is interesting to note the difference between the graphs,
revealing that any given load may have a greater impact upon demand or energy depending
upon its size and mode of operation.
Cooling Pump
12%
Plant Lighting
17%
Punch Press
(Engaged)
11%
Air Compressor
Punch Press 38%
(Idle)
Plant Demand (kW)
22%
Punch Press
(Idle)
14%
Air Compressor
Plant Energy (kWh) 58%
Often, the process of preparing a list or inventory of energy use reveals unknown or
overlooked instances of waste of energy and possibilities for heat recovery—a
technique for re-using waste heat flows.
Solar
Process Exhaust
Energy Inflow
Boiler Stack Loss Ventilation
Exhaust
Window
Electricity Heat Loss
Energy Inflow
Wall
Heat Loss
One of the most basic principles of the world in which we live—the First Law of
Thermodynamics—is that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but simply
converted from one form to another. Energy is often purchased in a chemical form,
such as coal or oil, and then converted to thermal energy or heat. Steam, hot water
and air help to transport heat through and out of a facility. When studying and
analyzing energy usage it is necessary to define a boundary around a plant or
building which encloses the specific energy system being studied. This is depicted in
Figure 9.7.
As illustrated in Figure 9.7, energy inputs cross the energy system boundary at
various points of entry. In the case of electricity, gas, and oil, these are discrete
locations such as the electrical service entrance and fuel delivery pipes. In contrast,
solar energy enters in a more diffuse way through those building walls and windows
that are exposed to the sun. Some energy outflows occur at discrete points of exit
such as drain pipes, chimneys, and exhaust fans, but some of a facility’s energy also
leaves in diffuse fashion through its walls and windows. Although incoming energy
may cross the energy system boundary in a variety of forms, energy almost always
leaves the facility in the form of heat. There are exceptions, which include certain
processing plants, where some of the incoming energy leaves in chemically-bound
form in the product that the plant produces.
The process of preparing a diagram similar to this for your facility will help to develop
an understanding of precisely where energy is used. It will also provide a valuable
reference later when you begin to look for savings opportunities. Each of the flows
can be scrutinized for reduction opportunities. This diagram is also useful when
considering recovering heat from the various necessary energy outflows.
Steam Flow - there may be steam flow metering available in your plant. Steam
consuming equipment will have a specified requirement for steam flow rate.
Hot Water Flows - many waste energy flows are warm or hot fluids which may be
easily quantified by the common formula:
Heat Flow Rate = Mass Flow Rate (kg/sec) x Temperature Difference (°C) x C
The resulting units are kilowatts (kJ/s), the constant C is the specific heat of the fluid.
For water the value of C=0.0042 kJ/kg.
Water that is saved by efficiency measures in a plant will often have been
♦ heated
♦ or chilled
♦ and/or pumped
♦ and/or treated with chemicals (as with boiler feed water).
Saving the water also saves the intrinsic energy or the contained chemicals.
As with energy, an inventory and calculated balance of water end-use versus overall
consumption is a good starting point for the identification of opportunities. Figures 9.9
and 9.10 below illustrate the results of a water inventory and balance.
5%
7%
3%
11%
60%
14%
A clear picture of where energy and water is being used. It allows you to
prioritize and concentrate your actions on the big consumers.
♦ The requirement is not continuous – the system was not designed to be shut down.
♦ The requirement varies with time – the system has little or no capacity control.
♦ Energy costs were not an issue when the equipment/system was designed/installed.
♦ The operational practices associated with system/equipment are – “the way it’s always
been operated”.
There are three distinct steps in this critical assessment sequence described above.
Examples:
R Reduce the operating times of idling air compressors.
R Re-train operators in equipment operation.
R Turn-off lights in unoccupied areas.
R Provide specific task lighting – and lower area lighting.
R Moderation of chilled water temperatures with cooling
requirement.
R Match steam pressure output of boiler to maximum requirement – avoid pressure
reducing valves (PRV’s).
R Replace 1 large boiler with 3 smaller units of equal capacity and sequence their operation
to match need.
R Reduce moist air infiltration into storage coolers and freezers.
