Journal of Management Development

Exploring Local Competences Salient for Expanding Small Businesses

Robin Snell Agnes Lau
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Robin Snell Agnes Lau, (1994),"Exploring Local Competences Salient for Expanding Small Businesses", Journal of
Management Development, Vol. 13 Iss 4 pp. 4 - 15
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Siwan Mitchelmore, Jennifer Rowley, (2010),"Entrepreneurial competencies: a literature review and development
agenda", International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, Vol. 16 Iss 2 pp. 92-111 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/13552551011026995
John E. Thompson, Roger Stuart, Philip R. Lindsay, (1996),"The competence of top team members: A
framework for successful performance", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 11 Iss 3 pp. 48-66 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683949610113593
John E. Thompson, Roger Stuart, Philip R. Lindsay, (1997),"The competence of top team members: A framework
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 Journal of
Management Exploring Local Competences
Development
13,4
Salient for Expanding Small
Businesses
4
Robin Snell and Agnes Lau
Received November 1993 Department of Business & Management, City Polytechnic of Hong Kong
Revised February 1994
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This article reports our research into the management competences important for
owners or senior managers of small businesses in expanding their organizations.
Our focus was on Chinese owned and managed enterprises in Hong Kong.
Besides sharing the key substantive findings, and illustrating them with case
material, we also make the point that our research methodology was qualitative
and inductive in order to be sensitive to local needs and perspectives. The
practical advantage of such research is that it can avoid the dangers of imposing
inappropriate “solutions” borrowed from larger organizations in the West.
Our sponsor, the Management Development Centre of Hong Kong (MDCHK)
was concerned to contribute to the growth of the economy by providing small
business owners and managers with the competences required for growth. In
Hong Kong, small business makes up an unusually large portion of the economy.
Redding[1, p. 146], for example, cites figures from 1983 showing that 98.45 per
cent of manufacturing establishments employed less than 200 people and
contributed 63 per cent of value added. The continuing growth of the Hong Kong
economy may therefore substantially depend on the growth of the smaller
businesses within it. MDCHK wanted to discover the competences that were
important for the expansion of small enterprises. While we were not devotees of
the competence movement, we accepted the idea of competences as a guiding
paradigm, because MDCHK made a point of being sensitive to local factors and
the special needs of small businesses.
The research focused on what differentiated between growth and non-growth
in 21 Chinese-run organizations of less than about 500 staff. Two company cases
may serve to introduce our concerns regarding the competences salient for
company expansion. The first company has 250 employees, the second has
around 50; both are growing substantially.

Journal of Management
Development, Vol. 13 No. 4, 1994,
pp. 4-15. © MCB University Press,
0262-1711
Many thanks to Charles Foley at the Management Development Centre for the initial concept of
the research and for his sponsorship, on behalf of the MDC, of this project, whose views do not
necessarily coincide with this article. Our thanks also to all those who volunteered to be
interviewed. Special mention should be made here of the work of Michelle Chow and Madeline
Yan, Research Assistants at the Management Development Centre of Hong Kong. The project,
being largely qualitative in orientation, drew on a great deal of interpretative effort on their part.
Their contribution to the project, through scheduling and conducting interviews with the
majority of respondents and helping to assess the companies’ competence profiles, has been
substantial.
 Case One: Elixir Expanding
This manufacturing company was bought by the existing owner in 1962. It had Small
30 employees and had been kept at that size with very little growth for many Businesses
years. In 1972, the company set up a factory in Taiwan, and its employee size had
increased to about 80 in 1980. Real expansion began in 1984, when sales increased
sharply and the company had to extend its production floors and lines to meet
demands. In 1988, products were sold into China, in addition to the Chinese 5
communities in Europe, US and Australia. Sales continued to boom in China, and
in 1992, the company launched its product to Western customers in the Western
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markets. In 1993, production capacity had increased by almost 60 times

compared to 1962, and sales increased by 20 times since 1980. Currently, the
company has 250 employees and an organization of production, finance,
administration and sales and marketing departments. The sales and marketing
department did not exist in the 1970s and 1980s.

