PYRAMIDIAS ACADEMY UDI UNIT IIT ENGINEERING SURVEY Levelling - Types - LS and CS - contouring calculation of areas and volume- Theodolite survey - Traversing ~ Heights and Distances- Techeometry ~ ‘Modern ‘surveying instruments. Setting out of curves- Permanent adjustments of levels and theodeltes. LEVELLING It is the process of determining relative elevations of places with respect to a datum line. A level surface’ is a surface parallel to the ‘mean spheroidal surface of earth. ‘Mean Sea Level at Bombay port was taken as datum by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India Bench Mark is a permanent mark of known elevation. Height of the instrument is the elevation of the line of sight ofthe instrument. Reduction of Levels 1. Collimation system. It is rapid but had no check over RLS of intermediate sights. It is sights’ exist 2. Rise and fall method. It is a slow proces: absolute check exists over the computed number of intermediate stations do HEIGHT OF XS Curvature :Curvature makes the objects appear ‘Lower’ than they really are. ABis a horizontal line AC is a level line. ABE=OB?-OA? =(OC + BCP-OA? =RHCPR = 0.0785 d?metres. Since the curvature increases the staff reading, the correction is therefore subtractive. ‘True staff reading = observed staff reading = 0.07850? iokRays™ of light passing through fet of air are refracted down, Refr dit curved path of refracted rays forms are of a circle of radius approximately seven C_ tnlgs that of the earth. adopted where more number of ‘intermediate —. Therefore, refraction makes appear the ‘Sy objects ‘Higher than they really are . Ca= 00112 Combined correction C = Ce - Cr. + Combined — correction refraction C = 0.0673 d? for curvature and METHOD ed to find rise or COLLIMINATION [Simple , less tedious|Laborigus’” as the staff| and quicker ing, of each station is pa . Distance of Visible Horizon = 3.853 VA os [There is no ch&ek on| reduction on RIY of intermediate stations. [There is a complete check| on reduction of RL of| intermediate stations also. [There is. two| arithmetic checks SUM of BS -SUM of| FS = First RL - Last| RL [There are three arithmetic checks SUM of IBS - SUM of FS = SUM of IRISE-SUM_ of FALL =First IRL Last RL. [Suitable where it is} required to take| Inumber of staf readings from a single| setup as in the case of| iS and CS contours} It is suitable for a Tong run| of different (or) fly leveling| jand other precise works| jwhere intermediate sights| are sparingly taken etc, Parallax: It isthe apparent movement of the image relative to the cross-hairs when the image formed by the objective does not fallin the plane of diaphragm. Elimination of Parallax 1. Focusing the eye piece 2, Focusing the objective Telescope Normal: When vertical circle is left of the observer & bubble is up. Telescope Inverted: When vertical circle is Right of the observer & bubble is down. Sensitivity of Bubble Tube depends upon 1. Radius of curvature 2. Diameter of Level Tube -3_Length of vapour bubble __ Il FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610:99521 60010,04565 2866714, Viscosity & surface tension of liquid. 5. Smoothness ofthe finish of the internal surface ofthe tube. ‘TYPES OF LEVELLING: LLONGITUDINAL OR LEVELLING: It is the operation to determine the elevations of points spaced apart at known distances along a given line in order to obtain the accurate outline of the surface of the ground profile. Useful for projects like construction and design of sewers, pipe lines, highways, railways, canals, etc,, and to determine cut and fill. PROFILE 2. CHECK LEVELLING: Itis a method of differential leveling run for the purpose of checking the elevation of points already established. It is also done to accurately establish a BM near the site of work from a known BM or to check the accuracy of each days ‘work at the end of the day from the last station to the starting station or to a known BM. 3. CROSS SECTIONAL LEVELLING: This type of leveling is done to determine the IIL, Natural Errors due to Wind and Sun ‘THEODOLITE SURVEY Transit theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It was invented by Roemer, a Danish astronomer in 1690. CLASSIFICATION: ‘TRANSIT THEODOLITE: A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be revolved through 180° in vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in exactly opposite direction. The vertical circle is rigidly fixed to the tel rotates with the telescope, NON - the Telescope: Revolving the vertical axis elevation of ground surface on either sie of “=yelescope in the horizontal plane, about its predetermined profile line, at right angles to it \> Itis to determine the nature of ground surface’ig the lateral direction, 4. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING: Oo It is a very precise levellin ot ig RLs between two stations wich ee apart by only two settings of levels}vo1 st to each Station, Exors de to eqn, crear ad reso : 5, DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING: It is done when tivo points are at large distance apart, the difference in elevation between the two points is large or some obstacle intervenes between the points. Enrors in Leveling L. Instrumental Errors 4. Collimation error - ine of collimation not parallel to the bubble line. 2. Object glass moving in inclined direction while focusing, 3. Sluggish bubble. IL Personal Errors 41. Improper levelling of telescope. 