R Eliminate throttling the output of cooling pumps to match flows by:
• Trimming pump impeller
• Resizing the pump
• Installing a variable speed drive (VSD) on pump motor.
Examples:
R Monitor combustion efficiencies daily and adjust
combustion controls accordingly.
R Repair leaking steam traps.
R Return condensate to boiler from process areas.
R Reduce piping flow restrictions in chilled water loops.
R Insulate steam pipe fittings.
R Replace air compressors with a newer, higher efficiency unit.
R Clean air filters on a regular basis.
R Clean and lubricate electric motors regularly – ensure operation at the correct voltage.
Examples:
R Heat Recovery – utilizing waste heat sources to
displace purchased energy
R Heat Pumps – capturing heat from low grade or heat
source waste heat source
R Co-generation – generating heat and electrical power
on-site.
R Renewables – solar, wind or other renewable sources.
R Competitive Supplier – negotiating supply contracts at
a lower net price.
These three steps together make up the second part of the Seven Steps to Energy Efficiency.
The actions taken to reduce energy consumption can be categorized into two types:
In contrast, those measures that require investment in new technology will tend to have a
higher cost of implementation. These actions are sometimes referred to as retrofit
measures.
A good energy saving project will combine both operational and technological actions to
achieve attractive savings, with a good return on investment.
Benefits:
Costs:
Typically, the direct energy savings and costs are the most easily quantified. The load and
energy inventories provide a good basis for these calculations.
The indirect energy savings and costs tend to be more obscure and often result from the
interaction of systems. Consequently, a strong technical knowledge is required for proper
assessment. Nevertheless, the savings and cost can be substantial and should not be
overlooked.
The most difficult impacts and those with potentially the highest cost impact are those on
comfort and productivity. While not necessarily quantifiable, these impacts must be
considered – if for no other reason than to avoid any potential negative impact. These issues
are discussed further in the next section.
A further and often overlooked consideration is the indirect costs which may be
associated with the action to be taken. These can include such things as a reduction
in illumination level and heating cost increase when lighting is reduced, since energy
for lighting will contribute to building heating in the cooler season.
In these cases, the indirect costs are, in fact, uncertain savings. A conservative
assessment would be based only on certain savings. If the uncertain savings actually
occurred, then this would be a bonus.
In summary, consider not only the direct costs but also the impact that the planned
implementation will have upon occupants, comfort, productivity, safety, equipment
maintenance, along with any potential interactions between the new equipment and
existing systems and the likelihood that the savings expected will be realized.
9.12.2 Savings
There are potentially three areas of savings to be directly realized from implementing
an energy savings opportunity.
The first two of these savings are associated with electricity. Savings could result
from reductions in demand, or energy, or both. This situation may be complicated by
the complex rate structures or tariffs incorporating such features as time of use
demand ratchet clauses.
The most reliable method of estimating the actual electricity cost savings is a
comparison of monthly and annual bills calculated from before and after the proposed
action. Quick estimates may be made from the incremental costs of demand and
energy:
These would simply be equal to the energy saved (kWh) times the incremental
energy rate (R/kWh), almost always the last block energy rate.
If the action implemented has a measurable effect on the peak demand, the demand
saving would be equal to kW or kVA saved times incremental demand rate (R/kW or
kVA)
While fuels are typically purchased with a simpler price structure than electricity some
natural gas rates can be quite complex involving factors such as the contracted daily
demand and interruptible contracts. In this instance, as in the case of electricity,
comparison of before and after bill calculations would yield the most reliable savings
estimates.
Quick estimates may be made from the incremental costs of fuel. In any calculation
of thermal savings the actual end-use savings must be “grossed up” by the
combustion equipment efficiency. Hence, the cost savings can be estimated from the
end-use saving by:
In addition to the direct electricity and fuel savings calculated on the measure itself,
there may be other considerations:
• Reduced air conditioning (A/C) loads due to more efficient or switched lighting or
motors.
• Less re-lamping labour and lamp cost from switching to a longer-life lamp.
