Virgin Olive Oil as Frying Oil

Antonia Chiou and Nick Kalogeropoulos

Abstract: Frying is one of the oldest cooking procedures and is still among the most popular ones for food preparation.
Due to their unique sensory characteristics, fried foods are consumed often and with pleasure. During frying, part of the
oil is absorbed by the food, thereby becoming part of our diet; most interestingly, in the Mediterranean area approximately
50% of total fat intake is provided by cooking fats. Olive oil is the key lipid component of the Mediterranean diet, the
health-promoting effects of which have been largely attributed to olive oil intake. Olive oil is unique among vegetable
oils due to its desirable lipid profile and some of its minor components. Scientific evidence now indicates that during
frying olive oil behavior is usually equal or superior to that of refined vegetable oils. Herein, an overview of virgin olive
oil performance under frying is given, with special reference to the fate of olive oil microconstituents. The compositional
changes of foods fried in olive oil are also reviewed and discussed in detail.
Keywords: frying, olive oil, phenolics, sterols, vitamins

Olive Oil as a Commodity
Olive oil is the juice of the olive tree fruit. In the Mediterranean
territory, inhabitants have been producing and consuming olive
oil for millennia. According to the Ancient Greek myth, olive
tree was the gift of deity Athena in her rivalry with Poseidon
for the city of Athens patron; this tree was so appreciated by
the citizens that preferred Athena to Poseidon and eventually
named their city Athens. Historical records refer to olive oil as a
food item along with several other applications including uses in
religious rituals, folk medicine, and skin care.
The definition of virgin olive oil (VOO) is based on the
European Commission Regulations EC No. 1019/2002 and
EC No. 702/2007. The International Olive Council (IOC) and
The Codex Alimentarius Commission additionally contribute on
defining olive oil standards (Mariotti 2014). VOO is the product
obtained from the olive tree (Olea europaea L.) fruit solely by
mechanical or other physical treatments; all conditions applied—
especially the thermal ones—should guarantee a commodity
with no alterations in the oil constituents. Washing, decanting,
centrifuging, and filtration are the only treatments allowed for
VOO production (Codex Alimentarius 2001). In VOO, free
acidity—expressed as oleic acid—should be lower or equal to
2 /100 g; other chemical and sensory quality characteristics should
also comply with those fixed for this category in the IOC standard
(IOC). VOO possessing free acidity lower or equal to 0.8 /100 g
and holding characteristics that comply with those fixed for the
category in the IOC standard is defined as extra VOO (EVOO),
being the highest olive oil quality. VOOs holding free acidity
values above 3.3 /100 g are characterized as lampante. Refining
CRF3-2017-0002 Submitted 1/3/2017, Accepted 4/5/2017. Authors are with
Laboratory of Chemistry – Biochemistry – Physical Chemistry of Foods, Dept. of
Dietetics and Nutrition, Harokopio Univ., 70 El. Venizelou Ave., Kallithea 176 71,
Athens, Greece. Direct inquiries to author Kalogeropoulos (E-mail: nickal@hua.gr).
of lampante VOO followed by blending with VOO results in the
commodity “olive oil”; olive oil free acidity should be no more
than 1 /100 g (IOC). This work mainly refers and discusses data
on the performance of VOO and EVOO; supportive information
and comparisons with data for olive oil and frying oils or fats are
used for reasons of study integration.
VOOs, as well as all other olive oil quality categories, are pri-
marily composed of triacylglycerols (approximately 99%); mono-
and di-acylglycerols, free fatty acids, and several other lipophilic
components such as plant sterols, squalene, tocopherols, pigments,
and aliphatic alcohols are present in low quantities. In addition,
several polar phenolic compounds are found in VOO, serving as
discriminates of VOO from the majority of seed oils consumed. In
Table 1, the content of major fatty acids present in the triacylglyc-
erols of VOO is given (Lou-Bonafonte and others 2015; European
Union Commission Regulation No 61/2011); other fatty acids
are also present in lower quantities (ࣘ1%, w/w) or trace amounts,
that is, myristic (14:0, ࣘ0.05%), heptadecanoic (17:0, ࣘ0.3%),
heptadecenoic (17:1, ࣘ0.3%), linolenic (18:3 n-3, ࣘ1.0%),
arachidic (20:0, ࣘ0.6%), eicosenoic (20:1 n-9, ࣘ0.4%), behenic
(22:0, ࣘ0.2%), and lignoceric (24:0, ࣘ0.2%) acid. With respect
to fatty acid content, variations observed among the different
VOOs may be attributed to several factors including pedoclimatic
conditions, fruit variety, and ripening degree, cultivation zone
(Boskou and others 2006b). VOO content in microconstituents is
given in Table 2. Several factors are responsible for the variations
observed in the VOO minor constituent content. In the case
of polar phenolic compounds, these factors include cultivar,
pedoclimatic conditions, harvest period, extraction process, along
with storage, and distribution practices (Kalogeropoulos and
Tsimidou 2014). Cultivar, fruit ripening degree, harvest practice,
storage time prior to olive oil production, and geographic factors
affect VOO phytosterol content (Boskou 2015). Tocopherol
content depends on pedoclimatic, agronomic, technological, and
in some cases genetic factors (Boskou and others 2006b). Squalene


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632 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017 doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12268
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .

Table 1–Major fatty acidsa present in the triacylglycerols of virgin olive cooking oil really acts on the food is rather quite short. In fact,
oil.
Fatty acid Lipid number Content (%, w/w) the water is evaporating and the temperature inside the food does
Palmitic acid 16:0
Palmitoleic acid 16:1 n-7
Stearic acid 18:0
Oleic acid 18:1 n-9
Linoleic acid 18:2 n-6
a Fatty acids with higher than 1% (w/w) content.
content is affected by cultivar and oil extraction technology and
it decreases during refining. Olive ripening results to a decrease
in hydroxy pentacyclic triterpene acids (HPTAs) in the respective
oils (Kalogeropoulos and Tsimidou 2014).
Frying as a Cooking Technique
When frying was actually discovered is not precisely docu-
mented. According to Norton (1998), the 1st written evidence
for frying comes from the 3rd book in the Old Testament,
about 600 BC; Banks (1996) considers that, as a method for
food preparation, frying was used as early as 1600 BC by the
ancient Egyptians, although ancient Greeks and Romans were
also familiar with this culinary practice.
From a culinary point of view, frying is cooking in hot oil at
temperatures ranging from 140 to 190 °C; variations are mainly
related to the amount of fat being used. Under deep-frying
conditions, the food is entirely submerged in hot oil; under pan-
or shallow-frying operations, the food is partially submerged in a
small amount of oil in a pan; whereas under stir-frying conditions,
food is fried in a small amount of very hot oil with stirring in a
special type of pan, such as a wok (Nutri Pro).
During frying, part of the water present in the food is replaced
by cooking oil; in this context, frying may be considered largely as
a dehydration process having the following distinct characteristics:
(i) high oil temperature (160 to 180 °C), which enables rapid heat
transfer and shortens cooking time, (ii) product temperature—
apart from the outer crust region—does not exceed 100 °C, and
(iii) leaching of water-soluble compounds is minimal (Saguy and
Pinthus 1995; Saguy and others 1998). Frying involves 2 stages
(Varela and Ruiz-Roso 1992; Saguy and Dana 2003; Velasco and
others 2009). During the 1st stage, the high temperature of the
oil causes water evaporation from the food surface layers, whereas
at the same time water from the core starts flowing towards the
external layers. Steam production has 2 consequences; it limits
the penetration of oil into the food and it does not allow the
temperature of the core to exceed 100 °C. After evaporation of
a certain proportion of water the 2nd stage begins. During this
phase, hot oil begins to penetrate into the food and a crunchy crust
is formed on the outer surface, which then prevents excessive oil
absorption. The net result is a fried product with 2 characteristic
zones: the dehydrated surface and the core where temperature did
not exceed 100 °C. Overall, the actual time period that the hot
most of the total frying time corresponds to the 1st phase when
7.5 to 20
not exceed 100 °C (Varela and Ruiz-Roso 1998). In the case of
0.3 to 3.5 potato frying, evaporation can be assumed to last approximately
0.5 to 5.0 two thirds of the total frying time and the action of the hot oil
55 to 83 lasts only about 2 min. On this basis, frying may be considered
3.5 to 21
as less aggressive for the thermolabile food constituents compared
to other cooking methods (Varela and Ruiz-Roso 1998).
Fried foods are consumed with sustainable popularity, due to
their unique sensory characteristics, including texture, flavor, and
appearance (Saguy and Dana 2003). Fried foods are actually the
composite mixture of food together with frying oil, given that
during frying part of the oil is absorbed by the food. Thus, frying
oil quality drastically affects the quality of the food fried therein.
Under frying conditions, oil is exposed to high temperature, air,
and moisture from the food. Such conditions provoke several
chemical reactions to occur, including oxidation due to presence
of oxygen, hydrolytic alterations due to food moisture, and
thermal decompositions due to elevated temperature (Velasco
and others 2009). As the reactions proceed the oil deteriorates,
giving rise to alterations on its nutritional, sensory, and functional
properties. On this basis, scientific and public concerns have been
raised on whether heated fats present in the diet may be detri-
mental to health. Noteworthy, epidemiological and/or nutritional
studies conducted so far, do not provide clear evidence on the
association between fried food consumption and severe adverse
health effects; a higher risk of weight gain is however probably
expected, although the oil type may have also an effect on such
an association (Dobarganes and Marquez-Ruiz 2015; Sayon-Orea
and others 2015). Numerous factors affect the rate and degree
of oil deterioration during frying, including frying temperature
and duration, type of frying oil, presence of antioxidants, type
of process—continuous or not—and surface-to-oil-volume ratio.
Surface-to-oil volume ratio is significantly lower in deep-frying,
usually around 0.2 to 0.3, compared to pan-frying in which it
can be higher than 1, and this factor contributes to explaining
the differences observed among the different frying techniques.
Frying oil quality influences oil absorption as well as the types of
by-products and residues absorbed by the food. Yet, the type of
food being fried affects the performance of the frying oil.
Frying as a Mediterranean Cooking Technique
Frying is one of the few characteristics common to the entire
Mediterranean area, and to the 3 religions practiced there,
Christian, Muslim, and Jewish (IOC).
An interesting feature of fat intake in Spain and other Mediter-
ranean countries was pointed out by Varela and Ruiz-Roso
(1998) and by Ruiz-Roso and Varela (2001), who estimated that
approximately 50% of total fat intake there is provided by cooking
fats, namely fats used for the preparation of foods; a small fraction
is consumed uncooked to dress foods and a significant amount