2. Improper holding of level staff. 3. h ighting. 4 of level staff and level. Lining In: It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given straight line whose ends are intervisible. Balancing In: It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given straight line, whose ends are intervisible. ‘Telescope Normal: When vertical circle is left of the observer & bubble is up. ‘Telescope Inverted: When vertical circle is Right of the observer & bubble is down. Fundamental axes of theodolite: Vertical axis Horizontal or trunnion axis, Line of collimation Axis of plate levels Axis of altitude level. open Relationship between the Axes 4. Axis of plate levels should generate a horizontal plane perpendicular to the vertical THI FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94854 31610:9952 60010.03565 2866712. Line of collimation is perpendicular to horizontal axis. 3. Horizontal axis is perpendicular to vertical axis. 4, Axis of altitude levels is parallel to line of collimation. 5. Vertical circle reads zero when line of collimation is horizontal. PERMANENT ADUJUSTMENTS: ‘The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are so arranged in sequence that the next adjustment does not disturb the results obtained from the previous adjustments. Therefore, if carried out haphazardly the new adjustment disturbs the effect of the previous adjustments. ‘The adjustments of the theodolite should be done in the order given below. 1. Make the plate bubbles central to their run. when the vertical axis of the theodolite is truly vertical [Plate level Test] 2. Make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis [Cross- hair ring Test]. 3. Make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis [Collimation in Azimuth Test] 4, Make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis [Spire Test] the line of sight is horizontal [Bubble adjustment] 6. Make the vertical circle indicate ero the line of sight is perpen, vertical axis [Vertical arc test). 5. Make the Telescope bubble Central aa n> the MEASUREMENT OF, WORIZONTAL ANGLES: Wed 1. Repetition Mefigh—_ 2. Reitera es COMPARIS F METHOD OF REPETITION AND REITERATION: ¥ The method of repetition is to be preferred for the measurement of a single angle and when accuracy is desired beyond the least count of the instrument with a coarsely graduated circle. ¥ On the other hand, the method of reiteration is-preferred in triangulation, where a number of angles may be required at one point by the instrument witha finely graduated circle. ¥ By exercising appropriate precautions instrumental errors. can be eliminated theoretically, for either of the methods. ‘Though the method of repetition appears to be better it, lage: cis ‘and chances of PYRAMID TAS ACADEMY personal errors are more and even many repetitions may yield ordinary results. TRAVERSING: The word traverse literally means ‘Passing across'.In surveying it means ‘determining the lengths and directions of consecutive lines’ The linear measurements are made with a chair or tape and the relative directions of the lines are measured with a chain, compass or theodolite. The integrated measurement of distance and direction provides the essential two dimensional data for determining land area and for providing horizontal control, ie, the relative location of points in the horizontal plane. The results of a level network, for the same location earth's surface. consists of reconnaissance marking and referencing statiéas}, picking up details, and booking the & rae Bl is ran to locate the features Riad existing in the area to be survefed 'ff Yo establish points or lines in ace with predetermined measurements. Trager cls as either closed or open CLOSED TRAVERSE: “YA traverse is said to be a closed one if it "y” retums to the starting point thereby forming a closed polygon In addition, a traverse which begins and ends tat the points whose positions on the plan is know are also referred to as a closed traverse. A closed traverse is employed for locating the boundaries of lakes and woods across which tie lines cannot be measured, for area determination, control for mapping, and for surveying moderately large areas. OPEN TRAVERSE: An open traverse is one that does not return to the starting point. It consists of a series of line ‘expanding in the same direction. ‘An open traverse cannot be checked and adjusted accurately. It is employed for surveying long narrow strips of country. Eg. The path of a highway, railway, pipeline, coast ine , transmission line etc., METHODS OF TRAVERSING: 4. By Chain: The linear as well as angular ‘measurements are done with the help of chain and tape only. This is a very crude method and cannot be relied upon, 2. Free or Loose Needle method: In this method the linear measurements are done with FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDI, CONTACT 94861 31610,9821 6001008865 286671the help of either chain or tape and the bearings are measured with the help of a compass. Both fore and back bearings of lines are observed at each station. The results obtained by this method are, in general, not that accurate as obtained by the two - methods discussed in the foregoing. 