Microtome - an instrument used to cut extremely thin

sections for examinations under microscope

= granule
division
Ultrastructure - the architecture of cells and
biomaterials that is visible at higher magnifications
than found on a standard optical light microscope.
Motility - the ability of an organism to move independently, using metabolic energy. This
is in contrast to mobility, which describes the ability of an object to be moved. Motility is
genetically determined, but may be affected by environmental factors.
Cristae

Cristernae
Granum

Lamellae
 Chemiosmosis - the movement of ions across a
semipermeable membrane, down their
electrochemical gradient

Endosymbiosis - a symbiotic
relationship where one organism
lives inside the other. Primary
endosymbiosis refers to the
original internalization of
prokaryotes by an ancestral
eukaryotic cell, resulting in the
formation of the mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
Glycolipid

Branched carbohydrate Branched carbohydrate chain Glycoprotein

Phospholipid molecule Integral protein

Transmembrane [carrier protein]

Hydroph
obic fatty
acid tails
Phospholipid molecule
Hydrophilic
Channel protein
phosphate
Surface protein heads
Pore Cholesterol
 Protoplasm - the living part of a cell that is
surrounded by a plasma membrane.
Protoplast - refers to the entire cell excluding the
cell wall; can be generated by stripping the cell wall
from plant, bacterial, or fungal cells by mechanical,
chemical or enzymatic means
Cytosol - also known as intracellular fluid or
cytoplasmic matrix, or groundplasm, is the liquid
found inside cells and separated into
compartments by membranes. It is the aqueous
component of the cytoplasm of a cell, within which
various organelles and particles are suspended
Cytoplasm - the part of the cell which is contained
within the entire cell membrane. It is the total
content within the cell membrane other than the
contents of the nucleus of the cell.
Senescent - noun form senescence, also
known as biological aging; the gradual
deterioration of functional characteristics
Osmotic lysis - the bursting of a cell, aka a "cell
explosion" or "cytolysis", because of an
overabundance of fluid. The cell's membrane is not
large enough to accommodate the excess fluid,
causing the membrane to break open, or lyse.
Plasmolysis - the process in which cells lose water in
a hypertonic solution. The reverse process,
deplasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a
hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external
osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell.
Loci - plural form of locus, referring a
particular position or place where something
occurs or is situated

Bivalents - A pair of homologous chromosomes in synapsis during meiosis

Synapsis - the pairing of two homologous chromosomes that occurs during prophase I of
meiosis; allows matching-up of homologous pairs prior to their segregation and possible
chromosomal crossover between them
Chiasmata - plural of chiasma, refers to the point of contact, the physical link,
between two chromatids belonging to homologous chromosomes. At a given
chiasma, an exchange of genetic material can occur between both
chromatids, what is called a chromosomal crossover, but this is much more
frequent during meiosis than mitosis.

Substrate - an underlying substance or layer; either a
surface or material on or from which an organism lives,
grows, or obtains its nourishment, or a material which
provides the surface on which something is deposited or
inscribed
Basement membranes - thin sheet-like
extracellular structures (also known as matrices)
that form an anatomical barrier wherever cells
meet connective tissues, providing a substrate for
organs and cells and relay important signals for
the development of organs and for differentiation
and maintenance of the tissue.
Matrix - singular form of matrices, refers to the
intercellular substance of a tissue, as bone matrix,
or the tissue from which a structure develops, as
hair or nail matrix
Parenchyma cells - cells occupy the bulk of the cortex and form a majority of the living
cells in the plant. They carry out most of the metabolism reactions, and conduct most of
the activities which constitute life, such as growth and photosynthesis.
The endothelium is a thin layer of single flat
(squamous) cells called endothelial cells that line
the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic
vessels. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are
composed of a single layer of endothelial cells
called a monolayer.
Lung surfactant - also known as Pulmonary
surfactant, it is a surface-active lipoprotein complex
(phospholipoprotein) that helps reduce surface
tension by adsorbing to the air-water interface of
alveoli, with hydrophilic head groups in the water
and the hydrophobic tails facing towards the air
冇 arteries gum 粗
 Over-distension - to swell, enlarge, expand, or stretch out (as from
internal pressure)