9.12.3 Costs
When evaluating the cost of implementing a measure, be sure to include all the costs,
including:
♦ Any increase in maintenance costs such as higher cost lamps and ballasts,
higher cost of repairs or lower life of any replacement energy-efficient equipment.
♦ Training costs to ensure proper operation of the new energy efficient technology.
Direct Indirect
Emissions Emissions
NOX, VOC, SO2, CO2 NOX, VOC, SO2, CO2
Utility
You
On-Site Utility
Combustion Power Generation
Emission factors for various energy sources relate energy production to these
gaseous pollutants. Although the emission of NOx, SOx and VOCs are important
from the point of view of urban air pollution, the emission of CO2 as a greenhouse gas
is a concern in light of the climate change issue and the potential for achieving carbon
emission reduction credits.
Table 9.11 gives some typical CO2 emission factors. These factors are expressed on
a per equivalent kWh basis. The factor for electricity reflects the power generation
mix in South Africa, and the efficiency of transmission and distribution to the end-
user’s service entrance.
The factors for the fuels are calculated from the heating value of the fuel, converted to
kWh. Calculated emissions would be based on actual fuel consumption rather than
energy delivered to the end-use, because this quantity would not allow for conversion
efficiency and other losses.
9.13 Summary
The benefits that may be derived from energy management impact on organisational
competitiveness and energy security, overall performance efficiency, product quality, and
environmental compliance. The means of achieving are within the capacity of every
organisation to develop, given a commitment to do so. While some additional competency
development related to the tools and strategies outlined in this workshop may be needed, our
experience suggests that every organisation can begin their journey towards improved energy
efficiency tomorrow.
1. What is the relative (%) change in P if we double the absolute temperature of an ideal gas,
keeping the mass and volume constant? Repeat if we double V, keeping m and T constant.
2. A 1 m3 tank is filled with a gas at room temperature (20◦C) and pressure (100 kPa). How
much mass is there if the gas is (a) air, (b) neon, or (c) propane?
3. A pneumatic cylinder (a piston/cylinder with air) must close a door with a force of 500 N. The
cylinder’s cross-sectional area is 5 cm2 and its volume is 50 cm3. What is the air pressure and its
mass?
4. Helium in a steel tank is at 250 kPa, 300 K with a volume of 0.1 m3. It is used to fill a balloon.
When the pressure drops to 150 kPa, the flow of helium stops by itself. If all the helium is still at
300 K, how big a balloon is produced?
5. A hollow metal sphere with an inside diameter of 150 mm is weighed on a precision beam
balance when evacuated and again after being filled to 875 kPa with an unknown gas. The
difference in mass is 0.0025 kg, and the temperature is 25◦C. What is the gas, assuming it is a
pure substance listed in Tables of Appendix.
6. A spherical helium balloon 10 m in diameter is at ambient T and P, 15◦C and 100 kPa. How
much helium does it contain? It can lift a total mass that equals the mass of displaced
atmospheric air. How much mass of the balloon fabric and cage can then be lifted?
7. Air in an internal-combustion engine has 227◦C, 1000 kPa, with a volume of 0.1 m3.
Combustion heats it to 1500 K in a constant-volume process. What is the mass of air, and how
high does the pressure become?
8. Air in an automobile tire is initially at −10◦C and 190 kPa. After the automobile is driven
awhile, the temperature rises to 10◦C. Find the new pressure. You must make one assumption on
your own.
9. A rigid tank of 1 m3 contains nitrogen gas at 600 kPa, 400 K. By mistake, someone lets 0.5 kg
flow out. If the final temperature is 375 K, what is the final pressure?
10. A 1-m3 rigid tank has propane at 100 kPa, 300 Kand connected by a valve to another tank of
0.5m3 with propane at 250 kPa, 400 K. The valve is opened, and the two tanks come to a uniform
state at 325 K. What is the final pressure?
11. A 1-m3 rigid tank with air at 1 MPa and 400 K is connected to an air line as shown in Fig.
below. The valve is opened and air flows into the tank until the pressure reaches 5 MPa, at which
point the valve is closed and the temperature inside is 450 K.
a. What is the mass of air in the tank before and after the process?
b. The tank eventually cools to room temperature, 300 K. What is the pressure inside the tank
then?