3. Fast Needle method: In this method, the linear measurements are made with the help of a ‘chain or tape and the bearings are measured with the help of a theodolite whose telescope is inverted for alternate backward and forward readings. It may be noted that if the line of collimation is not properly adjusted the included angles will be in error. The advantage of this ‘method is that the bearings are obtained directly. ‘The work can thus be checked during its [progress and errors can be detected and rectified immediately. Also the field work is less cumbersome and the computations are simple as compared to the method of measuring angles. 4, By measuring angles: In this method of traversing, the angular measurements, ie, the measurement of deflection angles, azimuth, and angles to the right or included angles are directly done with a theodolite. However the do not affect the succeeding coordinates and thus the error, if any, is localized to a particular point and therefore, correction usually involve the re plotting of the erroneous point only. In plotting with consecutive coordinates, small errors of plotting are carried forward, and in a closed traverse the closing error due to inexact plotting. ‘Can be located, since the coordinates used have already been balanced. This may be considered to an advantage, as the cause of discrepancy can be scratched and eliminated. Since errors are not accumulated when plotting with independent coordinates they are preferred for plotting an open traverse. LATITUDE & DEPAR’ line is its projection onto [North-south line} towards the North : The latitude is a reference meridian ince measured northing whereas th is called southing is its projection onto a -e measured towards the disadvantage of this method is that the traverse ‘Northing +ve can be checked only if it is closed. Southing -ve METHODS OF PLOTTING TRAVERSE \— SURVEY: Dy Pepanture tnt’ [Wee By parallel meridians through each station, x y Westing -ve By included angles. CLOSING ERROR: By tangents By rcangulaco ordinates Y ADVATAGES AND DIk ‘AGES OF METHODS OF PLOTTIN' IRSE: Plotting of 4a oeene by the methods of included angles ms with protractor is the least accurat@ ut the fastest method. The most ca ‘and the best method to lay out fa single angle pYécisely is by tangents. If a traverse fails to close and if the error is due to drafting, the error may be adjusted simply by rotating each line, except the first, slightly and progressively. In the chord method of plotting a traverse the erection of a perpendicular [in the tangent method] is eliminated but determination of the chord length is more laborious than finding perpendicular offsets. The _ main disadvantage of the chord method is that an error in any of the traverse line is passed along, to the succeeding line Plotting by independent coordinates is supposed to be a better method since the independeptigpordinates of the stations do not affect coordinates of the stations Ikis the distance by which the end of a traverse falls short in coinciding with the starting point of the traverse. The ratio of linear error of closure tot the perimeter of the traverse is the expression for precision of the survey. In a closed traverse if the work is correct the algebraic sum of the latitude [L] should be equal to zero, ie, L = and the algebraic sum of the departures [D] should also be equal to zero i.e, ED =0 Closing Error e =/EUF+ 2D? ‘The direction of the closing error is determined from tend Zt BALANCING OF TRAVERSE: It is clear that the closing error should be so distributed throughout the traverse that its effect is as little apparent on the plan as possible. A traverse is balanced by applying, correction to latitudes and departures, This is called balancing of traverse. This can be accomplished mathematically. TILFLOOR, BARK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 6001008565 286671PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 805 selections so far.... 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 2010 Exam -395 2013 Exam-94 Toppers — 2013 Exam. Rank 1 44850 Rank3 4375 RaakS4M75 Rank 4 Swshimn ‘Server Prasanth — Muthukumar ol Rs $255 42475 Bhs fat CGowridinkar —Hriarasudha DeAkSCN® Bhavani unar “41875 sIT5 as ig pS, rar cardamom 412 VAIRAVEL 4105 1035 0925 sor75 sabi linear and angular measurements the errors and hence the corrections, are proportional to the lengths of the lines. Correction for latitude or departure of any side = Total erro Iatitude (or departure) x (Lemenottatsie-) Perimeter of travers ‘TRANSIT RULE: This method of adjusting the consecutive coordinates of traverse is purely empirical and there is no sound theoretical foundation for it. It is employed when the angular measurements are more precise as compared to the linear ‘measurements [ Theodbolite traversing ] Correction for latitude or departure of any sid Total error in latitude ( Latta cr akgure) spr cf ae) sak of latitude or departare ike co ous scportly then th follor rule’ ‘be used. 1 coating corthing of any side = 4. tRtal egbr in atiude x w Northing ofthat side v ‘ithmetie sim of Norn “S="2. Correction to Southing of any side = Rajesh Anand __—_Dhaasekar 1. BOWDITCH RULE: Itis also called compass rule. It is used to balance a traverse when the linear and angular measurements are equally precise. Itis assumed that the errors in the linear measurements are proportional to Vi where I is the length of the Tine, and those in the angular measurements are inversely gBtgportional to Vi, which questig al weights are assigned PYRAMID pAS ACADEMY PY" x Total error in latitude x "5 (gqsounmestie “Arithmetic sum of Sou 3, Correction to Easting of any side = 4 Total error in Departure x 4.Correction to Westing of any side = 5 Total err in Departre x (ppitzscectoate Frithmetie sum of Westings DISTRIBUTION OF ANGULAR ERROR: Angular error of closure is defined as the difference between the sum of the measured angles and the theoretical sum of the angles of a closed traverse. The theoretical sum of the angles of a closed traverse is [2n-4] * 90, where n is number of sides of closed traverse 1. The error of angular closure is distributed equally among all angles, if measure with equal precision. 2, The angular error of closure should not exceed the least count multiplied by Vt TILFLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 98864 3161099521 60010,04565 286671ADJUSTMENT OF BEARINGS : Closing error in a bearing is the difference between the bearings of the last line as observed at the first and the last station of the traverse. Correction to the first bearing Correction to the Second bearing = 2£ Correction to the Last bearing =n £=e Where n is the number of sides of traverse, and e is the closing error in the bearing. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS: tis impossible to measure all the lengths and bearings of a closed traverse. The values of the missing quantities can be determined, provided they do not exceed two in number. The observed and omitted measurements are part of the closed traverse the algebraic sum of all latitudes and that of all the departures are each zer0. ‘Anallactic lens is provided in a tacheometer between the diaphragm and the object glass to nullify the aditioe constant. Iisa convex lens. The distance between the anallactic lens and object glass is given by = Where, f= Focal length of objective F = Focal length of the anal lactic lens. ie, LL = Oand YD =0. Thus ®K EL heos6, + heosty+ bess, o LD =hsin &, + hsind,+ lssin rose oO Where lt Ba, Dareseeiee are_ respectively tie and bearings of the lines. < From the a&@p No. equations the two nkowne can Regained ‘TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING It is angular surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances computed without direct measurement. ‘TACHEOMETER: It is a transit thedolite fitted with stadia hairs. The stadia diaphragm consists of two stadia hairs at equal distances, one above and the other below the horizontal hair of the cross-hairs. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS: \ 1. The value of multiplying constant should be 100. 2, The value of Additive constant should be 3. The telescope should be fitted with an anallactic lens. 4, ‘The magnification of the telescope should be 20 to 80 diameters. 5. Magnifying power of the eyepiece is kept high. the ‘METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY: Stadia System ‘Fixed hair method. 2.Movable hair =“ method. Fixed Hair Method \ Horizontal dista 6 For inclined si Vertical ve Keser @))sino Rea Distance C ‘ | p-feseos eae Staff held normal v= [Exs+F+a)]sine d= [fxseas0-+(7-+a)]coso+hsina Movable Hair Method f D=apst ore For inclined sights, £080 + Ccos@ cos0 sin8 + Csin@ K= f, Multiplying constant for an instrument. Usually the constant K is fixed as 100. C= f+ d= additive constant m= Total Number of revolution of micrometer screw p= pitch of the micrometer screw. Thus stadia interval i=mp e=index error IL FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT. $4864 31610,99521 60010.04865 286501Horizontal Base Subtense Measurement : Horizontal distance d= 5-7 in radians (OR) = #4206265 ’ Where B = Horizontal angle subtended by the theodolite in seconds between the two ends of the subtense bar. Horizontal distance d in seconds ‘Tangential Method : = Distance between vanes - staff intercept = Vertical angle to the upper vane > A tie line is subsidiary line mainly run to get more details within the area. OBSTACLES: 1. Obstacles to ranging but not to chaining eg. a hillock. Reciprocal ranging is adopted then, 2. Obstacles to chaining but not to ranging eg. ariver and a pond. 3. Obstacles to both chaining and ranging, eg. a tall building. 