Analytical and Active Marketing Approaches

The company has centralized marketing strategies and all advertising plans are
centrally controlled by the Hong Kong head office. However,as marketing
operations are decentralized and in different markets, the company trusts in local
expertise around the world for its promotion. A Canadian-born Chinese was hired
as the sole agent in Canada. Several sole agents were commissioned as
distributors in different countries such as Thailand, Singapore, and different
geographic areas in the States, e.g. New York, San Francisco and the Mid-west.
To ensure the marketing strategies work, half-yearly regular meetings are held
at which the top management from Hong Kong meets with the advertising
agencies of the different markets.
The company’s expansion coincided with a change of marketing strategies
from a “traditional” to a “modernized” approach in 1980, as initiated by the
assistant general manager. Under the new direction, the packaging became more
modern, and greater effort was put into promotion and advertising activities. The
current annual advertising budget is close to HK$ 30 million.

Global Outlook and Strategies

Elixir is already successful in the worldwide Chinese markets. The company is
intent on tackling the world market (going beyond the traditional Chinese
market), and has identified a number of steps for expansion. Its major business
objective in the coming years is the launching of its products with slightly
different packaging and taste to suit Westerners in their foreign markets, namely
Canada, Australia and Italy. The US Westerner’s market will follow Canada if it is
successful.
While the company is heading for a global expansion, it is aware of and
sensitive to political uncertainties. Elixir is wary of setting up factories in China –
contrary to the views of other Hong Kong manufacturers. Setting up a factory in
the US would be too costly and restrictive for this particular product. The
 Journal of company is now setting up a factory in Singapore – which will be completed by
Management 1995.
Development
Concern for a Quality Product
13,4 Quality is most important and high standards must be maintained. The
promotion and advertising messages always reinforce this image. In 1990, the
6 company received the Q-mark award from the Industry Department and
Federation of Hong Kong Industries. This was the first Chinese product of its kind
which received such an award. For quality control, the company installed
equipment which cost nearly HK$ 500,000, and such an investment was
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considered to be a breakthrough in the industry. Recently, the company has

employed a professor from Beijing University to head its quality control unit. The
company set up a research and development department and has commissioned
some research institutes to carry out product development in Taiwan, since this
kind of product is more developed there than in Hong Kong. It is the company’s
plan that new products be developed and manufactured in the new factory in
Singapore.

Approach to Human Resources and Staff Relationships

Good working relationships began at top management level. In 1988, the owner
(the general manager) invited the assistant general manager to join the board of
directors and entrusted him to run the business. This incident demonstrated to
others that the owner appreciated loyalty, and that opportunities are given to
those with dedication to the company. Very little formal documentation is
required between the owner and the assistant general manager, and reporting is
based on frequent informal communication and trust.
The company’s high respect for, and desire to seek out and capitalize on
people’s expertise and practical experience is also reflected in its global
management strategies. Examples are the local management of the Taiwan
factory and the Singapore factory of the future. The senior management in Hong
Kong will only play a role in the overall monitoring of the factories’ performance.
At the workers’ level, there were several incidents which showed a good
working relationship with staff. One was the installation of electric fans and air-
conditioning in the boiling room, and another one was the agreement on better
pay and better benefits. Both situations were managed by the assistant general
manager. These two incidents had helped the company by reducing the workers’
turnover rate and increasing the workers’ willingness to work overtime, as it had
been difficult to recruit workers, especially during the past two years.
In recruiting, the maintenance of a good working relationship is one of the
criteria. The assistant general manager believes that if a member of staff cannot
get along with others, that person would be difficult in being managed. He also
gave the foremen coaching in supervisory skills and encouraged communication
between the workers and the top management. In return, the company has a very
stable workforce and many long-service staff.
 Case Two: Midland Technology Expanding
The owner started this tutorial service organization in 1980 with one full-time and Small
four part-time tutors. He was still a secondary school teacher at that time and Businesses
managed his business after school. In 1987, the business diversified when he quit
his job and opened a small computer company. The computer business in Hong
Kong turned out to be too competitive, so that company was moved to China and
looked after by his three partners. The owner only occasionally supplied technical 7
and financial support.
The company had very slow growth from 1980 to 1990. In the early 1980s, the
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market demand was not great. In the mid 1980s, the demand increased. In 1990,
the owner redefined his career interests and decided to expand the tutorial
business. During that time, the company was registered as a holding company for
all the businesses.
The real growth of the company took place in 1991 when the owner decided to
expand strategically. Parents were willing to spend more to get a tutorial service
and competition in the tutorial business increased. At present, there are seven
tutorial centres of different names at different locations, with 15 full-time and 30
part-time staff.

