Running head: COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Counseling Women of Color in STEM

Jade Pearson

California State University, Northridge

COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Abstract

When counseling women of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)

fields, it is important to understand the unique challenges and barriers that they may encounter.

In order to be effective in career counseling this population, awareness of characteristics of

women of color such as self efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals is paramount. This paper

aims to explore the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) to promote a culturally supportive

environment for women of color in STEM. By promoting community and providing

individualized support, student affairs professionals can promote retention and persistence for

women of color in STEM.

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COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Research has shown that supportive educational environments during college are

positively linked to retention and persistence for students of color in STEM education

(Bonous-Hammarth, 2000; Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Fries-Britt et al., 2010; Gloria & Kurpius,

2001; Grandy, 1998; Hurtado et al., 2007; Leslie et al; Palmer, Maramba, & Dancy, 2011)

Women of color include African American, Asian American, Latin-x, Native American, and

Pacific Islander and represent 20 percent of the nation’s population aged 15–24 years in 2010.

Although this figure represents a large proportion of the college-going population, it stands in

contrast to the 12 percent of total STEM bachelor of science degrees earned by women of color

in 2006 (Espinosa, 2011). Through their research, Reyes (2011) reveals an atmosphere in which

women of color transfer students in particular experience attitudes and treatment that give the

impression that they do not belong due to age, ethnicity, and gender as well as negative

preconceptions of the unpreparedness of transfer students. Reyes (2011) proposes that programs

and policies to integrate responses to these challenges could improve the transfer rates and

retention of women of color into STEM fields. In addition to this, Espinosa (2011) revealed the

importance of science identity development, intrapersonal processes, and academic integration.

The research fits nicely into the framework of the SCCT, which can be used when working with

this population.

Community College and Four-Year University Attendance

Much of the research done on women of color in STEM pathways are done on those who

have transferred from the two-year community college to the four-year institution. Futurebound

was a pilot program in Arizona with intentions to increase the success of women of color in

STEM with a special focus on transferring from Pima County Community College (PCCC) to

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the University of Arizona (UA) in STEM disciplines. The community college system is a viable

path for women and students of color in accessing higher education due to lower cost and

selectivity. Both part-time and full-time attendance have grown more rapidly at community

colleges than at four-year institutions in the past 20 years (Nettles & Millett, 2008). Among

women of color who do transfer into STEM at the four-year university level, the retention rate is

low (Reyes, 2011). This is unfortunate due to the loss of talent and investment in these students.

By implementing strategies and addressing relevant challenges, career counseling and student

affairs professionals can address barriers that are unique to the community college pathway.

About 21 percent of all students enrolled at community colleges were women of color

(NSF, 2017), and students of color comprise 27 to 30 percent of the student population in

four-year institutions. Unfortunately, those attending highly selective colleges are more likely to

switch out of STEM by their fourth year of college than those who do not attend these

institutions (Espinosa, 2011). Research has found that highly selective colleges are less

supportive of underrepresented populations in STEM due to the competitive nature of the class

structure and culturally abrasive environment for students of color. When looking at four-year

universities, institutional selectivity is among the most important factors that prevent women of

color from persisting in STEM majors. Recent studies have revealed the effect of the college

environment as particularly meaningful to educational trajectories in STEM (Espinosa, 2011).

Barriers

When looking at women of color in STEM it is important to address some of the barriers

to persistence. Role models, family members, mentors, and institutional resources that help

students navigate higher education and provide opportunities for professional development are

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categorized as social capital (Yosso, 2005; Reyes, 2011). Hurtado et al. (2007) found that

successful integration of students of color into STEM disciplines is highly dependent on social

capital (Hurtado et al., 2007). Many women of color in STEM are also first-generation students,

which means that they may lack familial role models in higher education who they can look at

for examples of success. Reyes (2011) describes an isolation that results from off-campus

responsibilities, discrimination, and many times, transfer status. This can lead to difficulties in

forming social networks on campus. Because of this lack of social capital, there is a barrier to

upward mobility in STEM fields for women of color.

Another barrier to women of color persisting in STEM fields include familial

expectations and conflicting priorities between school and off-campus responsibilities. Reyes

(2011) found that Native American women, in particular, faced unique challenges to persisting in

computer science fields due to a conflict between family matters and their class schedules. One

example includes navigating how to balance their studies with time for family matters,

ceremonies that take place at home, and community events. In addition, women of color in

higher education often work full-time jobs while attending school part-time to help support their

families. Not only are these students relied upon as the main source of income, but there are

feelings of isolation due to the cultural and gender-specific expectations of family members who

oftentimes misunderstand the commitment that is needed to succeed in college (Chang, 2006)

Women of color in STEM face unique challenges that are associated with both gender

and ethnicity (Ong, 2005). These challenges include isolation, discrimination, and lack of social

and cultural capital. In addition to this, the competitive environment that STEM majors present

lead to even further feeling of isolation. Many students, regardless of gender and ethnicity, may

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find it difficult to connect their goals and contribution to society and their science classes. For

women, the relevance of their classes and everyday life may not be able to be reconciled

(Espnosa, 2011).