Table 2–VOO content in microconstituents.

Microconstituent Content (mg/kg) Reference

HPTA 9 to 583 Boskou 2009b; Kalogeropoulos and Tsimidou 2014
Phytosterols 1000 to 2000 Boskou and others 2006b; Lou-Bonafonte and others 2015
Polar phenolics 50 to 1500 Boskou 2009a; 2006a; Hrncirik and Fritsche 2004; Kalogeropoulos and Tsimidou 2014; Lou-Bonafonte and
others 2015
Squalene 200 to 7500 Kalogeropoulos and Tsimidou 2014; Lou-Bonafonte and others 2015; Mateos and others 2003; Smith 2000
Tocopherols 55 to 370 Boskou and others 2006b
HPTA, hydroxyl pentacyclic triterpenic acids.


C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 633
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
is used for frying. The authors considered that the high intake of
cooking fat in the Mediterranean countries offers a great potential
for manipulating the quantity and quality of fat intake, which is not
possible in other countries where the proportion of cooking fat is
much lower. An example is from the Greek culinary economy: the
pan-fried (in olive oil) fish and shellfish which provide significant
amounts of energy due to the absorbed oil are traditionally served
together with fresh salads or boiled greens, dishes of low fat
content. Therefore, a typical meal containing fried fish is not
expected to supply excess fat and energy. We must note here that
in traditional Mediterranean cuisines frying is not applied only
for the preparation of fried foods, but as a preliminary step in the
preparation of composite dishes; this is the case of using pan-fried
eggplants and potatoes for the preparation of “moussaka.”
Olive Oil in Frying: Health Implications
When VOO is used for frying, the quality of fat intake
is improved due to the beneficial fatty acid profile, which is
important in preventing cardiovascular and other diseases. In
addition, several health-promoting microconstituents, like polar
phenolics, squalene, phytosterols, tocopherols, terpenic acids, as
well as thermal and/or oxidative decomposition products enrich
the fried food and possibly interact with its components (Bendini
and others 2007; Chiou and others 2012). As pointed out in the
recent review of Sayon-Orea and others (2015), in terms of health
promotion and disease prevention frying with olive oil might be
health-beneficial and worth to be further exploited; for example,
data from one study indicated that insulin resistance is negatively
correlated with oleic acid from cooking oil (Soriguer and others
2004). The PREDIMED intervention study concluded that
cardiovascular disease clinical events are significantly reduced
by the use of EVOO; olive oil was also used for frying in this
trial (Estruch and others 2013). Recently, the beneficial effect of
VOO, as compared to the detrimental effect of sunflower oil on
DNA oxidative damage, was shown in a randomized crossover
dietary intervention study on obese individuals with oils subjected
to 20 heating cycles (Rangel-Zuñiga and others 2016). Records
on other studies dealing with the effect of cooking with olive and
other vegetable oils on the risk of degenerative diseases may also
be retrieved from the review of Sayon-Orea and others (2015).
VOO Performance During Frying
A literature review on olive oil quality evaluation under pan-
and deep-frying conditions has been rather recently reported by
Santos and others (2013) and the reader may also refer to this
work. Herein, an overview of olive oil performance under frying
is given, together with an update on the relevant literature.
Compared with seed oils, VOO is preferable for frying, espe-
cially in home cooking (IOC). Under proper temperature condi-
tions, without overheating, it undergoes no substantial changes and
its performance is usually equal or superior to refined vegetable
oils, due to its balanced composition regarding both major and mi-
nor components (Santos and others 2013). Olive oil contains 55%
to 83% of monounsaturated oleic acid, which is 50 times less prone
to oxidation than linoleic acid (Warner 2009), the polyunsaturated
fatty acid that predominates in the majority of vegetable oils. Olive
oil stands up well to high frying temperatures, as its high smoking
point (210 °C) is well above the suggested temperature for frying
food (180 °C; Bastida and Sanchez-Muniz 2015). Smoking point
of VOO has been reported to be lower (160 to 170 °C; Bastida
and Sanchez-Muniz 2015), although early studies (Detwiler and
others 1940) had indicated a higher smoke point, that is 199 °C.
634 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017
According to Bastida and Sanchez-Muniz (2015) factors such as
the oil variety, and the presence of stabilizing compounds act as
confounders to the clear determination of VOO smoking point.
Frying oil performance and deterioration may be determined by
evaluating several oil parameters, including free fatty acid content,
peroxide value, p-anisidine value, total polar materials (TPM),
polymerized, and oxidized triacylglycerols (Stier 2001). TPM is
generally considered as a key factor for oil deterioration state
and, on this basis, oil TPM content has been adopted by several
regulatory systems, the cut-off limit being around 25% (w/w; Fox
2001); this is also true for polymerized triacylglycerols (PTGs),
with the respective limits of rejection set at about 12% (w/w).
VOO may be considered as resistant to oxidative deterioration
due to frying; this is largely attributed to its high monounsaturated
fatty acid (MUFA) content together with a low polyunsaturated-
to-MUFA ratio; furthermore, it contains microconstituents that
may contribute to the retardation of oxidative deterioration of
olive oil at high temperatures. TPM of VOO after 10 successive
frying operations of potatoes under deep- and pan-frying house-
hold conditions has been reported as 9.5% and 17.5%, respectively
(Andrikopoulos and others 2002b), being lower than the TPM
limit of rejection; a better performance of VOO as compared to a
highly unsaturated vegetable shortening has been additionally ob-
served in this work, in agreement with results from other studies
evaluating the comparative performance of olive oil during frying
with respect to more unsaturated vegetable oils (Naz and others
2005; Chatzilazarou and others 2006; Casal and others 2010; Zribi
and others 2014). Oil unsaturation degree affects PTG formation
as well, with the more unsaturated oils being more susceptible
to polymerization (Warner 2002). Kalogianni and others (2017)
compared EVOO, sunflower oil, and palm oil performance dur-
ing the repeated (45 cycles) deep-frying of potatoes, zucchinis,
and minced beef meat without replenishment. In terms of TPM
and PTG content, EVOO performance was in all cases superior to
that of sunflower oil irrespectively of the food being fried, in line
with the oil unsaturation degree. Palm oil was more resistant than
EVOO in the case of potato frying in terms of TPM and PTG
content; as far as minced beef meat frying is concerned, both oils
had analogous performance while in the case of zucchini palm oil
surpassed the performance of EVOO only in terms of PTG. In this
context, the type of food being fried has to be taken into account
since it may influence frying oil deterioration parameters. This
is also supported by the findings of Martı́nez-Yusta and Guillén
(2014) who indicated that migration of the fried food lipids into
the frying medium affects EVOO composition. In the study of
Kalogeropoulos and others (2006) potato frying in polyunsaturated
oils (cottonseed oil, sunflower oil, and vegetable shortening) pro-
moted the formation of PTGs, although frying in the monounsat-
urated VOO resulted in the lower amounts, both under deep- and
under pan-frying operations. It is interesting that frying in palm oil
with intermediate MUFA content, resulted in the formation of in-
termediate amounts of PTGs. In the same study oxidized fatty acids
content was found to follow the opposite order, with total oxidized
fatty acids being higher in VOO and lower in vegetable shortening.
This is in agreement with the study of Velasco and others (2004)
who reported that monoepoxy fatty acids were more abundant in
thermoxidized monounsaturated oils than in the polyunsaturated
ones in samples obtained from restaurants and fried-foods outlets.
Likewise, Bruhl and others (2016) found olive oil performance
under heating at 175 °C for 16 h to be inferior to that of lin-
seed, sunflower, and rapeseed oil, with respect to formation of
epoxy fatty acids. Data obtained in the study of Kalogeropoulos