Vision, Mission and Strategy-making

A board of directors was formed to run the company as a corporate entity, to
make major decisions and engage in strategic planning. Experienced people, with
different backgrounds, joined on a part-time basis. The company mission is to
serve the community and look for long-term business.
It is anticipated that there will be ten centres in the coming two years, with the
immediate goal of generating stable revenue. The vision is of a corporation with
economies of scale. With a bigger chain of tutorial centres, profits and losses can
be shared and the financial risk is reduced. The five-year expansion plan is to
build a reputable consortium, with the establishment of 60 centres of which 20
will be solely owned and 40 jointly owned. The dream of the owner (who believes
the service has to be district-oriented in order to be effective) is to set up
subsidiaries in every district. Since competition in the tutorial business is keen,
the company looks for opportunities for joint ventures with those who are
enthusiastic in this field.

Restructuring and Other Changes

To cope with the competition, the company was restructured. Management teams
and systems were established. At the board of directors’ level, four functions are
clearly defined and carried out. They are:
(1) Quality control: teaching technology.
(2) Financial control: accounting.
(3) Market intelligence.
(4) New centre sourcing.
 Journal of The company is aware that one of its remaining weaknesses is in marketing
Management because the expertise of the directors and staff is in the area of education. This
step is seen as vital for the company’s future expansion plan.
Development Over the years, the company has undergone a number of significant and
13,4 substantial changes. A strategy change led the company from an entrepreneurial
to a corporate business approach. A management change encouraged tutors to
8 take up supervisory and customer-related responsibilities. A structural change
departmentalized the operation and introduced regulations and procedures. A
course fee change pushed the company to activate its marketing strategies. A
market change stimulated the company to expand and co-operate with other
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institutes for greater marketing power.

A Learning Culture
The supervisors and tutors receive different types of training. Supervisors are
trained in management skills, specifically in communication and giving feedback.
The tutors are trained in teaching skills and customer relations skills, including
how to handle complaints. In a regular meeting, three-quarters of the time is used
to discuss and share work problems. The company’s approach to recruitment is to
look for people who have a strong sense of responsibility, patience with children
and a willingness to follow the company’s system. A good attitude in customer
relations is as important as good teaching skills.

Closeness to Customers
To ensure long-term customer relationships, it is important to convince parents of
the suitability of their choice of tutorial service, and to keep the students happy at
the tutorial centres. The supervisors of the tutorial centres have responsibilities to
talk to parents regularly, especially when there is a student drop-out. The
company takes drop-outs seriously and aims to uncover problems and raise
opportunities for improvement.
Since the tutorial business relies on word-of-mouth, having close
communication with the parents is important. The company regularly publishes
newsletters to inform the parents about the company’s moves, future direction,
key issues raised by the tutors and educational ideas and principles.

Anticipating Problems
New legislation which will lead to full-day instead of half-day study for primary
schools will give less time for tutorial business. In addition, there is the possibility
of compulsory registration of the tutorial centres. Under this new legislation,
tighter building and fire safety regulations would be applied. Some of the existing
venues which do not meet the requirements would have to move. This makes the
sourcing of new venues more difficult. In this case, the company seems to be fully
aware of the approaching problems.