Four-year universities in particular may further contribute to the feelings of isolation that

women of color in STEM encounter due to lack of role models found on campus, especially in

STEM departments. The perception of barriers to career fulfillment which are “inherent in a

restricted opportunity structure and a systemic discriminatory practices paradigm, frequently

associated with gender-non-typical occupations,” can be seen as a contributor to the small

representation of women in STEM (Ericksen, 2013, p.47). Institutions have the responsibility to

understand the gender and racial climates within science and engineering schools and work to

address systemic barriers that adversely affect women of color, while also employing

evidence-based practices that help these women succeed (Espinosa, 2011).

Social Cognitive Career Theory

SCCT is a theoretical framework that can be applied in exploring the career development

of individuals from diverse backgrounds, including women of color. SCCT describes the

individual and contextual factors that create unique learning experiences which in turn facilitate

the development of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and academic and career-related

interests, goals, and actions (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2000). In addition SCCT focuses on the

reciprocal causality between individuals, their environment, and their behaviors. Using the

SCCT, this paper will be looking at components including self-efficacy, outcome expectations,

and personal goals.

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COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s ability to execute behaviors necessary for goal

attainment, has been shown to have considerable implications on the career development process

for women of color (Bandura, 1986; Ericksen, 2013). The perceived sense of self efficacy affects

the remainder of the components of the SCCT ultimately including goal attainment. Due to

gender roles inherent in societal structures, women may be socialized to develop strong and

adverse self-efficacy beliefs around math and science (Ericksen, 2013). Because of this belief,

self-efficacy in this case will adversely affect the perceived outcome (outcome expectation) of

their efforts in STEM fields. Learning experiences are also important factors in outcome

expectations, with both being mediated by self-efficacy. If positive learning experiences are

engendered in college, then these can combat those learned in middle and high school, helping

women to persist in STEM (Ericksen, 2013).

In order to mediate these positive learning experiences for women of color to increase

self-efficacy, it is up to the collegiate institution to encourage opportunities to learn about careers

in STEM. This can include research opportunities, ethnic and gender representation, and mentors

that can serve role models. In addition to this, the pedagogy in the classroom setting should be

inclusive for women of color rather than catering to white males (Ericksen, 2013). Thus, the

decision to set career goals and pursue the relevant actions will be reinforced for individuals who

perceive positive environmental factors such as psychosocial support and few barriers. In all, the

SCCT theories a viable framework to apply when exploring the career growth of women of color

in STEM.

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COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Literature review

Much of the literature on students of color, especially more marginalized populations

such as women of color in STEM, can be seen through the lens of the SCCT. In their work,

Ericksen (2013) found that gender role norms limit career-related learning experiences which

subsequently influence self-efficacy. self efficacy beliefs about gender nontraditional careers

limited the range of career options considered by women and men (Ericksen, 2013). In addition,

Williams and Subich (2006) found that women have consistently demonstrated lower levels of

efficacy for traditionally male-dominated occupations, especially for those occupations related to

math and science . Due to the obstacles that women of color in STEM frequently encounter in

higher education, self efficacy can be targeted as a positive determinant of effort expended

toward goal attainment and persistence to ultimately overcome these obstacles.

Self-Efficacy

In their work, Reyes (2011) surveyed women of color in a program called Futurebound.

This pilot program in Arizona aimed to increase participation and success of women in STEM

with a special focus on women of color transferring from Pima County Community College

(PCCC) to the University of Arizona (UA) in STEM disciplines. Futurebound provided women

of color in STEM pathways with increased access to paid research internships. This is extremely

important as many women of color oftentimes choose their paid jobs off-campus due to their

financial dependents. In addition, due to many women of color holding a part-time status, they

are considered for internships that they may not otherwise be considered for (Reyes, 2011). By

addressing this factor, Futurebound helped participants overcome this barrier thereby enhancing

their chances of upward mobility through STEM fields.

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COUNSELING WOMEN OF COLOR IN STEM

Futurebound also addressed the issue of transfer shock, which is the decline in grades

following transfer from the two year community college to the four year university. By

addressing transfer shock, the issue of high attrition rates in women of color is lowered (Reyes,

2011). The way Futurebound did this was by providing targeted academic enrichment

workshops, a mentoring community, and a course exploring the intersectionality between gender

and ethnicity in science and engineering fields.

Futurebound created a sense of community for women of color in STEM who may

otherwise feel isolated. The students and staff shared unique perspectives on issues such as

culture, belonging, discrimination, and managing their conflicting priorities between their

personal life and school. This safe place creates feelings of belonging and connectivity and

fosters the development of social networks that counteract the feelings of isolation and

invisibility they may otherwise encounter (Reyes, 2011). Futurebound students often talked

about feeling validated for their academic abilities and seeing themselves as real scientists after

working in research laboratories (Reyes, 2011). Futurebound addressed the issue of self efficacy

that women in STEM frequently encounter, increasing chances of persistence through outcome

expectations.