12. A cylindrical gas tank 1 m long, with an inside diameter of 20 cm, is evacuated and then
filled with carbon dioxide gas at 20◦C. To what pressure should it be charged if there is 1.2 kg of
carbon dioxide?
13. Find the compressibility factor (Z) for saturated vapor ammonia at 100 kPa and at 2000 kPa.
14. Argon is kept in a rigid 5-m3 tank at −30◦C and 3 MPa. Determine the mass using the
compressibility factor. What is the error (%) if the ideal-gas model is used?
15. What is the percent error in pressure if the ideal gas model is used to represent the behavior
of superheated vapor R-410a at 60◦C, 0.03470 m3/kg? What if the generalized compressibility
chart, is used instead?
16. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20°C and 200 kPa.
Determine the mole number and the mass of the helium in the balloon.
17. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of the air in the tire. When the
air temperature is 25°C, the pressure gage reads 210 kPa. If the volume of the tire is 0.025 m3,
determine the pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature in the tire rises to 50°C. Also,
determine the amount of air that must be bled off to restore pressure to its original value at this
temperature. Assume the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
18. The pressure gage on a 2.5-m3 oxygen tank reads 500 kPa. Determine the amount of oxygen
in the tank if the temperature is 28°C and the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
19. A 400-L rigid tank contains 5 kg of air at 25°C. Determine the reading on the pressure gage
if the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
20. A 1-m3 tank containing air at 25°C and 500 kPa is connected through a valve to another tank
containing 5 kg of air at 35°C and 200 kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is
allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 20°C. Determine the
volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.
21. Determine the specific volume of superheated water vapor at 10 MPa and 400°C, using (a)
the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) the steam tables. Also
determine the error involved in the first two cases.
22. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant-134a vapor at 0.9 MPa and 70°C based on (a)
the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) data from tables. Also,
determine the error involved in the first two cases.
23. Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10 MPa and 150 K based on (a) the ideal-
gas equation and (b) the generalized compressibility chart. Compare these results with the
experimental value of 0.002388 m3/kg, and determine the error involved in each case.
24. 0.016773-m3 tank contains 1 kg of refrigerant-134a at 110°C. Determine the pressure of the
refrigerant, using (a) the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized compressibility chart, and (c) the
refrigerant tables.
25. Somebody claims that oxygen gas at 160 K and 3 MPa can be treated as an ideal gas with an
error of less than 10 percent. Is this claim valid? Give arguments in favor of your opinion.
26. What is the percentage of error involved in treating carbon dioxide at 3 MPa and 10°C as an
ideal gas?
27. Carbon dioxide gas enters a pipe at 3 MPa and 500 K at a rate of 2 kg/s. CO2 is cooled at
constant pressure as it flows in the pipe and the temperature CO2 drops to 450 K at the exit.
Determine the volume flow rate and the density of carbon dioxide at the inlet and the volume
flow rate at the exit of the pipe using (a) the ideal-gas equation and (b) the generalized
compressibility chart. Also, determine (c) the error involved in each case.
28. The combustion in a gasoline engine may be approximated by a constant volume heat
addition process. There exists the air–fuel mixture in the cylinder before the combustion and the
combustion gases after it, and both may be approximated as air, an ideal gas. In a gasoline
engine, the cylinder conditions are 1.8 MPa and 450°C before the combustion and 1300°C after
it. Determine the pressure at the end of the combustion process.
29. A rigid tank contains an ideal gas at 300 kPa and 600 K. Now half of the gas is withdrawn
from the tank and the gas is found at 100 kPa at the end of the process. Determine (a) the final
temperature of the gas and (b) the final pressure if no mass was withdrawn from the tank and the
same final temperature was reached at the end of the process.