A Matter of Competences
These two companies were among six which stood out as being successful in
terms of expansion, compared with 15 others which were not growing. Our
 concern was to identify the competences at the most senior levels which made the Expanding
difference between growing companies such as the ones above and those which Small
were not growing. In adopting the competence paradigm, we were conscious of
making four explicit assumptions, recast and adapted from Albanese’s[2] initial
Businesses
three:
(1) In the modern business environment, the performance of managerial staff
is a major factor in the growth of organizations. 9
(2) Business expansion depends on individuals’ ability to engage in particular
kinds of managerial reasoning and action.
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(3) These required abilities can be broken down for analytical purposes into
component parts or “competences”, which can be clearly distinguished
and assessed.
(4) The relevance and effectiveness of management education and training
which focuses on these managerial competences will be enhanced.
We were careful to avoid a fifth assumption:
(5) A single set of universal competences can be drawn up to cover all
managerial jobs and contexts.
Albanese[2, p. 66] claims that no-one argues this fifth assumption, and it appears
to be avoided by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools[3]. Nonetheless,
the fifth assumption is implicit in competence-based educational proposals in the
UK (e.g. [4-6] and hence has been the source of outrage among the management
education and development community[7-9].
Rather than borrowing competence frameworks from other authors, we
deliberately began with no formal definitions, lists or hypotheses concerning
competences. By the end of our research, we had arrived at the following very
broad working definition of managerial competence:
a body of knowledge, area of skill/ability, personal qualities/characteristics, set of awarenesses,
attitudes or outlooks, or motivations/drives, that may, in their various ways, positively and
constructively contribute to effective business/managerial thought or action.

Managing a small business is bound up with the entrepreneur’s life plans, values
and personal idiosyncrasies, and this is reflected in the breadth of our definition.

Methodology
All 21 companies volunteered for the research, via MDCHK. They all met the
following criteria:
● Run by “innovators”, having started their own company, not simply
having inherited it.
● Chinese origins, upbringing, etc.
● Business at least three-years old.
● Independent, not a subsidiary or tied subcontractor.
● Between 20 and 600 employees in size.
 Journal of ● Respondents knowledgeable about or able to recollect the earlier stages of
Management the company.
Development ● Respondents, if senior managers but not the owners of the company, have
13,4 been with the company for at least three years, in order to be in a position
to substantiate their description of the company’s history with meaningful
historical illustrations.
10
This sample was broken down as follows:
(1) Company size:
● below 20 employees (5)
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● 20 – 50 employees (4)
● 50 – 100 employees (4)
● over 100 employees (8).
(2) Business nature:
● manufacturing (12)
● service (9, including 5 in retail or trading).
(3) Interviewees’ profile:
● owner (16)
● senior manager (5)
● male (19)
● females (3);
● primary education (3)
● secondary education (6)
● tertiary education (12)
● below age 30 (3)
● age 30 – 40 (12)
● age 40 – 50 (3)
● over 50 (3).
Data was collected, in Cantonese, through intensive, in-depth interviews, usually
one-to-one, of one hour to 90 minutes in duration, using structured open-ended
questions and critical incidents, covering points in the history of the company.

Data Analysis
Following a study of the interview transcripts (in English), a typology of
competences was developed. This typology was “grounded”, i.e. the competence
areas had come from the actual cases rather than being imposed on them through
an abstract theoretical model. Each company was then rated on each competence
area. Also, the sample companies were classified into five categories, once again
inductively developed, as follows:
(1) Under 30 by design. Two companies were small because this was an
explicit intention of the owners. In both cases it was envisaged that the
companies in question may, in the future, be incorporated into, rather than
grow into, a larger organization. Both were in services rather than
manufacturing.
 (2) Small (under 50) but growing. Three companies which figured among the Expanding
smallest in our sample nonetheless demonstrated significant recent Small
growth and had specific plans for further significant expansion. All were Businesses
in services rather than manufacturing.
(3) Under 100, at or near peak size. Eight companies, four in services, four in
manufacturing, had no explicit intention to remain small, but had less than
100 staff and were either stagnant or losing staff, or had been growing 11
very slowly and showed no sign of getting significantly bigger.
(4) Over 100, but further growth uncertain. Five companies, all in
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manufacturing, had achieved growth to at least 100 in size (in one case up
to 500), but had reached a stage where consolidation was required and
where there was great uncertainty about future growth. In all cases,
expansion had been achieved through setting up operations in China.
(5) Robust growth. Three companies, all in manufacturing, had attained a size
of at least 250 and were still growing.
Comparisons were then made between the competence profiles of different groups
of companies, with the aim of identifying the competences which made a
difference between the growing companies and the rest.