4 True length = = Vertical angle to the lower vane. S$ Supposed length of CHAIN SURVEY Similarly, < ‘Types of chains Correct pea Segue fchain ‘Supposed iength of chain [Engineer's |-FPS.Chain - 100 |Chain feet long - divided into he CHAIN SURVEY 1100 Links Tastee Errors IGanters _|- FPS. Chain 66 feet CE Length of the chain is shorter than the IChain long - divided into 100 fo) saat one dt inks in chain i Links loss of links and (ii) knots in links. [Revenue |- FPS. Chain-33 feet XY \ IChain long-divided into 16 2. Slope correction (when > 4°) is not [Links A applied. . [Metric Chain |- 20 metres - divi 3, Ranging is not in a straight line. into 100 links S 4, Length of the chain may be more than the Imetres - diyid standard one due to () flattening of ring 1150 links cont and Gi opening of rings. : 5 |. Compensating Errors * Main Survey Static asinent stations 1. Incorrect holding of chain. * Main Survey in lines joining these 2. Chain not uniformly calibrated. prominent sta If the total length measured = L, then > Numberéf main survey lines should be ‘Cumulative errors aL as few as possible. > Three main survey lines forma triangle. > As far as possible these triangles should bbe nearly equilateral triangles. > A well conditioned triangle is one in which no angle is less than 30° nor greater than 120°. Base line is a prominent line passing, through the heart of the area. > Check lines run in between the main lines to test their accurate positions .Each v triangle should have at least one check line. Compensating errors eZ Correction for temperature C= a (TarTe) L Correction for pull Cy 7, ab? ae Correction for temperature C= Correction for sag Cs COMPASS SURVEY Bearing of a line is its direction with respect to a reference line ie. meridian True meridian is the line passing through North pole and South pole. Magnetic meridian is the standard reference line TILFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR. KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,9952160010,04565 286671shown by a freely floating balanced magnetic needle free from any extemal influence. Arbitrary meridian is any other line taken for reference. ‘Whole circle bearings are always measured in the clockwise direction with reference to the Magnetic North. Quadrantal_or reduced bearing are taken with respect to Magnetic North or Magnetic South towards East or West ic. they are measured clockwise in North East and South West (Quadrants and anticlockwise in South-East and North-West Quadrants. Back bearing is the bearing of a line in the opposite direction, Deflection angle is the included angle between the prolongation of the previous line and the succeeding line. Clockwise deflection is called right deflection and it is additive. Anticlockwise deflection is called left deflection and it is subtractive. Ina closed traverse Sum of internal angles = (2n - 4) x 90° Sum of external angles = 2n + 4) x 90° Algebraic sum of deflection angles = 360°. ‘Magnetic declination = True bearing - Mag bearing When the magnetic meridi East of true meridian, true beari When the magnetic magnetic declination\is “vg and designated as W. Magnetic declination\at a place is not constant but varies frorit¥jghe to time. 1. Diurnal oisiation - within the same day - more during day time and less during night time. 2. Annual variation - within a year -more during summer and less in winter. 3. Secular variation - variation over a very long period. The variation is more near poles and less on the equator. ‘Local attraction ‘ at a place is the influence of magnetic materials as steel and nickel objects, iron ore, electric poles and current carrying conductors ‘on the magnetic needle. Local attraction at a place is the same forall the bearings taken at the place. Ttem Prismatic Compass ‘Surveyors Compass Bearing [WCB 0° at|RB O° at North South, 90° at | & South 90° at West, 180° at | East & West North, 270° at East Gradua | Inverted because | East and West tions | we have to see | interchanged. them through prism Needle | Broad type-fitted | Erect Edge bar to the bottom of | type needle - aluminium also acts as an (cannot be: index. Scale Free to {| Attached to the oy le wit box. as Sighting 5 ‘done | Sighting is to be at objet en si Rae done first and and then the surveyor ey has to read the ‘ Northern end of the needle. Tripod | Notessential___[ A must. ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY I. Instrumental Errors 1. Needle-bent 2. Pivot-bent, eccentric Dip is the inclination of the magnetic needle with the horizontal. Northern end is deflected down in the "Northern hemisphere’ while the Southern end is deflected down in the ‘Southern hemisphere’. At the Equator the dip is zero. Pivot edge-blunt Needle-sluggish, No counter weight provided on the needle against dip. Sight vanes-bent Graduated ring-twisted. Sight vanes and pivot-not in one line. Horse hair-too thick IL Personal Errors Inaccurate centring of the compass over the station 4. Improper levelling of aluminium ring 2. Imperfect bisection of ranging rod. 3. Confused reading in the wrong, direction, gas IILFLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94564 31610,99521 6001004565 28671,4, Careless recording. PLANE TABLE SURVEY Field work and plotting are done simultaneously in a plane table survey. 4. Drawing board - 40 cm x30 cm or 75 cm x 60cm 2. Alidade - approximately 50 cm long, plain alidade - 2 sight vanes, telescopic alidade - telescope mounted on scale. 3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob - to transfer station on to the drawing sheet or vice versa 4, Trough compass - to mark ‘North’. 