Heartstrings
Primary pacemaker

Secondary pacemaker
Astringent - acidic, bitter, acerbic
Meristem - a region of cells capable of division and growth in plants, located at
root and shoot tips, the vascular and cork cambia, or stem regions between the
places at which leaves attach, and leaf bases. It’s unlimited division is what
allows plants to grow continually throughout their lifespan
Plasmodesmata - a narrow thread of cytoplasm that passes through the cell
walls of adjacent plant cells and allows communication between them.
 Corm - also bulbo-tuber/bulbotuber is a short, vertical, swollen underground
plant stem that serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive
winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat

Graticule - also reticle/reticule, is a

pattern of fine lines or markings built
into the eyepiece of a sighting
device, such as a telescopic sight in
a telescope, a microscope, or the
screen of an oscilloscope, to
provide measurement references
during visual examination.
Aerenchyma - a spongy tissue that
forms spaces or air channels in the
leaves, stems and roots of some
plants, which allows exchange of
gases between the shoot and the
root.
Plastids - double-membrane organelles found in the
cells of plants and algae responsible for manufacturing
and storing of food; often containing pigments that are
used in photosynthesis and different types of pigments
that can change the colour of the cell. Chloroplasts are
a type of plastid
Binomial nomenclature - an international
system of standardized New Latin names
used in biology for kinds and groups of
kinds of animals and plants
Sessile - (of an organism) fixed in one place; immobile
Petiole - a stalk that attaches a leaf to the plant stem
Student's t-test - a method of testing hypotheses about
the mean of a small sample drawn from a normally
distributed population when the population standard
deviation is unknown under the null hypothesis in which PDF P. 714
it is assumed that there is no significant difference
between specified populations, and any observed
difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
Selection pressure - factors that contribute to selection
which variations will provide the individual with an
increase chance of surviving over others. Because of
selective pressures, organisms with certain
phenotypes have an advantage when it comes to
survival and reproduction.
Silage - a type of fodder, usually grass or other green fodder made from green foliage crops,
compacted and stored in airtight conditions (typically in a silo)nwithout being dried after
having been preserved by acidification, achieved through fermentation. It can be fed to
cattle, sheep and other such ruminants especially in the winter
Intertidal zone - also known as the foreshore or seashore, is the area that is above water level at low tide and underwater at high
tide. These area exist anywhere the ocean meets the land, from steep, rocky ledges to long, sloping sandy beaches and mudflats
that can extend for hundreds of meters and include several types of habitats with various species of life, such as seastars, sea
urchins, and many species of coral.
Husbandry - refers management and conservation of resources,
especially regarding the care, cultivation, and breeding of crops and
animals.
Retroviruses - a type of virus that use
a special enzyme called reverse
transcriptase to translate its genetic
information into DNA. That DNA can
then integrate into the host cell's DNA.
Once integrated, the virus can use the
host cell's components to make
additional viral particles.
Oomycetes - also known as “water
molds”, are a group of several hundred
organisms that include some of the most
devastating plant pathogens. The
diseases they cause include seedling
blights, damping-off, root rots, foliar
blights and downy mildews. They are
filamentous, heterotrophic, and can
reproduce both sexually and asexually
Serotonin - chemical name
5-hydroxytryptamine and colloquially
known as the ‘happy chemical’, is a
monoamine neurotransmitter that serves
complex and multifaceted biological
functions such as modulating mood,
cognition, reward, learning, memory, and
numerous physiological processes such
as vomiting and vasoconstriction.
 Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) - a
heterogeneous group of immune cells
that mediate the cellular immune
response by processing and presenting
antigens for recognition by certain
lymphocytes such as T cells. Classical
APCs include dendritic cells,
macrophages, Langerhans cells and B
cells.