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists®
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
and others (2006) revealed that pan frying had resulted in higher
oxidized fatty acid content, as compared to deep frying, whereas
a linear increment with respect to frying time had been observed.
Among the oxidized fatty acids assessed, epoxyoleates predomi-
nated in polyunsaturated oils, whereas epoxystearate and 9- and
10-ketostearates in monounsaturated-rich VOO and palm oil.
Epoxyoleates have been found to be toxic in experimental animals
(Sugiyama and others 1987) and their incorporation in triacyl-
glycerols and high absorption in humans has been shown (Wilson
and others 2002). Based on data for fried potatoes, oxidized fatty
acids do not seem to be preferentially absorbed by the fried food
(Kalogeropoulos and others 2006); thus, oil oxidized fatty acid
content may be considered as predictor of the content in the fried
food. This also seems to apply for TPM; Dobarganes and others
(2000) have observed no preferential adsorption of TPM on the
French fries surface. Yet, a higher food TPM content as com-
pared to oil TPM one has been found in another study (Bastida
and Sanchez-Muniz 2015). A lower tendency for cyclic fatty acid
monomers formation has been reported for VOO as compared to
high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) during the repeated deep-frying
of potatoes with replenishment (Romero and others 2003); this
finding has been attributed to the linoleic acid content, which is
lower in EVOO as compared to HOSO. In addition, triacylglyc-
erol oligomer content has been found to increase more rapidly
in HOSO as compared with VOO; contrariwise, oxidized tria-
cylglycerol formation was higher in VOO (Romero and others
2003). Oxidized triacylglycerols have been reported to present
greater prooxidant activity than polar triacylglycerol oligopoly-
mers (Gomes and others 2011). Most recently, Molina-Garcia and
others (2017) compared the performance of EVOO with that of
other high MUFA:PUFA ratio oils, namely peanut oil and canola
oil, during the deep frying of potatoes. In all degradation parame-
ters studied, namely TPM, dimeric and polymeric triacylglycerols,
oxidized triacylglycerols, and p-anisidine values, EVOO was found
superior to the other 2 oils. Sanchez-Gimeno and others (2009)
found that VOO had not reached the TPM rejection limit even
after 60 successive frying cycles of pre-fried potatoes; its perfor-
mance was proven superior to that of high-oleic sunflower oil,
indicating the positive effects of minor VOO constituents. Like-
wise, Abenoza and others (2016) showed that the limit of rejection
was reached after 58 and 63 frying cycles in high-oleic sunflower
oil and Arbequina EVOO, respectively, although EVOO from the
Picual variety—presenting higher antioxidant content—had not
reached the limit of rejection after 70 cycles. It is worth noting at
this point that data obtained for the majority of oil deterioration
parameters agree with those provided for TPM and thus support
the evidence regarding the good olive oil stability during frying.
With respect to the comparative performance of different olive oil
types, data obtained by Raman spectroscopy indicate that under
heating EVOO performance is superior to that of olive oil and
pomace oil; this behavior has been attributed to the higher an-
tioxidant content of EVOO, although the fatty acid composition
has to be considered in such comparisons (Carmona and others
2014). In the study of Casal and others (2010), the performance of
several commercial olive oil types under domestic deep frying of
potatoes was investigated and additionally compared with that of
a vegetable oil blend principally consisting of sunflower oil. All
olive oils assessed had a better performance than blended vegetable
oil in terms of frying time necessary to reach the TPM limit of
rejection (25%). Among the several olive oil types, EVOO had the
better performance, yet the differences could not be considered as
severely important. Olivero-David and others (2014) studied the

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 635
effect of olive ripening degree on the performance of VOO under
deep-frying conditions. Olive ripeness is known to affect all oil
macro- and microconstituents. VOO originating from olives with
the lower ripening index showed the lower oleic acid and higher
palmitic acid contents; this is something to be expected because
lower olive ripeness has been associated with higher saturated fatty
acid content (Baccouri and others 2007). Moreover, polar pheno-
lic and tocopherol contents have been shown to decrease during
olive ripening (Salvador and others 2001; Beltrán and others 2005;
Baccouri and others 2007; Gómez-Rico and others 2008). All in
all, olive oil from the less-ripened olives displayed better perfor-
mance under deep-frying, with higher stability in terms of TPM
content and thermal oxidation alterations. In all 3 VOOs tested,
TPM and PTGs content remained below the limits of rejection
after 40 repeated cycles of frying fresh potatoes with replenishment
every 5 frying operations. Acrylamide is formed through Maillard
reactions in many thermally processed starch-rich foods, and it has
been classified as a probable carcinogen by the Intl. Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC 1994). Napolitano and others (2008)
observed an inverse relationship between the phenolic content of
VOO used for potato frying and the acrylamide formation a find-
ing in line with the reported action of antioxidants to lessen the
formation and safety of dietary acrylamide (Friedman and Levin
2008).
3-Chloro-propane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters are members of
the chloropropanol group chemical contaminants, their presence
in food raising public health concerns due to their suspected car-
cinogenicity (Seefelder and others 2008). In edible oils, 3-MCPD
ester formation has been suggested to occur at the preliminary heat
treatment of oil seeds and during oil refining (Zelinková and others
2006). Given the production process that lacks refining,3-MCPD
ester levels in VOO have been shown to be rather low, that is, av-
erage content in bound 3-MCPD esters 75 μg/kg (Zelinková and
others 2006). Common frying temperatures have been considered
as not sufficient for inducing an endogenous 3-MCPD ester for-
mation in fried foods (Dingel and Mattisek 2015; Pavesi Arisseto
and others 2017), indicating that fat uptake constitutes the most
important path for food contamination during frying. It could
be thus hypothesized that foods fried in VOO are more likely to
contain low 3-MCPD ester levels. Yet, sodium chloride and water
addition as well as increased heating temperature and heating
time have been shown to induce 3-MCPD ester formation under
simulating deep-frying conditions (Zhou and others 2014).
Under simulated frying conditions, a nonpromoting influence
of oleic acid has been shown for the formation of toxic volatiles
such as acrolein and crotonal; in addition, chlorophylls, pheo-
phytins, and carotenoids have been considered to contribute to
the prevention of some aldehyde formation during frying (Procida
and others 2009). Lower trans,trans-2,4-decadienal content has
been found in VOO as compared with sunflower oil and cotton-
seed oil after 8 successive deep- or pan- fryings of French-fries
under domestic operations (Boskou and others 2006). Trans,
trans-2,4-decadienal is a by-product formed during frying and has
been associated with cytotoxic and other adverse health effects. In
a comparative evaluation of VOO and sunflower oil performance
under pan-heating, only alkanals and (E)-2-alkenals were identi-
fied in heated VOO; absence of (E,E)- and (Z,E)-2,4-alkadienals
was verified, these compounds being, however, present in heated
sunflower oil (Nieva-Echevarrı́a and others 2016). Such a finding
is of importance given the higher toxicity and reactivity of alde-
hydes of higher unsaturation degree. (E,E)-2,4-Alkadienals and
(E)-2-alkenals were also found in sunflower oil after pan frying
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .

HO HO
O O

A OH A O
A = H, tyrosol A = H, p-HPEA-EDA
A = OH, hydroxytyrosol A = OH, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA O

OH
OH HO
O O
A1 A2

A O
A = H, p-HPEA-EA
A = OH, 3,4-DHPEA-EA O O
O OH
A1 = OH, A2 = OH, gallic acid
A
A1 = H, A2 = OH, protocatechuic acid
A1 = OCH3, A2 = OCH3, syringic acid OH
A1 = H, A2 = OCH3, vanillic acid

O
OH

A A = H, luteolin
A = OH, apigenin

OH

O
A = H, p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid
A = OH, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid

Figure 1–Structures of some phenolic species present in virgin olive oil.

of sea-bass; the same was true for (E,E)-2,4-alkadienals after
pan-frying of sea bream, although complete lack of aldehydes
was shown when VOO was used for frying these 2 fishes
(Nieva-Echevarrı́a and others 2016). The better performance
of EVOO as compared with peanut oil and canola oil with
respect to unsaturated aldehyde formation has also been shown
(Molina-Garcia and others 2017).
As already mentioned, microconstituents of VOO are com-
prised of both lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds. Among
hydrophilic substances, the most essential are the phenolic
antioxidants, such as hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, secoiridoids, and
their conjugates, which are characteristic of olive oil (Figure 1).
Phenolic compounds are potent free-radical scavengers (Visioli
and others 1998); extensive scientific research has indicated that
phenolics are important preventive agents against numerous de-
generative diseases; they exert protective effects in vitro against sev-
eral types of cancer and they are associated with low incidence of
cardiovascular diseases (Kris-Etherton and others 2002). Levels of
phenolics in olive oil are usually in the range of 100 to 300 mg/kg,
but ranges of 50 to 1500 mg/kg have also been reported (Hrncirik
and Fritsche 2004; Boskou 2009a; 2006a). Phenolics are regarded
as components that play a fundamental role in olive oil stability.
Most studies indicate that under frying VOO phenolics deterio-
rate rather rapidly. Andrikopoulos and others (2002a) determined
VOO phenolic content during successive deep- and pan-frying
of potatoes under domestic frying conditions. An approximately
50% retention of oil total phenolics content was observed after
the 3rd to 4th frying operation, the deterioration rate being
faster with pan-frying; this could be considered as a result of
the higher surface-to-oil volume ratio and increased contact
with atmospheric oxygen under pan-frying conditions. In line
with the former study, a rapid total phenolics content loss has
been shown under a discontinuous 40-cycle deep-frying of fresh
potatoes in VOOs obtained from olives with different olive
ripening degrees (Olivero-David and others 2014). Phenolic
content dramatically decreased after the 10th frying cycle, ranging
from 0% to 10% of the respective basal values; a more than 50%
decrease was observed after 6 frying operations. Still, Abenoza
and others (2016) observed much lower phenolic losses; 10% and
25% Picual and Arbequina VOO phenolic content, respectively,
was preserved after 70 and 63 deep-frying cycles, respectively.
Such results may, however, be attributed to the small duration
time of frying cycles (3 min), which resulted in a relatively
short total heating period of the oil. On the other hand, the
rate of phenolic compound depletion has been shown to be
influenced by the phenolic species identity; in the study by
Andrikopoulos and others (2002a) tannins presented the highest
stability, although hydroxytyrosol retention was 30% after the 3rd

636 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017 
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Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
frying session. Significant losses of hydroxytyrosol derivatives,
but not of lignans, were also observed under simulated frying
conditions (Brenes and others 2002). Likewise, Allouche and
others (2007) showed that after heating Picual olive oil at 180 °C
for 36 h hydroxytyrosol, hydroxytyrosol secoiridoid derivatives
(3,4-DHPEA-EDA and 3,4-DHPEA-EA), and flavonoids were
significantly affected by the treatment, whereas lignans, tyrosol,
and tyrosol derivatives (p-HPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EA) were
affected to a lesser extent. Structure-related phenolic losses were
also observed under simulating frying of EVOO and refined olive
oil enriched with phenolics from olive vegetation water (Esposto
and others 2015). Pan-frying of vegetables (potato, green pepper,
zucchini, and eggplant) under domestic frying conditions for one
frying session resulted in 21% to 47% phenolic retention; reten-
tion was affected by the vegetable species, although the culinary
practice of blanketing the vegetables with flour or batter resulted
in lower retentions (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007b). Similarly,
phenolic retention after pan-frying of Mediterranean fish was in
the range of 36% to 52% (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a).
The major VOO tocopherol is α-tocopherol, although β-
and γ -tocopherol and, especially, δ-tocopherol are only present
in minor amounts. Andrikopoulos and others (1989) reported
that the α-tocopherol equivalents per gram of polyunsaturated
fatty acids were significantly higher in olive oil (1.48) compared
to other plant oils (0.58 to 1.07). Given that increased intake
of unsaturated fats lead to increased requirements for vitamin E
(Harris and Embee 1963; Valk and Hornstra 2000), this finding
provides evidence that olive oil is well balanced in this respect,
because of its low PUFA content.
Tocopherols exert a fundamental role as lipid phase antioxidants.
In VOO, tocopherols are thought to compete with phenolics at
the early stages of oxidation; their contribution to VOO stability
is considered of minor importance as compared with that of phe-
nolics. As indicated by Aparicio and others (1999), α-tocopherol
contribution to VOO stability is approximately 10%, compared
to a 50% contribution of phenolic compounds and 27% of
oleic/linoleic ratio; β- and γ -tocopherol practically have no effect
on olive oil stability. Allouche and others (2007) showed that un-
der heating Picual and Arbequina olive oils at 180 °C, tocopherol
losses were more significant in Arbequina olive oil; given that
Picual olive oil exhibited the higher total phenol content, as well
as the higher total phenol loss, it seems that phenolic compounds
were sacrificed to protect the oil, allowing a better tocopherol
survival. As in the case of polar phenolic compounds, tocopherols
undergo a rather sharp deterioration under frying. Under domestic
continuous frying of potato in VOO, α-tocopherol retention has
been shown to fall to 50% at the 2nd to 3rd deep-frying session;
after 8 successive fryings 20% of α-tocopherol was maintained
(Andrikopoulos and others 2002a). Under discontinuous deep-
frying of potato (Olivero-David and others 2014), tocopherol
losses have been found in the range of 50% to 100% after the
5th frying session depending on the VOO oxidative stability;
VOO with the higher phenolic content and saturation degree
exhibited the lower loss; in all cases, oil tocopherol content was
exhausted after the 10th repeated frying cycle. Chatzilazarou and
others (2006) found an approximately 40% tocopherol decrease
after 10 h of frying. Tocopherol losses after pan-frying of bread in
VOO for one frying session was approximately 30% (Fisnar and
others 2014). A 72% and 54% tocopherol loss was observed for
Arbequina and Picual olive oil after approximately sixty 3-min
frying cycles of potatoes (Abenoza and others 2016). In gen-
eral, pan-frying has been shown to induce higher tocopherol