30. Carbon-dioxide gas at 3 MPa and 500 K flows steadily in a pipe at a rate of 0.4 kmol/s.
Determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates and the density of carbon dioxide at this state. If
CO2 is cooled at constant pressure as it flows in the pipe so that the temperature of CO2 drops to
450 K at the exit of the pipe, determine (b) the volume flow rate at the exit of the pipe.
31. Combustion in a diesel engine may be modeled as a constant-pressure heat addition process
with air in the cylinder before and after combustion. Consider a diesel engine with cylinder
conditions of 950 K and 75 cm3 before combustion, and 150 cm3 after it. The engine operates
with an air–fuel ratio of 22 kg air/kg fuel (the mass of the air divided by the mass of the fuel).
Determine the temperature after the combustion process.
32. The gage pressure of an automobile tire is measured to be 200 kPa before a trip and 220 kPa
after the trip at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa. Assuming the volume of the
tire remains constant at 0.035 m3, determine the percent increase in the absolute temperature of
the air in the tire.
33. Although balloons have been around since 1783 when the first balloon took to the skies in
France, a real breakthrough in ballooning occurred in 1960 with the design of the modern hot-air
balloon fueled by inexpensive propane and constructed of lightweight nylon fabric. Over the
years, ballooning has become a sport and a hobby for many people around the world. Unlike
balloons filled with the light helium gas, hot-air balloons are open to the atmosphere. Therefore,
the pressure in the balloon is always the same as the local atmospheric pressure, and the balloon
is never in danger of exploding.
Hot-air balloons range from about 15 to 25 m in diameter. The air in the balloon cavity is heated
by a propane burner located at the top of the passenger cage. The flames from the burner that
shoot into the balloon heat the air in the balloon cavity, raising the air temperature at the top of
the balloon from 65°C to over 120°C. The air temperature is maintained at the desired levels by
periodically firing the propane burner. The buoyancy force that pushes the balloon upward is
proportional to the density of the cooler air outside the balloon and the volume of the balloon,
and can be expressed as
where g is the gravitational acceleration. When air resistance is negligible, the buoyancy force is
opposed by (1) the weight of the hot air in the balloon, (2) the weight of the cage, the ropes, and
the balloon material, and (3) the weight of the people and other load in the cage. The operator of
the balloon can control the height and the vertical motion of the balloon by firing the burner or
by letting some hot air in the balloon escape, to be replaced by cooler air. The forward motion of
the balloon is provided by the winds.
Consider a 20-m-diameter hot-air balloon that, together with its cage, has a mass of 80 kg when
empty. This balloon is hanging still in the air at a location where the atmospheric pressure and
temperature are 90 kPa and 15°C, respectively, while carrying three 65-kg people. Determine the
average temperature of the air in the balloon. What would your response be if the atmospheric air
temperature were 30°C?
34. Consider an 18-m-diameter hot-air balloon that, together with its cage, has a mass of 120 kg
when empty. The air in the balloon, which is now carrying two 70-kg people, is heated by
propane burners at a location where the atmospheric pressure and temperature are 93 kPa and
12°C, respectively. Determine the average temperature of the air in the balloon when the balloon
first starts rising. What would your response be if the atmospheric air temperature were 25°C?
35. A 0.5-m3 rigid tank containing hydrogen at 20°C and 600 kPa is connected by a valve to
another 0.5-m3 rigid tank that holds hydrogen at 30°C and 150 kPa. Now the valve is opened and
the system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 15°C.
Determine the final pressure in the tank.
36. A tank contains helium at 100°C and 10 kPa gauge. The helium is heated in a process by heat
transfer from the surroundings such that the helium reaches a final equilibrium state at 300°C.
Determine the final gage pressure of the helium. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
37. A tank contains argon at 600°C and 200 kPa gauge. The argon is cooled in a process by heat
transfer to the surroundings such that the argon reaches a final equilibrium state at 300°C.
Determine the final gauge pressure of the argon. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
Engineering Statics
Problem Solving Session
• Practice Problems
Revision Problem 1
Revision Problem 2
Revision Problem 3
Revision Problem 4
Engineering Statics
Problem Solving Session
• Practice Problems
Revision Problem 1
It is desired to remove the
spike from the timber by
applying force along its
horizontal axis. An
obstruction A prevents direct
access, so that two forces,
one 1.6 kN and the other P,
are applied by cables as
shown. Compute the
magnitude of P necessary to
ensure axial tension T along
the spike. Also find T.