Outcome Expectations

Under discriminatory or oppressive conditions, such as the ones that women of color

frequently encounter on the college campus and in their coursework, outcome expectations may

be lower despite self efficacy (Ericksen, 2013). Outcome expectations can be described as an

individual's belief about the probable consequence of their action. Outcome expectations are seen

as an important precursor to behavior (Bandura, 1986). The three types of outcome expectations

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are physical, social, and self-evaluative that influence the career behavior of an individual. As

described earlier, women of color in STEM frequently encounter barriers that are monetary,

approval-based (e.g., from loved ones), and self-satisfactory (e.g., self doubt).

In their study, Espinosa (2011) considered early STEM exposure and one’s performance

expectation in college. These elements have been shown to affect academic performance and

persistence for women of color in STEM. The Futurebound pilot program introduced the transfer

students to internships that exposed them early on to research labs, helping them feel a sense of

belonging due to the connections they made with other students and faculty. This later led to

career opportunities, internships, fellowships, and graduate school (Reyes, 2011). In fact, Reyes

(2011) stated that this was the deciding factor for many women in the program in whether to stay

in STEM or switch out. Ultimately, relevant learning experiences cultivate the development of a

strong skill set which increases the sense of self-efficacy and positive outcomes (Lent et al.,

2000).

Career goals

When self efficacy and outcome expectations are addressed, personal goal attainment can

then be encouraged. Women of color in STEM who overcome systemic barriers with the help of

the institution can focus on their self efficacy and create goals that they are confident in attaining.

In fact, Ericksen (2013) found in their studies that the interplay between self-efficacy and

outcome expectations produces self set goals. When a student is able to implement a goal and

pursue the actions needed (such as obtaining an internship), these accomplishments increase

self-efficacy beliefs which create a feedback loop that ultimately leads to future actions toward

goal attainment. In short, there is a positive reinforcement on self efficacy that takes place when

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goals are achieved. This feedback loop is essential in strengthening the self-efficacy beliefs that

women of color in STEM and promoting persistence.

Espinosa (2011) found that as personal importance of following goals increased, women

are ten percentage points more likely to persist in STEM through the fourth year of college than

if they did not see these goals as important. The interplay between self-efficacy, outcome

expectations, and goal attainment effectively explain the dynamic that can ultimately help

women of color persist in STEM fields. Ericksen (2013) describes SCCT as a framework that

can provide avenues by which to provide opportunities for education and training changes.

Institutional Changes to Promote Persistence

Some changes that institutions can implement may include pedagogy workshops for

STEM faculty. Because institutionalized racism is still prevalent in society, these views

oftentimes infiltrate higher education practices in the form of microaggressions and microinsults.

Even university faculty with good intentions can still unintentionally discourage women from

pursuing STEM through their classroom practices (Johnson, 2007). Pedagogy workshops may

include gender equity, working with multicultural competency and working with diverse transfer

populations, and addressing personal biases (Reyes, 2011).

The importance of co-curricular experiences has been shown to promote persistence for

women of color in STEM by tackling barriers that may otherwise discourage this population

from persisting (Espinosa, 2011). By promoting and providing research internships, women of

color in STEM can develop academic peer relationships which may be otherwise difficult to

form with their White, male classmates. These positive interactions provide role models and

avenues for continued science performance such as opportunities to publish and present at

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research conferences (Espinosa, 2011). Additionally, participation in STEM clubs and

organizations help to foster persistence and self-efficacy beliefs. It is up to the institution to

promote STEM clubs which are embedded into special programs for this student population, as

many women of color may be otherwise discouraged to join for fear of being the only student of

color present.

Conclusion

Because many women of color transfer from the community college system into the

four-year university, it is important to understand the barriers that this population faces.

According to The National Science Foundation (NSF), 46 percent of science and engineering

graduates have at some point attended community colleges, with even higher percentages

reported for Hispanics, American Indians and Alaskan Natives, and African Americans (NSF,

2017). Women of color transfers in STEM face barriers that include lack of social capital on

campus, conflicting expectations from family members, and discrimination due to gender and

ethnicity (Reyes, 2011).

According to Reyes (2011) programs that target recruitment of women of color from the

community college level into first-year transition programs are conducive to their success due to

increased support and representation. The SCCT can explain the elements that encourage (or

discourage) women of color to persist in STEM fields. These reciprocal interactive elements

include self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goal setting and attainment. Women of

color contribute a unique perspective in STEM fields due to the diversity in the background that

many come from. Institutions cannot afford to continue to lose the talent that women of color

offer in STEM fields due to systemic barriers, especially at four year institutions. Becoming

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more culturally aware and implementing special programs is the responsibility of student affairs

professionals in helping to address the barriers that this population face and ultimately lowering

attrition rates.

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