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 637
depletion as compared to deep-frying. Casal and others (2010)
reported α-tocopherol degradation rates in the range of 15 to
48 mg/kg/h during continuous frying of potatoes in VOOs;
in this study, VOO tocopherols were practically exhausted after
3 to 6 h of frying. Oil α-tocopherol recovery after one pan-
frying session of vegetables has been reported in the range of
30% to 65%; the respective range for Mediterranean fish was
29% to 81% (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a,b). Compared to
other vegetables oils, tocopherol degradation rate has been found
higher in EVOO both under pan- and deep-frying operations
(Fisnar and others 2014; Akil and others 2015). At low tempera-
tures, oil tocopherol content has been shown to decrease faster in
more unsaturated oils (Velasco and Dobarganes 2002). However, at
frying temperatures, tocopherols in oils with low PUFA content,
as in the case of EVOO, react faster than PUFA with oxidiz-
ing species (Barrera-Arellano and others 1999). Moreover, a rapid
decomposition of highly unsaturated vegetable oil hydroperoxides
was observed and, hence, reaction with tocopherols was prevented.
In VOO HPTAs, particularly oleanolic acid, maslinic acid,
and ursolic acid are present. HPTAs occur mainly in the olive
husk and a small quantity is extracted during processing. Triter-
penic acids have significant biological properties. They are com-
mon constituents of plants, occurring in the form of free acids or
derivatives. They are relatively nontoxic and possess pharmacolog-
ical activities exerting anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hepatopro-
tective, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-HIV, antidiabetic,
gastroprotective, and antihyperlipidemic actions (Kalogeropoulos
and others 2010) together with neuroprotective effects (Qian and
others 2011a,b). Under frying HPTAs found in VOO deteriorate,
HPTAs recoveries have been reported in the range of 37% to 87%
and 47% to 91% in the case of vegetables and Mediterranean
fish, respectively, under pan-frying conditions (Kalogeropoulos
and others 2007a,b).
Squalene is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of sterols in
plants and animals (Kelly 1999). It is found in reasonable amounts
in wheat germ oil, palm oil, amaranth oil, rice bran oil, and, espe-
cially, in VOO. Squalene may contribute to the anticarcinogenic
activities reported for olive oil (Kelly 1999), especially for colon
cancer in animal models (Newmark 1999; Bartoli and others
2000; Smith 2000) and humans (Rao and others 1998; Stoneham
and others 2000). It is also considered that, together with phenolic
compounds and oleic acid, squalene is responsible for the antiin-
flammatory properties of olive oil (Kelly 1999; de la Puerta and
others 2000; Owen and others 2000a). Squalene has been reported
to be remarkably stable under frying. After heating at 180 °C for
36 h, no significant changes in squalene have been observed for
Arbequina oil, although a 25% reduction was observed in Picual
oil (Allouche and others 2007); the differences observed between
the 2 oils were attributed to their distinct initial squalene contents.
Recoveries of squalene after pan-frying of vegetables (potato,
green pepper, zucchini, and eggplant) in VOO have been reported
in the range of 55% to 97% (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006a).
The culinary practice applied seems to affect squalene retention,
because blanketing of vegetables with flour or batter resulted in
better squalene recoveries. In the case of pan- and deep-frying of
potatoes, VOO squalene recovery has been found as high as 85%
and 90%, respectively, after 8 successive fryings (Kalogeropoulos
and Andrikopoulos 2004). High squalene retentions (46% to
71%) have also been reported in the case of small Mediterranean
finfish pan-fried in VOO (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006b),
further supporting the findings about high squalene contents in
fried VOO.
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
Phytosterols are bioactive plant constituents biosynthetically
produced via the isoprenoid pathway, holding 28 or 29 carbon
atoms with 1 double bond in the phytosterol nucleus and occa-
sionally a 2nd one in the alkyl side chain (Azadmard-Damirchi
and Dutta 2010). Phytosterols are known for their hypocholes-
terolaemic activity, although their concentration in olive oil is
too low for such an effect. The predominant sterol in common
vegetable oils, including VOO, is β-sitosterol. VOO also contains
5 -avenasterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, in decreasing order.
Ethylidene side chain sterols, such as 5 -avenasterol, have been
shown to contribute to oil stability during frying by acting as an-
tipolymerization agents (Gordon and Magos 1983; Boskou 1998;
Blekas and Boskou 2011) The mechanism underlying this activity
has been hypothesized to involve the reaction of lipid free radicals
with sterols holding unhindered hydrogens in allylic carbons fol-
lowed by the formation of stable allylic tertiary free radicals (Gor-
don and Magos 1983). 5 -avenasterol effectiveness as antioxidant
is concentration dependent and increases in the range 0.01% to
0.1% (Gordon and Magos 1983). In olive oil 5 -avenasterol con-
tent is in the range 30 to 266 mg/kg (Azadmard-Damirchi and
Dutta 2010) indicating that the effect of 5 -avenasterol depends
on the commodity. Regardless concentration synergistic effects of
5 -avenasterol with other minor olive oil components may also
take place contributing to olive oil oxidative stability (Gordon and
Magos 1983). In general, VOO phytosterol content under frying
decreases. β-Sitosterol recovery after 8 successive frying sessions
of potatoes, without replenishment, was 58% and 62% under pan-
and deep frying conditions, respectively; at the same time, total
phytosterol recovery was 55% and 56%, respectively (Salta and
others 2008). Retention of the individual phytosterols has been
shown to follow the decreasing order: β-sitosterol, campesterol,
stigmasterol, 5 –avenasterol, although deep-frying tends to result
in higher phytosterol retentions. The 1st frying session has been
shown to induce rather negligible effects on VOO β-sitosterol
content, especially during deep-frying and more than 94% reten-
tion of phytosterols in total. Under simulated frying conditions,
recoveries of β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol have been
found as 48%, 27%, and 70%, respectively, after 20 cycles of heat-
ing (Orozco and others 2011). On the contrary, under heating at
180 °C for 36 h, no significant changes in phytosterols have been
observed for Arbequina and Picual oils (Allouche and others 2007).
Compositional Modifications of Foods Fried in Olive Oil
The main changes occurring in the food during frying are the
following: moisture loss, color darkening, development of firmer
texture, or crust, development of flavor and aroma, and steriliza-
tion of the food surface. During frying, the interactions between
food and oil result in many physical and chemical modifications
in both the oil and the food, among which physical changes
predominate. Main physical changes include surface dehydration
by evaporation of food moisture, frying oil absorption by the
food, migration of food lipids into the frying oil, and distillation
of flavor compounds. These physical changes contribute greatly
to the texture and odor of fried foods. At the same time, protein
denaturation and starch gelatization resulting from the heat
treatment induce changes in the food microstructure and affect
macronutrient digestibility (Pokorny and Dostalova 2011). On the
other hand chemical reactions between main food constituents
and between oxidation compounds and proteins or amino acids
result in the formation of compounds that are mostly responsible
for the color and flavor of fried products (Dobarganes and others
2000).
638 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017
The desirable and undesirable flavors in fried foods originate
partly from the decomposition of frying oil. Nawar (1998) de-
tected more than 200 compounds in heated olive oil. In addition,
the oxidative and thermal decomposition of food lipids and other
major constituents of food produce volatiles, which contribute to
the flavor of the fried foods. For example, more than 150 volatile
compounds, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, aldehy-
des, acids, esters, phenols, pyrazines, furans, thiazoles, oxazoles,
pyrroles, pyridines, and so on, have been identified in oils used for
frying beef, veal, and chicken products (Takeoka and others 1996).
Macronutrients and Energy Content
Water loss
During frying, the evaporation of water and the absorption
of oil cause significant changes in the weight and composition of
fried food. Water loss is mainly affected by the surface area of food,
meaning for example that finely chopped potatoes will lose more
water than thicker slices in the same time interval. The same is
true for fish: smaller fish lost more water than bigger ones during
pan-frying in VOO (Kalogeropoulos and others 2012).
Protein
A result of water loss during frying is the increase of protein in
the fried product, on a fresh weight basis. In fried Mediterranean
fish, the protein content increased from 1.2 to 2.9 times, on
a fresh weight basis (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006b). The
consumption of one serving (135 g) of pan-fried fish is expected
to cover the 42% to 83% of the daily reference value for protein,
set at 50 g by FDA for a 2000-kcal diet.
Fat content: fatty acid profile
Fat is among the major factors that influence the palatability
of fried foods. The replacement of water by the cooking oil and
the formation of the outer crust increase the palatability of fried
food, making it more acceptable for the consumer.
Oil absorption by the fried food is influenced by several physic-
ochemical factors as well as culinary practices; frying oil quality,
temperature, and duration of frying, initial food moisture and
food fat content, fried food shape, and crust physical properties
are among the key factors affecting oil absorption (Pinthus and
others 1995). Typically, the oil content of common fried foods is
in the range of 13% to 35% (Saguy and Dana 2003).
When pan-frying small and relatively lean Mediterranean fish in
VOO, inverse relationships between the oil absorbed by the food
and the initial fish length, weight, and fat content were observed
(Kalogeropoulos and others 2004, 2006b, 2012). The oil absorbed
by the fried Mediterranean fish ranged from 13.5% in bogue
(Boops boops) to 43.6% in sand smelt (Atherina boyeri; Kalogeropou-
los and others 2007a). The respective values for oil absorbed by
pan-fried vegetables ranged from 5.6% to 5.7% in green peppers
and zucchinis to 42.3% in eggplants. Covering of eggplants with
flour or batter resulted in lower oil absorption, namely 34.3% and
23.9%, respectively (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006a).
In the case of frying lean foods like vegetables in olive oil,
the absorbed oil modifies the fat composition of fried food, to
resemble that of olive oil. For example, pan frying of potato, green
pepper, zucchini, and eggplant in olive oil –a traditional Greek
cuisine practice- resulted in fried products containing 50 to 360
times more fat than in the fresh vegetables, with fatty acid profiles
identical to that of the VOO used for frying (Kalogeropoulos and
others 2004, 2006a).