Agglutinins - the agents that cause

agglutination, the clumping of
bacteria, red blood cells, or other
cells, due to the introduction of an
antibody.
Basically:

1. Cell-mediated immunity - part one of primary immune response involving macrophages and T cells produced by the thymus gland
- macrophages engulf and digest pathogens via phagocytosis. They process the antigens from the surface of the pathogen to form APCs
- CD4 receptors on some of the T-helper cells fit the antigens, activating the cells to produce interleukins, which stimulate more T cells to divide rapidly by mitosis, forming clones that also carry the right
antigens to bind to the antigens
- these cloned T cells either develop into long-lived T memory cells that would recognise the antigen and divide rapidly into T killer cells for the next time the same pathogen invades (secondary immune
system) or simply T killer cells, which destroy the pathogens by producing a chemical called perforin that kills pathogens by making holes in its cells membrane, making it freely permeable to cytotoxins that
the T killer cell releases; or they could produce interleukins that either stimulate phagocytosis by attracting mar orphaned or stimulate B cells to divide and increase antibody production

2. Humoral immunity - part two of primary immune response involving APCs, B cells, and helper T cells, in which the body responds to non-self antigens on pathogens and AOCs by producing antibodies
soluble in blood and tissue fluid and not attached to cells
- there are millions of different types of B cells just floating around in your blood, and each of these have a different antibody (immunoglobulin or IgM) attached to their cell surface membrane. When a
pathogen enters the body, the B cell with the complementary antibody will bind to its antigens and become an APC
- Activated T helper cells bind to the processed antigens on the B cell APC with the correct antibodies in a process called clonal selection, which basically means that the B cell has been selected for cloning
- These T helper cells produce interleukins, activist into the B cells and causing them to divide by mitosis to give clones of plasma and B memory cells in a process called clonal expansion
- the cloned plasma cells produce large amounts of antibodies that either fit and bind to the antigens on the surface of the pathogens and hence disabling them, or act as opsonins, or agglutinins.

Once the infection in brought under control, the T regulator cells step in to suppress the immune system by ensuring the body recognises self antigens and doesn’t set up an autoimmune system I which the
body’s own cells are attacked. Inhibitory interleukins play a crucial role in this process.

3. Secondary immune response - involves T memory cells and B memory cells

When the same pathogen strikes again,
- T memory cells, which were developed from the cloned T cells mentioned in 1, would be able to recognise the antigen and divide rapidly into T killer cells to destroy the pathogen
- some cloned B cells mentioned in 2 that developed into B memory cells, would recognise the antigen and start dividing rapidly to form plasma cell clones, which produce the correct antibody the defeat the
pathogens before it can even cause the symptoms of disease.
Prophylactic - acting to defend against or prevent
something, especially disease; protective
Endocrine glands - ductless glands of the endocrine system that secrete
their products, hormones, directly into the circulatory system, regulating
distant target organs
Exocrine glands - glands that secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct.
Dendrites

Axons
Basically the resting potential is the difference in
charge between the outside and inside of the axon,
due to:

1. Of every 3 Na+ ions pumped out, only 2 K+ ions are

pumped back in and therefore no. of +ve ions
outside axon > no. of +ve ions inside axon

2. Most of the Na+ ion channels leading back into the

axon are closed while many K+ ion channels
leading back out of the axon are open.
- Therefore most of the Na+ gets stuck outside the
axon after having been transported out, and
despite the 2 K+ ions leaving every time 3 Na+
ions join the party the number of K+ ions on
the outside get continuously replenished
as they are free to diffuse back out of the
membrane.
- Hence, there’d still be more +ve ions on the outside
of the axon than on the inside of the axon
 Action potential - refers to when the membrane potential of a specific cell
location rapidly rises and falls; this depolarisation then causes adjacent
locations to similarly depolarise (basically chain depolarisation)

Polarisation - when a potential

difference occurs between two areas

Hyperpolarisation - (regarding nerve

impulses) is the brief period in which
the inside of the axon is more negative
than usual

Depolarisation - a change in the

potential difference from negative to
positive

Repolarisation - a change in the

potential difference from positive to
negative

Positive feedback - a process in which

the end products of an action cause
more of that action to occur in a
feedback loop. This amplifies the
original action.