Revision Problem 2
As part of a test, the two
aircraft engines are revved up
and the propeller pitches are
adjusted so as to result in the
fore and aft thrusts shown.
What force F must be exerted
by the ground on each of the
main braked wheels at A and
B to counteract the turning
effect of the two propeller
thrusts? Necglect any effects
of the nose wheel C, which is
turned 90°and unbraked.
Revision Problem 3
A rear-wheel-drive car is stuck in the snow between other parked
cars as shown. In an attempt to free the car, three students exert
forces on the car at points A, B, and C while the driver’s actions
result in a forward thrust of 200 N acting parallel to the plane of
rotation of each rear wheel. Treating the problem as 2D,
determine the equivalent force-couple system at the car center of
mass G and locate the position x of the point on the car centerline
through which the resultant passes. Neglect all forces not shown.
Revision Problem 4
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the reactions
by pin at b and rocker at A as shown in the figure. Neglect the
weight of the beam.
Engineering Statics
Lecture 9
Rigid Non-collapsible
Frames and Machines
Interconnected Rigid Bodies with Multi-force
Members
Rigid Non-collapsible
• structure constitutes a rigid unit by itself
when removed from its supports
• find all forces external to the structure
treated as a single rigid body
• dismember the structure & consider
equilibrium of each part
Rigid Frame
Frames and Machines
Interconnected Rigid Bodies with Multi-force
Members
Non-rigid Collapsible
Frames and Machines
Interconnected Rigid Bodies with Multi-force
Members
Non-rigid Collapsible
• structure is not a rigid unit by itself but
depends on its external supports for
rigidity
• calculation of external support reactions
cannot be completed until the structure is
dismembered and individual parts are
analysed.
Frames and Machines
• Isolate members with FBD and applying
the equilibrium equations
• Principle of action and reaction should be
remembered
• Statically determinate structures will be
studied
Force representation
• Representing force by rectangular
components
• Calculation of moment arms will be
simplified
• Proper sense of force is necessary
• Force direction should be consistently
followed
Force representation
• Representing force by rectangular
components
• Calculation of moment arms will be
simplified
• Proper sense of force is necessary
• Force direction should be consistently
followed
Example (1) on Frames
Example (1) on Frames
Example (1) on Frames
Frame Analysis
Collapsible frame
Overall free body diagram
• Necessary condition to obtain
support reactions
• Not sufficient condition
Member free body diagram
• Both necessary and sufficient
Example (2) on Frames
Example (2) on Frames
Practice Problem
Compute the
horizontal and
vertical components
of all forces acting
on each of the
members (neglect
self weight)
Practice Problem
Example Solution:
• 3 supporting members form a
rigid non-collapsible assembly
• Frame Statically Determinate
• Externally Draw FBD of the entire
frame
• 3 Equilibrium equations are available
• Pay attention to sense of Reactions
Practice Problem
Example Solution:
• Example Solution: Dismember the
frame and draw separate FBDs of
each member
• show loads and reactions on each
member due to connecting members
(interaction forces)
Practice Problem
Practice Problem
Machines
Engineering
Statics
–
Session
2016
Homework Assignment 1
1. Determine the direction θ (0° < θ <180°) of the force F = 40lbs so that it
produces a) the maximum moment about point A and b) the minimum
moment about point A. Compute the moment in each case.
Figure 1
2. Replace the 800 lb force acting at point A by a force- couple system at (a)
point O and (b) point B.
Figure 2
3. The members of a truss are pin connected at joint O. Determine the
magnitudes of F1 and F2 for equilibrium. Set θ = 60°.
Figure 3
2
Engineering
Statics
–
Session
2015
4. Replace the force system acting on the beam by an equivalent force and couple
moment at point B.
Figure 4
5. Replace the three forces acting on the shaft by a single resultant force.
Specify where the force acts, measure from end A.
Figure 5
All problems must be solved and a clear solution with diagrams where
necessary should be provided.
Late assignments will not be entertained unless prior arrangement was made
with the instructor.