5. Spirit level - for levelling the board. Orientation 4. By magnetic needle 2. By back sighting. Methods of Plane Tabling 1. Radiation 2. Intersection 3.Traversing, 4. Resection Radiation: From a well commanded single station the details are plotted. Best suited for smaller lengths and when all the points are accessible. Itis very accurate. being mutually visible and accessible. Draw from both the stations to all the other poinl where these rays meet give the positionsef all the other points. < It involves measurement ol ‘one sng rs, mncenet NY oe points are inaccessible it does This ee acute gsi. ‘Traversing: It is locatj e table almost r rere lenlnn regarding as a station with reldggnce to "two" or "three" already plotted stations. S combination of | diation and intersection Resection: It << jon of the instrument Advantages of Plane Table Survey 4. Itis rapid. 2. Area to be surveyed and plotted is in front of the surveyor and hence less possibility exists to miss some details. 3. It is advantageously taken up in magnetic areas. Disadvantages 1. Heavy, cumbersome and awkward to canry. 2. i” accessories, 3. It is difficult to redraw the plotted drawing to a different scale. Suitability.It is best suited to prepare small scale ‘maps of smaller areas where high precision is not required. MINOR INSTRUMENTS Abney Clinometer. Itis used to measure 4, Vertical angles. 2. Slopes of ground 3. Grade contours. Gradua x Nire (90° - 0° - 90°) reads angle ion or depression by the vernier. Wher Np tiemnier reads 0° the line of sight is ly horizontal, it is used as an ‘Al jometer: Tangent ‘Uti an improved alidade. Eye vane has a ole. Object vane consists of a long slit. Degrees and tangents of degrees are marked on Intersection: Plotting, a base line AB, A and oes, side of the slit. The movable cross hair on ~ the object vane gives out the slopes. Ceylon Ghat Tracer: Itconsists of a hollow brass tube with a peep hole and cross hairs. A moving weight sliding on the pinion rack gives out the inclination of the line of sight - sighted towards the sight vane. It reads slope from 1/120 to 1/6 upwards or downwards. BOX SEXTANT Horizontal and vertical angles can be found by box sextant, Index glass is fully silvered. Horizon glass - upper half silvered, lower half plain. FLO KARAIKUD.The angle between the objects = 2 x angle between the mirrors. Tt becomes an optical square when the vernier reads zero and the angle between the two mirrors is 45°. PANTAGRAPH: For reducing maps. Pointer at A , pencil at B. For ‘enlarging. Pointer at B, and pencil at A. Weight should be in the same line as B and A. Dis the position of pencil to draw the plan to the same scale. Minor instrument used for ranging is "Line Ranger" Minor instruments used for setting perpendicular offsets are "Optical square” a "Prism square" PLANIMETER: Instrument to measure areas QQ ‘Area = M (F.R.- LR. +10n+C) QW o IR. = Initial Reading ER = Final Reading n= Number of times the rk of the dial passes the fixed index qiayk. \, C= Additive Multiplyfgreanstant JIG TELESCOPE: It is used for optical tooling an essential part of Industrial surveying. JIG TRANSIT: Jig transit is a special type of transit which differs from an ordinary transit in that it hhas no vertical or horizontal circles. It has only one horizontal motion. The telescope has the ability to focus on a point as little as 1 metre from the instrument COLLIMATORS: Collimators are used as reference marks in instrument workshops and for optical tooling, A _—_ into a collimator by focusing to infinity and fitting an eye - piece amp in place of the standard eye-piece. ‘CROSS TABLE: A cross-table is a special device used in "ee ~ : instruments such as transits theodolites, tachometers , levels etc, It is required for adaptation of the observation instruments of the heights of the instrument and the target is required to be on the same level, or if a fixed direction is given ‘TELEMETER: Itis a special device which is attached to the objective end of the telescope, to measure directly the horizontal distance. A corresponding counter weight is attached to the telescope near its eye -piece end. The method of measurement is similar to tachometry, except that the observations are taken on horizontal rod. Thus the method uses a horizontal base which is variable. ALTIMETER: ‘An altimeter is an improved version ofAneroid barometer. Barometric reading is used to determine difference in elevation between points, for reconnaissance and preliminary surveys. CURVES Curves are generally used on Highways and Railways where itis necessary to change the direction of motion. A curve may be circular, parabolic or spiral and is always tangential to the two straight directions. 1. Simple curve: Its the one which consists of a single arc of a circle. It is tangential to both the straight lines. 2. Compound Curve: It consists of two or more simple arcs that tum in the same direction and join at common tangent points. 