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists®
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
In the case of frying fatty foods, like fatty fish or fatty meat,
the process is more complex. In this case, fat passes from the food
to the frying oil and vice versa, and the changes in the quantity
and quality of fat in the final product are not extensive.
Lean fish or lean meat frying represents a situation intermedi-
ate to those described in the last 2 paragraphs: when relatively
lean Mediterranean fish were pan-fried in VOO, their fat con-
tent increased from 5 to 15 times (Kalogeropoulos and others
2006b), and their fatty acid profiles were modified significantly,
the more prominent change being the 2 to 5.8 times increment
of MUFA, expressed as percent of total fatty acids, which became
predominant in all fried species, in agreement with previous stud-
ies on relatively lean fish (Mai and others 1978; Sánchez-Muniz
and others 1992). In concomitance, SFA were decreased by 1.5 to
2.1 times, but n-3 PUFA still represented the 5% to 16% of total
fatty acids. The contribution of the oil migration to fish lipids was
15% to 25% in the case of sea bass and sea bream pan-fried in
VOO or sunflower oil (Nieva-Echevarrı́a and others 2016).
Similar changes are observed when frying meat or poultry in
olive oil: fried food with increased MUFA and lower SFA is ob-
tained. Towards this end, frying in VOO is considered benefi-
cial as it provides the potential of improving the quality of fat
intake. In the case of fried seafood, olive oil nutritive value is
combined with that of the n-3 fatty acids. Kalogeropoulos and
others (2004, 2006b) reported that in pan-fried fish and shell-
fish, the n-3 PUFA—although being lower than in the fresh
samples—represented the 6% to 15% of fatty acids, keeping the
n-6/n-3 ratios lower than 1.5 in all cases. In anchovies pan-fried
in olive oil, the n-3 PUFA was found in the range of 3.8% to
4.9% whereas the n-6/n-3 ratios were about 1.4 (Zotos and others
2013). Kalogeropoulos and others (2004) calculated that the in-
take of n-3 PUFA by consuming 100 g of seafood fried in VOO
is expected to range between 0.74 g (in fried striped mullet) and
2.7 g (fried squid). These amounts are 2.5 to 9.0 times higher than
the recommended daily intake of long chain n-3 PUFA set to
300 mg/d by the American Heart Association (Krauss and others
2000), confirming the importance of fried seafood as a significant
dietary source of n-3 PUFA. It must be mentioned here that the
small lean Mediterranean fish are very popular, being among the
most commercialized species in Greece and other Mediterranean
countries, and they are mostly consumed pan-fried. Zotos and
others (2013) also confirmed the superiority of olive oil as a better
medium to fry fish products, with regard to EPA+DHA content
and the n-3/n-6 ratios in fried anchovies. Naseri and others (2013)
reported that deep-frying of silver carp in olive and seed oils de-
creased the n-3/n-6 ratio; however, olive oil exerted the lowest
reduction.
Fish phospholipids may be considered as more efficient car-
riers compared to triacylglycerols, with respect to n-3 PUFA
distribution in several tissues (Burri and others 2012). An in-
crease on fried fish lipid phosphatidylcholine has been observed
in the study of Nieva-Echevarrı́a and others (2016) after pan-
frying of sea bass and sea bream in VOO and sunflower oil,
attributed however to higher extraction efficiency. Deep-frying
of sardines in EVOO, sunflower oil and HOSO caused sig-
nificant changes on fried fish phospholipid molecular species
composition (Pacetti and others 2015). Contrary to olive oil
and HOSO, sunflower oil caused an increase on phosphatidyl-
choline species containing saturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids
and a decrease of phosphatidylcholine species containing 2 polyun-
saturated fatty acids; a promotion of fish phospholipid oxida-
tion had been assumed to take place under frying in sunflower

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 639
oil. However, Zervou and others (2012) reported insignificant
changes on the individual phospholipid content of picarel (Spicara
smaris) pan-fried in EVOO and sunflower oil, or treated with-
out oil, attributed to phospholipid incorporation into cell mem-
brane structures; a decrease of EPA and DHA percentages as
well as n-3/n-6 ratio were observed as a result of frying oil
absorption.
Atherogenic and thrombogenic indices
The modification of fatty acids profile caused by the absorption
of olive oil modifies, in turn, the atherogenic and thrombogenic
potential of pan-fried fish and vegetables keeping them low, as it
was shown by calculating the respective atherogenic index (AI)
and thrombogenic index (TI; Ulbricht and Southgate 1991).
In the case of pan-fried Mediterranean fish, the AI ranged
between 0.27 and 0.66 for the raw and 0.13 and 0.19 for the
pan-fried fish, presenting a 3-fold decrease. The TI of the raw
and pan-fried samples ranged between 0.05 and 0.23 or 0.04 and
0.31, remaining constant at rather low values (Kalogeropoulos
and others 2006b). The absorbed VOO with AI and TI values
equal to 0.13 and 0.23 was considered as a major determinant
of the low index values. These findings are in line with previous
reports on fried fish and shellfish (Sánchez-Muniz and others
1992; Kalogeropoulos and others 2004).
In the case of pan-fried vegetables, the AI ranged between 0.25
and 0.30 for the raw and 0.11 and 0.13 for the pan-fried samples,
that is, a 2-fold decrease. The TI of the raw and pan-fried samples
ranged between 0.24 and 0.44 or 0.22 and 0.25, respectively, show-
ing a less-pronounced decrease. Once again, the VOO used for
frying is considered as the main contributor to the low index values
observed in fried vegetables (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006a).
Energy
Frying results in cooked food with significantly higher energy
content due to the combined effect of water loss and oil absorp-
tion. The extent of these changes is related to the (i) kind of cooked
food, (ii) fat content of food, (iii) cover of food with flour or bat-
ter, and (iv) frying temperature. The energy content of vegetables
pan-fried in VOO increased by 3.2 to 17.7 times, with the higher
values measured in floured and battered zucchinis and eggplants
(Kalogeropoulos and others 2006a). The increase in energy con-
tent of small Mediterranean fish pan-fried in VOO was more
uniform, ranging between 3.2 and 5.2 times (Kalogeropoulos
and others 2006b). It was calculated that the consumption of one
serving (135 g) of the pan-fried fish should provide the 17% to
28% of daily energy intake (for a 2000-kcal diet). The respective
energy coverage from the consumption of one serving (145 g)
of pan-fried vegetables was calculated as 3.7% to 22.3% with the
higher values corresponding to floured and battered zucchinis and
eggplants. Although both the pan-fried vegetables and fish provide
significant amounts of energy, in Greek cuisine they are tradition-
ally served together with fresh salads or boiled greens, plates of low
fat content. Therefore, a typical meal containing fried vegetables
or fish is not expected to supply excess fat and energy.
Minor Constituents
An overview of the available studies dealing with the effect of
frying in olive oil on food minor components is given in Table 3.
As depicted in this Table, vegetables as well as fish and meat prod-
ucts have been evaluated after deep- and/or pan-frying in olive
oil; phenolic compounds are the most studied components, espe-
cially in the case of vegetables, followed by tocopherols and sterols.
 Table 3–Summary of literature data evaluating microconstituents in foods fried in olive oil and/or other frying oils and fats.

Phenolics
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .

Food type Oil type Frying technique Total Individual AC Sterols Squalene Vitamin C Vitamin E Carotenoids Minerals Reference
Vegetables
Onion, green pepper, OO, SFO Pan (and griddling) – • • – – – – – – Juániz and others 2016
cardoon
Potato, tomato, EVOO Deep • • • – – – – – – Ramı́rez-Anaya and others 2015
eggplant, pumpkin
Potato EVOO, SO Deep – – – – – – • – – Akil and others 2015
Bread OO, SO Pan – – – – – – • – – Fišnar and others 2015
Potato Enriched OO and SO Deep – • – – – – – – – Chiou and others 2013
Pepper VOO Pan • • • – – – – • – Loizzo and others 2013
Potato EVOO, OO, SO, Deep, Pan – • – • (ph) • – • • – Chiou and others 2012; 2009
enriched oils
Potato VOO, SO Deep, Pan – – – • (ph) – – – – – Igoumenidis and others 2011
Potato Enriched OO and SO Pan • • • • (ph) • – • – – Chiou and others 2007
Potato VOO, SO Deep, Pan – – – • (ph) – – – – – Salta and others 2008

640 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017
Potato
Potato, green pepper,
zucchini, eggplant
Broccoli
Tomato
Fish and meat
Finfish and shellfish
Fish: anchovy
Fish: sea bream
(Sparus aurata)
Meat, poultry, potato
Fish: rainbow trout
Mediterranean fish
Pork, beef and salmon
Enriched OO and SO Pan • • – – – – – – – Chiou and others 2007
VOO Pan – •, + – – – – • – – Kalogeropoulos and others 2007
VOO, SO Stir – • – – – • – – • Moreno and others 2007
OO nr • – • – – • – • (lycopene) – Sahlin and others 2004
– – – – – – – – – – • Kalogeropoulos and others 2012
OO, SFO Deep (and oven) – • (ch) • – – – – – – Zotos and others 2013
OO, SO Pan – – – – – – – – • Mnari and others 2012
EVOO, SO Pan • – • – – – – – – Szydłowska-Czerniak and others 2012
OO, SO, margarine, Pan – – – • (ch) – – – – – Bilgin and others 2010
butter
VOO Pan – •, + – – – – • – – Kalogeropoulos and others 2007
VOO, SO Pan – – – – – – • • (salmon) – Elmadfa and others 2006


Fish and molluscs VOO Pan – – – • (ch) • – – – – Kalogeropoulos and others 2004
OO, olive oil; SFO, sunflower oil; VOO, virgin olive oil; EVOO, extra virgin olive oil; SO, seed oils; AC, antioxidant capacity; (ph), phytosterols; (ch), cholesterol; Vit. C, ascorbic acid; Vit. E., tocopherols; +, terpenic acids were evaluated as well.

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists®

Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .

A detailed evaluation on the several food microconstituents after potatoes to 6.28 mg/100 g in battered zucchinis (Kalogeropoulos
frying in olive oil is given in the next paragraphs. and others 2007b). Raw Mediterranean fish did not contain any
detectable amounts of terpenic acids. After pan-frying in VOO,
Phenolic compounds the fried fish contained terpenic acids in amounts proportional
During frying in VOO, the condensation caused by water loss, to VOO absorbed during frying, the sums of their concentrations
together with oil absorption is expected to increase the phenolic ranging from 2.9 to 12.6 mg/100 g fw in hake and sand smelt,
concentrations in fried food. On the other hand, the loss of phe- respectively (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a).
nolic compounds due to oxidation is expected to have the opposite
result (Andrikopoulos and others 2002a; Gómez-Alonso and oth- Antioxidants and antioxidant potential
ers 2003). When VOO is used as frying oil, the net result of the Jiménez-Monreal and others (2009) compared the domestic
aforementioned changes seems to be an increment of the pheno- cooking practices according to their influence on the antioxidant
lic concentrations both in vegetables and in small Mediterranean activity of vegetables and ranked frying in an intermediate po-
finfish (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a,b; Ramı́rez-Anaya and sition between the less detrimental techniques like griddling and
others 2015). Such increases may be considered as the result of sev- microwave-cooking and the more destructive pressure-cooking
eral mechanisms (Ramı́rez-Anaya and others 2015). Besides water and boiling. Juániz and others (2016) also verified griddling as
loss and oil-originating phenolic absorption by the fried food, the less detrimental over frying.
concurrent lack of diffusion of food phenolics to the oil, due to
their hydrophilicity (Fillion and Henry 1998), is to be taken into Cholesterol and phytosterols
account. On the other hand, breakage or softening of cell walls Frying of fish and shellfish results in food cholesterol increase
and subcellular compartments, and disruption of physicochemical on a fresh weight basis (Mai and others 1978b; Ewaida 1993;
and chemical interactions among phenolic compounds and com- Echarte and others 2001; Kalogeropoulos and others, 2004,
ponents of the food matrix (Gökmen and others 2009; Martı́nez- 2006). Noteworthy, a net decrease of cholesterol occurs in fried
Hernández and others 2013), may also occur as a result of cooking. fish and shellfish when data are treated on a dry weight basis (Mai
In the case of small Mediterranean fish, which initially did and others 1978; Echarte and others 2001; Kalogeropoulos and
not contain detectable amounts of phenolics, pan-frying in VOO others 2004). A migration of sterols from fish to oil and vice versa
caused a significant uptake of simple phenolics which ranged has been shown to occur after pan-frying of sea bass (Dicentrarchus
from 0.72 to 2.14 mg/100 g fresh weight (fw) in fried hake and labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) in VOO and sunflower oil
fried sand smelt, respectively. Among the phenolic compounds (Nieva-Echevarrı́a and others 2016). In small Mediterranean fish
detected tyrosol predominated, both in the frying oil and in pan-fried in VOO, the cholesterol decrease—on a dry weight
the pan-fried fish, followed by hydroxytyrosol (Kalogeropoulos basis—ranged from 18% in scad (Trachurus trachurus) to 50% in
and others 2007a). Pan-frying of potato, zucchini, and green sand smelt (A. boyeri; Kalogeropoulos and others 2006b). This
pepper in VOO resulted in a 2 to 7.5 times increase of simple decrease has been attributed to the “dilution” effect of the
phenolics; however, in fried eggplants, a decrement of simple absorbed frying oil and/or to leaching of cholesterol to the frying
phenolics’ content was observed attributed to the decrease in oil (Dobarganes and others 2000). The latter was observed by
chlorogenic acid content that predominated in raw eggplants—at Kalogeropoulos and others (2006b), who calculated that 6% to
36 mg/100 g fw (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a). Simple 13% of the cholesterol initially present in fish migrated to the
phenolic concentrations ranged from 0.53 to 33.5 mg /100 g in frying oil. Cholesterol oxidation, which probably takes place
fried potatoes and eggplants, respectively. In line with the former during frying, could be also partly responsible for the observed
study, Ramı́rez-Anaya and others (2015) found oil-originating cholesterol decrease, although it is expected to be rather low
phenolics in vegetables (potato, tomato, eggplant, and pumpkin) when pan-frying in olive oil (Echarte and others 2001).
deep-fried in EVOO. Juániz and others (2016) studied the impact The cholesterol content of pan-fried seafood ranged from
of pan-frying in olive oil or sunflower oil on the phenolic 44 mg/100 g in sardine (Sardina pilchardus) to 100 mg/100 g in
composition of onion, green pepper, and cardoon. Compared to sand smelt (A. boyeri; Kalogeropoulos and others 2006b), and from
raw vegetables, a net increment of processed food phenolic species 32.9 mg/100 g in bogue (B. boops) to 129.8 mg/100 g in fried
was observed. Given that this increase was observed on a dry squid (Loligo vulgaris; Kalogeropoulos and others 2004). The con-
weight basis, a thermal destruction of cell walls and subcellular sumption of one serving (130 g) of pan-fried seafood is expected
compartments had been assumed, favoring the release of phyto- to provide the 19% to 73% of the recommended daily cholesterol
chemicals. Frying in olive oil resulted in onions containing higher intake (230 mg) set by USDA for a 2000-kcal diet (USDA, Dietary
quercetin and isorhamnetin derivative contents as compared to Guidelines for Americans 2005).
frying in sunflower oil; an opposite behavior was observed in Foods fried in olive oil contain also plant sterols, mainly
the case of pepper and cardoon. As quercetin and isorhamnetin β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, and 5 -avenasterol. Salta
are not among the major olive phenolics, the phenolic species and others (2008) studied the distribution of phytosterols between
evaluated in the study were obviously food-oriented. frying oils and potatoes, and their retention during 8 successive
pan- and deep-domestic-frying of potatoes in 5 vegetable oils.
Terpenic acids In all cases, potatoes were enriched with phytosterols originating
As already mentioned, olive oil contains certain amounts of from frying oils. Successive fryings caused phytosterol losses, the
HPTAs such as oleanolic acid, maslinic acid, ursolic acid, and extent of which was affected by (a) frying time; (b) frying practice,
betulinic acid (Boskou and others 2006b). Pan-frying in VOO, with pan-frying resulting in a higher loss than deep-frying; and
containing 65.7 mg/100 g of oleanolic, ursolic, and maslinic acids, (c) the unsaturation of frying oils, with polyunsaturated cotton-
resulted in a significant enrichment of fried vegetables and finfish seed oil, sunflower oil, and vegetable shortening causing more
in the terpenic acids. Pan-fried vegetables were found to contain extended phytosterol deterioration than the monounsaturated
the terpenic acids at concentrations ranging from 2.1 mg/100 g in oils VOO and palm oil. It was estimated that the consumption


C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 641
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .

of a serving (200 g) of potatoes pan- or deep-fried in fresh VOO Bognár (1998) compared vitamin C retention during cooking of
would provide the 14% of typical daily intake of phytosterols, potatoes under different conditions and reported less vitamin C
which is set at 250 mg (Law 2000). loss for deep-frying (5% to 35%), followed by boiling (30%) and
stewing (76%). Riboflavin losses during the boiling of potatoes,
Squalene vegetable, meat, and fish occur mainly because of leaching.
Squalene has been shown to be relatively constant under During frying of calf liver, a 42.5% loss has been observed, the
domestic frying conditions (Kalogeropoulos and Andrikopoulos respective loss for frying swine liver being 43.5% (Pokorný 1999).
2004), and when VOO is used for frying, it enriches the fried Niacin is considered relatively stable. However, approximately half
food. This was the case of small Mediterranean fish which were (45%) of niacin initial quantity has been found to be lost in frying
pan-fried in VOO and were found to contain 49.6 to 85.5 mg pork muscle, chicken, and beef meat, whereas niacin content in
squalene /100 g fw (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006b); these peanuts increased during frying (Pokorný 1999). Thiamin is an
values are 30 to 430 times higher than the respective squalene important B group vitamin; compared to other cooking methods
content (0.2 to 1.3 mg/100 g fw) of raw fish. frying has been shown to cause the least thiamin losses; boiling
The squalene provided by consuming one serving (130 g) of induced the highest loss of thiamin (70%), followed by steaming
these fried fish was calculated to be 65 to 111 mg, representing (40%), parching (35%), and frying (30%; Pokorný 1999). This can
200% to 370% of the 30 mg daily squalene intake in the United be attributed to the water-soluble nature of the vitamin (Kimura
States (Smith 2000) and 22% to 37% of the estimated 200 to and others 1990).
400 mg daily squalene intake in Mediterranean countries (Smith The fate of liposoluble vitamins during cooking is more com-
2000). Recently, Zotos and others (2013) observed a 20-fold plex. Given that all vegetable frying oils contain tocopherols, frying
increase of squalene in anchovies fried in olive oil, whereas when has been shown to induce fried food fortification with vitamin E
sunflower was used for frying, squalene increment was 1 order of as a result of oil uptake. Vegetables pan-fried in VOO contained
magnitude lower. 6 to 43 times more α-tocopherol than the respective uncooked
When potatoes and other vegetables were pan-fried in VOO, samples, originating from the absorbed olive oil (Kalogeropoulos
the enrichment with squalene was higher, its concentrations in and others 2007b). The α-tocopherol content of fried vegetables
fried products being 230 to 2440 times higher than the respective ranged between 1.2 mg/100 g in fried zucchini and 35.9 mg/100 g
in raw ones (Kalogeropoulos and others 2006a). Although raw in pan-fried eggplant. Akil and others (2015) also observed a signif-
vegetables contained very low amounts of squalene (0.02 to icant enrichment of potatoes with tocopherols when deep-fried in
0.04 mg/100 g fw), the pan-fried samples contained 6.8 mg/100 EVOO. When small Mediterranean fish were pan-fried in VOO,
g in fried zucchinis to 97.6 mg/100 g fw in fried eggplants, which their α-tocopherol content increased from 35 to more than 230
obviously originated from the VOO. This was confirmed by an times in relation to the raw fish, with values ranging from 1.93 to
almost linear relationship between the amount of oil absorbed by 2.97 mg/100 g (Kalogeropoulos and others 2007a). With respect
the fried food and the respective squalene content. The squalene to vitamin A higher retention has been found in boiled vegetables
provided by one serving of the fried vegetables is expected to (86%) as compared to fried ones (76%; Saguy and Dana 2003). This
cover 3% to 47% (average 23%) and 3% to 470% (average 230%) is in line with the findings of Sahlin and others (2004) with respect
of the daily squalene intake in the Mediterranean countries and to lycopene, who found higher retentions of tomato lycopene un-
in the United States, respectively (Smith 2000). der boiling and baking as compared to frying. An approximately
20% to 30% loss of food carotenoid content is to be expected as a
Vitamins result of frying (Speek and others 1988; Pokorný 1999). Carotenes
High temperature and oxidative environment prevailing during (and mainly β-carotene), exerting vitamin A activity, are natural
frying may affect the stability of several vitamins. Even so, under components of plant foods. During frying, losses of carotenes oc-
frying high temperatures are reached only in the surface layers of cur due to leaching into the frying oil, the losses being higher in
food, and it is in these areas that vitamin loss is expected to be the case of deep-frying, where the food is totally immersed in oil,
very high. In this context, frying may be considered as having than in pan-frying where food is only partially covered by oil.
considerable advantages over other cooking methods, given that
the temperature inside the product remains below 100 °C and Mineral components
total cooking time is rather short (Ruiz-Roso 1998). Moreover, An aspect of frying that is not often considered is the minor
water-soluble vitamins do not tend to leach towards the lipophilic decrease in mineral content. In French fries and fried fish,
frying oil. According to Pokorný (1999), it is the food internal negligible mineral losses have been found as compared with
temperature and not the temperature of the frying oil that governs boiling and baking (Fillion and Henry 1998).
overall vitamin retention. During frying, the weight of fried food decreases due to water
The water-soluble vitamins B1, B2, B6, and C are considered to loss, and as mineral components are nonvolatile, their contents,
be better retained under frying as compared to boiling, steaming, on wet weight, would be expected to rise. On the other hand,
and stewing (Boskou 2003), given their hydrophilic nature which the concomitant uptake of frying oil, which is low in metal
prevents them from leaching towards the frying oil. This trend has content, results in an increase of food weight; consequently,
been reported in Nestlé Professional Nutrition Magazine (Nutri mineral content, on wet weight basis would be expected to
Pro), where the loss of vitamins C, B1, B2, and B6 caused by decrease. In addition, VOO polyphenols can bind to metal ions
different cooking methods ranged as follows: boiling 35% to 60%, present in food, eventually affecting metal distribution between
steaming 10% to 25%, pressure cooking 5% to 10%, microwave oil and food. The net result on mineral concentrations depends
cooking 5% to 25%, roasting 10% to 47%, stewing/braising 10% on the relative extent of these processes. Significantly lower losses
to 12%, grilling 10% to 12%, baking 10% to 12%, frying 7% to in mineral content are expected under frying as compared with
10%. During pan-frying of potatoes, vitamin C retention has been boiling. In deep-fried foods, mineral losses vary from 1% in
reported in the range of 82% to 96% (Fillion and Henry 1998). potatoes to 26% in beef. Coating of meat and fish with bread

642 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 16, 2017 
C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists®
Virgin olive oil as frying oil . . .
under deep-frying conditions further retains food mineral content
(Bognár 1998). Contradictory results are found in the literature
with respect to the relationship between mineral content of
untreated and cooked fish and shellfish. Lower Zn and increased
Cu concentrations have been found in rainbow trout as a result of
frying (Gokoglu and others 2004). Increased As, Cd, Hg, and Pb
concentrations have been found after cooking of sardine, hake,
and tuna (Perelló and others 2008); arsenic content also increased
after frying of sea bass (Ersoy and others 2006). Gall and others
(1983) did not observe significant changes in Zn, Cu, and Fe
after cooking of fish fillets. However, higher concentrations of
Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn have been found in finfish
and shellfish species after pan-frying (Kalogeropoulos and others
2012); although the increments as compared to raw samples were
in most cases statistically significant, values still remained at very
low levels to pose any risk to the consumer. Possible explanation
of the inconsistent results obtained from the literature could be
the size of cooked fish, the part of fish used for frying, and possible
pretreatments—seasoning, marinating—undertaken. Given that
fish size is inversely related to oil uptake and water loss during
frying, it is obvious that frying of relatively small pieces or species
will result in higher water loss, leading to an inverse in metal
contents in the fried products. When frying small Mediterranean
fish and shellfish in VOO, Kalogeropoulos and others (2012)
noticed that Cr, Fe, Pb, and Zn conformed to this trend, whereas
the range of increment of Cu, Cd, Hg, and Ni concentrations
was less predictable. Small Mediterranean fish are typically fried
unskinned and unfilleted, and the possible leaching of minerals in
the frying oil is minimized. On the contrary, frying skinned fish
fillets favors minerals leaching into the cooking oil, ameliorating
the increment of their concentrations in the final product. The
same trend is expected when frying marinated or seasoned fish
fillets. After frying, skinned fish fillets of 4 Atlantic fish species
in soybean oil, Gall and others (1983) did not observe significant
changes in Zn, Cu, and Fe, whereas Mieiro and others (2016)
reported decreased Hg concentrations after frying marine fish in
vegetable oil, the decrease being more extended after applying
seasoning with salt, lemon, or salt and lemon before frying.
Final Considerations
Scientific evidence provided so far suggests that frying in olive
oil may not have a significant adverse effect on the nutritional
value of food, excluding oil content, and energy.
With respect to the performance under frying conditions,
one can conclude that, in comparison with other vegetable oils,
VOO has good thermal resistance. This is mainly the result of
its fatty acid composition and the presence of a variety of natural
antioxidants which offer a balanced protection under thermal
stress, thereby making olive oil a preferable choice for frying,
especially under domestic conditions. This explains the improved
stability of VOO when compared with other vegetable oils with
equivalent oleic acid amounts, like high-oleic sunflower oil.
When processed under normal cooking conditions, with
temperatures up to 180 to 190 °C, as is common in frying, olive
oil performance is comparable or better than other vegetable oils.
According to the most recent legislation, oil degradation is usually
evaluated by the TPM or triacylglycerol oligomer fractions. In
comparison with other vegetable oils, olive oil exhibits a lower
formation rate of such compounds. However, as VOO phenolic
compounds and tocopherols are gradually lost, when olive oil is
selected as a frying oil for its potential health attributes, then it
should be used in frying for only a limited period of time.

C 2017 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 16, 2017 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 643
On a large-scale restaurant and catering basis, a potential
drawback for olive oil usage could be the higher cost; in this
context, Santos and others (2013) consider it more cost-effective
to use lower olive oil grades for frying, and to apply frequent
replenishment for prolonged frying.
Frying in olive oil provides the potential for improving the
quality of fat intake, given that its incorporation into the fried
food leads to a more favorable fatty acid profile that is high
in MUFAs, and low in SFAs. Such a profile is beneficial for
preventing cardiovascular diseases as indicated by the lowering
of atherogenic and thrombogenic indices in fish and vegetables
pan-fried in VOO. In addition, when VOO is used for frying,
several health promoting microconstituents like phenolics,
tocopherols, phytosterols, squalene, and terpenic acids, enrich the
fried food and become part of our diet.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Authors’ Contributions
A.C. and N.K. equally contributed to preparing the manuscript
and discussing the data.
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