Negative feedback - when some

function of the output of a system,
process, or mechanism is fed back in a
manner that tends to reduce the
fluctuations in the output
Pyruvate - conjugate base of carboxylic/
alpha-ketogenic acid pyruvate acid, and
serves as one of the key intermediates to
several metabolic pathways through the
cell
 1

3
1

1
1 2

1
2

3
Cortisol - release is increased in
response to stress and low
blood-glucose concentration and
functions to 1) increase blood sugar
through gluconeogenesis, 2) to
suppress the immune system, 3) to
aid in the metabolism of fat, protein,
and carbohydrates and 4)
decreases bone formation.

Aldosterone - human metabolite; a

hormone acts on the distal tubules
and collecting ducts of the kidney to
cause the conservation of sodium,
secretion of potassium, increased
water retention, and increased
blood pressure. The overall effect
of aldosterone is to increase
reabsorption of ions and water in
the kidney.

Metabolite- (biochemistry) an
intermediate or end product of
metabolism; term usually used for
small molecules.
The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) - one of the two main divisions
of the autonomic nervous system, the
other being the parasympathetic
nervous system; primary process is to
stimulate the body's fight or flight
response. It is, however, constantly
active at a basic level to maintain
homeostasis homeodynamics.

The parasympathetic nervous system

(PSNS) - one of the two divisions, the
other being the sympathetic, that
together are called the autonomic
nervous system, which is a division of
another system called the peripheral
nervous system (PNS)); responsible
for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or
"feed and breed"activities that occur
when the body is at rest, especially
after eating, including sexual arousal,
salivation, lacrimation (tears),
urination, digestion and defecation.
Histology - also microscopic anatomy/ microanatomy;
refers the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues
Isotonic - denoting or relating to a solution having the same osmotic
pressure as some other solution, especially one in a cell or a body fluid
Podocyte
 3

1
2

5
Chemiosmosis - the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down
their electrochemical gradient; in biology this usually refers to the formation of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions (H+) across a
membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.
It’s called oxidative because a proton (an H+)
is removed
Proliferation - rapid reproduction of a cell, part, or organism

Bleb - a rounded outgrowth on the

surface of a cell
Apoptotic body - (also apoptotic bleb
or vesicle) refers to a vesicle (about
0.8 to 5um in size) containing parts of
a dying cell; can be formed during the
execution phase of the apoptotic
process when the cell's cytoskeleton
breaks up and causes the membrane
to bulge outward. These bulges may
separate from the cell, taking a portion
of cytoplasm with them, to become
apoptotic bodies that are then
engulfed by phagocytic cells, their
components recycled.
Remember the 格式
Anneal - refers to recombining
single-stranded DNA back into a double
helix
Genomics - a interdisciplinary field of biology
focusing on the structure, function, evolution,
mapping and editing of genomes; aims to
characterize and quantify all of an
organism’s genes, thief interrelations, and
their influence on the organism

Genetics - a field of biology having to do with

genes, genetic variation, and heredity in
organisms; is actually the study of individual
genes and their role in inheritance as a
whole
Promoter sequence - in genetics, a
promoter is a sequence of DNA to which
proteins bind that initiate transcription of a
single RNA from the DNA downstream of it.
This RNA may encode a protein, or can
have a function in and of itself, such as
tRNA, mRNA, or rRNA. Promoters are
regions of DNA where transcription starts
while start codons are the first bases to be
translated on an mRNA.
 Oblique - slanted

Perennating - usually
referring to plant or
part of a plant that has
the ability to live
through a number of
years for more than
one germinating
period, usually with an
annual quiescent
period.

葵花啲friend
Wort - the liquid extracted from the mashing process during the brewing of beer or whisky and contains the sugars, the most important being
maltose and maltotriose, that will be fermented by the brewing yeast to produce alcohol
Hops - a type of delicate, pale green, papery cone-shaped flower full of perishable resins; is what gives a beer bitterness when used early in the
brewing process, and aroma when added at the end. Also functions as a preservative, and extend the life of beer.
Sparger - equipment that
introduces gases into liquids
through thousands of tiny pores,
creating bubbles far smaller and
more numerous than with drilled
pipe and other sparging
methods. The result is greater
gas/liquid contact area, which
reduces the time and volume
required to dissolve gas into
liquid.
Fen - low, marshy, frequently flooded land