3. Reverse Curve: Ttis the one which consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii, having their centres to the different sides of the common tangent. Both the arcs thus bend in different directions with a common tangent at their junction. BACK TANGENT: ‘The tangent (AT1) previous to the gE hes the back tangent or first tangent. “OY FORWARD TANGENT: ‘The tangent (2B) mip rurve is called the forward tangent gf POINT OF IN! (aT) and 61 point, called the point of intersection. (PI) or If the two tangents joduced, they will meet in a Vertex (V). POINT OF CURVE: It is the beginning of the curve where the alignment changes from a tangent to a curve. POINT OF TANGENCY: It is the end of the curve where the alignment changes from a curve to tangent. INTERSECTION ANGLE: The angle V'VB betwee it AV produced and VB is called the intersection angle (A) or the external deflection angle between two tangents. TANGENT DISTANCE: Its the distance between Point of Curve to Point of Intersection (Also distance from PI to PT) LENGTH OF CURVE: Itis. the total length of the curve from Point of curve to Point of tangency. LONG CHORD: Itis chord joining PC to PT. ‘MID ORDINATE: It is the ordinate from the mid point of the long chord to a mid point of the curve DESIGNATION | ae curve is designated The see either by it fee) its degree of curvature. Radius of oe is adopted in Great Britain of curvature is used in America, Spares in India. oe tric system, two definitions for the "Degree Nes (COMPOUND CURVE: of Curve" are in use. 4. Angle at the centre subtended by an arc (or chord) of 20 metres. 2. Angle at the centre subtended by an arc (or chord) of 10 metres. For 20 metres arc (or chord) For 10 metres arc (or chord) IIL FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 600101565 286671 uRe Oa= YR? = (R= 0,) 2 t-9 oR ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CURVE: Length of curve () Tangent Length (I) T=Rean$ Length of long Chord (L}: L=2Rsin? ‘Apex distance or External Distance (E) E=R(vec!-1) Mid ordinate: M=R(cost) SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE CURVES: 1. Linear methods a. By ordinates or offsets from thelong chord. b. By successive bisec XN d. By offsets: shops produced 2 Anes ee trument 's method of tangential or ion angle. b. Two Theodolite method ©. Tacheometric method B Te= tt GHW + Ty sina Sine +B) ut (tt REVERSE CURVE. For a reverse curve between two parallel straights AB=2 (R41) sin? cos 8) of the trapezium formed. 2. Average Ordinate Rule 04,4054, ne ‘Area te xL Where Op Os etc. are the ordinates of ‘each trapezium . 3. Trapezium Rule Anat wet Ope] 4. Simpon’s Rule A=$1(Op40,) + 4(0,405 40) + 2(0, + O,+--)) 5. Level Section A= (2b+nh)h FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT $4864 31610,99521 60010-04565 286671 12PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY, KARAIKUDI PH 94864 31610 SSC Junior Engineer 2013 Results 25-41 6 Students in Top 100 32 total selections £% 2 6. Two Level Section Sings Probakaan—-Marikandan ‘at AiR ‘R33 2 A nb?x, eee is ‘a 2 baahanth AR aE ARSE Aino Area in fill } CONTOT imaginary line passing through points of eal elevation is called contour. When ‘contiyrs ate drawn underwater they are termed Volume yytins CONTOUR INTERVAL: It is the vertical Itis kept constant for a particular contour plan. Area in cutting = 1. Trapezium Formula x Volume= 4 [E4445 + HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT: It is the horizontal distance between two poit consecutive contours It is not constant one for a [Ai + Ay #2 particular contour map and its value depends ~ upon the variation of the ground surface . ie,, It 2. Prismoidal Formula Volum depends upon the steepness of the ground. CONTOUR GRADIENT: ‘The imaginary line on the surface of the earth having a constant inclination to the horizontal is known as "contour -gradient’. It is expressed as the ratio ofthe vertical height to the horizontal distance say 1 in 50, 1in 100 etc, Instrument Used: Ghat tracer used for locating, points on a given contour gradient. TYPICAL LAND FEATURE AND THEIR CONTOUR FORMS: urstadent Ee MM Foonga(PWDWROL Ran) seg ders fom te Honourable Minter SLOPES: A slope may be gentle or steep. A gradient upto 1 in 25 [20° with horizontal] is referred to as gently slope. {Fig 1], In this case the contours are far apart. Where as higher gradients [20° - 45° with horizontal] are termed as steep slopes or scrap [Fig 2]. A high scrap is known as crag, In this case the contours are spaced closely. TILFLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486 31610,99521 60010,0565 286671 13When the ground bulges outward itis referred to as a convex slope [Fig 3]. The gradient at higher levels will be gentle but quite steep at lower levels. Fe} Acmesipe Sf temerag In case of a concave slope [Fig 4] groxind depression. The ground at the I gentle but is quite steep at highe the contours will be far apart. te Thus er levels, but they become Prose loser with increase in elevation. HIGH-LYING FO! ‘These are characte example hill, fated grounds, for id plateau. Hills are elevated gro ually with a pointed peak, ‘The contours of Mili [Fig 5] are a bit circular in shape with increasing contour values inwards 4 Fe? Apltee Hillocks are elevated lands, quite low in height with gentle side slopes [Fig 6]. ‘A plateau is broad relief feature which has Relatively even surface at the top [Fig 7], but is conspicuously high the surrounding land. It is also known’ land. Since, the nntours will be there which are often steep .ced contours. ymon among the low-lying formsare valleys etc., ‘A rgVine is a trough like depression of the nrawtace ‘elongated in one direction with Simon inclined towards one side. [Fig 8 Itis pression washed out in the ground by the “Ylowing water. \> > Valley is a broad ravine with a gently sloping bottom. Casually the shape is V [Fig 9] . contours run close to V. In case the ground is low as compared to the surrounding land and the sides slope gently, itis referred to as a depression [Fig 10]. The TIL FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDI, CONTACT 9486 31610,99521 60010.0565 286511A high land, having flat narrow top with steep slope on one side and gentle slope on the other side is known as escarpment [Fig 15]. The 4 contours will be closer towards the steep side et and far apart towards the gently slope. m4 Fig 10, depression Fe tt Ape The contours will be quite few and far apart. When the valley floor is very narrow and has steep sides on a level terrain it is termed a gorge [Fig 11] and in mountains as canyons. Because of the steepness of the contours are crowded. VALLEY LINE AND RIDGE LINE: CLIFF: These are rock faces along the The slopes of ravine intersect along a line sea coast and may -al [Fig 16], Where the referred to as axis of the ravine, the line of contour lines coinci ith each other. discharge, or a valley line in case of a valley. The ‘counter part of a ravine is a ridge - a convex form of terrain gradually declining in one direction. ‘Two ravines are usually separated by a more or less pronounced ridge The line along with the slopes intersect is referred to as the axis of ridge, the watershed or watershed line. The water shed C_ line is usually wavy. of SADDLE: snags, fo ron ev are ‘The lowest points on the water shed are kn the times this narrow low land is hay streams. This steep sided depressi pwn as col. When the depression is bRQad\arid low it is known as saddle [Fig 13] s > CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS: SPUR: A part of ibiiont of tongue, which 1. Contour lines are closed curves. They just out from a known as spur. [Fig ‘may either close within the map itself or 14] The contours, are yimilar to that of a valley ‘outside the map depending upon the with a i at here the contour values topography ie, it can not stop or end decrease towards abruptly. 2. The spacing between the contour lines depends upon the slope of the ground. In steep slopes , the spacing is small and gentle slope the spacing is large. 3. Equally spaced contour lines of a map indicate uniform slope of the ground surface, 4. Straight , parallel and equally spaced contour lines of a map represent a plane ground surface. 5. Inregular contour denotes uneven slopes, where as, smooth contours denote gradual slopes. IIL FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT i864 31610,99521 60010,8565 286671 156. A series of closed contours with increase in elevation from inside to outside in plan denotes depression. 7. series of closed contours with increase in elevation from outside to inside in plan denotes a hill. 8. Contour lines cross a ridge line or water shed line at right angles. The contour lines from U shaped curves, with their concavity towards the higher elevation ile, contours of higher elevations are inside the bend. The same contour appears on both sides of the ridge. 9, Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. The contour lines form V - shaped curves with their convexity towards the higher elevation, ie, contours of lower elevations are inside the bend. The same contour appears on both sides of the valley. 10. The contour lines form four loops in the case of a saddle which is the junction of two ridges. In the case of a saddle, he ground slopes up on two opposite sides and slopes down on the other two opposite sides. 11. Two contour lines of different elevation do not cross each other or unite except in the case of a cave or an overhanging cliff or a vertical cliff. eS” Contours appear to cross each other in the case of a cave or overhanging cliff and appear to =e Y in the case of a vertical cliff. METHODS OF CONTOURING: YO econ recone tag QS. oa bp lye hg Sr oak en are then survey by le method and the respective co} “Gre plotted. ‘This tnethod is slows amd edous. I is suitable for contouring of 2INDIRECT OD: The spot levels of selected guide points representing ridges, valleys, summits, depressions, changes in slopes etc,, are taken with a level and their levels are computed. The horizontal positions of these points are measured ‘or computed and the points are plotted on the plan. The contours are then drawn by a process called interpolation of contours from the levels of the guide points. This method is more convenient than the direct method and is generally used for contouring of large areas, This method is also known as spot levels. some conor MAP: 4, Determination of indivisibility Calculation of extend of drainage Capacity of reservoir. Site of structures. Earth work estimates, Route location egagt PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy All top 20 > _s@d€nts are from Pyramid 16 Features of ad Extensive and Well Informative Classes by highly qualified(from IIT Madras) and experienced technical experts ‘Complete guidance for written tests + Timely completion of full syllabus with stressing on vital areas Well planned test series and regular assessment of performance v Previous year Question papers will be discussed ¥ Model exams will be conducted Helena ; ‘ue Stent ErG Unasankar Fier mak 277-3) ®PWD-WRO, reviving appoment order fom TILFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,9952 6001008565 286571