Claims and Limitations of the Research

Our research has considerable substantive, practical implications for small
business development in Hong Kong in that it can guide the objectives of
management development programmes explicitly designed for senior managers
who wish to develop their companies. Also, from a methodological point of view,
it is an example of how to identify competences that are special to a particular
locality. There are, of course, limitations, which are:
● The sample is small and heterogeneous, spread thinly over a miscellany of
manufacturing and service industries. It fails to distinguish the specific
demands of particular industries.
● In virtually all the cases we could interview only one person from each
company. The information and opinions received may not have adequately
represented all relevant perspectives.
● We succeeded in contacting very few “growing” companies. We may have
attracted some companies who wanted to talk to us precisely because of a
lack of competence and who wanted help with their problems.
● Just what it was that distinguished managers in expanding companies
entailed a high degree of inference. Managerial competence is largely
implicit, encoded into patterns of reasoning and action that cannot be
directly observed during a short interview visit. Judgements had to be
based on accounts by managers themselves of, “what made themselves
and their company tick” and our best guesses concerning the actual
practices that lay behind the espousals.
 Journal of ● In adopting the competences approach, and focusing on individuals, we
Management ignored the impact of teams[10], organizational structures, climates and
Development cultures, and wider socio-economic factors affecting performance.
13,4 Key Findings
Table I indicates the competence areas differentiating growing from non-
12 growing companies. Those items marked a identify important areas for all
growing companies. Items marked b identify areas that are important for
growing companies that are still small.
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Table II lists, in its fourth column, the competences that we found were
common in our sample regardless of expansion, and which may have
contributed in their various ways to survival rather than growth in Hong Kong.
Table II also compares our competence findings with Flamholtz’s[11] research
on the competences required to avoid “growing pains” in organizations.
These “fourth column” findings stand alongside, but are different from those
of Flamholtz. This contrast is in accordance with Flamholtz’s emphasis on
growth, rather than on competences salient for survival.
Table II also shows that there are strong parallels between our eight
competence areas for growth and Flamholtz’s six development areas. There are
some differences, however, which warrant comment.
First, in Hong Kong, strategic human resource development and promoting a
learning culture, the latter being an important aspect of corporate culture
management, were more important in small but growing companies than in
larger, robust growing companies. Flamholtz’s findings (regarding managing
corporate culture) were the other way round. Second, two Hong Kong
competences, global oriented outlook for business and analytical market
approach, remained important for all growing companies, suggesting the need
for constant, exhaustive appraisal and reappraisal of markets and
products/services, continuing well beyond the early stages of company growth.
Some comparison can also be made with Boyatsis’ [12] competence
framework developed for larger US companies. There are similarities in terms
of the entrepreneurial, intellectual and interpersonal demands identified.
There are two differences. First, our findings emphasize the importance, for
survival, of being in touch and doing business with the outside, whereas the
Boyatsis model focuses much more on internal management issues. Second,
our findings play down the importance of areas such as “socio-emotional
maturity”, self-confidence and oral communication.
There may be three main reasons for this. First, in the Chinese cultural
environment there may have been insufficient self-disclosure to assess such
areas. Second, the conformity implied by Boyatsis’ self-control may not be
salient in small business. Third, the need for Boyatsis’ stamina and adaptability
may have been taken for granted in Hong Kong’s unstable and stressful
working environment and, like water around the fish’s gaze, escaped explicit
recognition.
 Expanding
Areas Small
a Global-oriented outlook for the business:
Businesses
– Worldwide market perspective
– Global vision and attitude

a
13
Analytical market approach:
– Formalization of research for market information
– Clarity and centralization of marketing strategies
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– Decentralization of marketing operations to capitalize on expert knowledge

– Capitalizing on synergy in product/service
– Carefulness in protecting the company’s niche

a Readiness to seize relevant opportunities:

– Adapting to changes in circumstances
– Pragmatic attitude
– Flexibility in raising capital
– Capitalizing on good connections

a Systematic financial management:

– Centralized cost control
– Controlling overheads through part-timers, subcontracting, etc.
b Vivid vision/purpose/mission/dream for the company:
– Articulating a company philosophy
– Looking to long-term results
– Clear and specific but flexible future direction/goal
– Maintaining a stable and positive company image

b Ability to conceptualize/formulate company strategy:

– Planning and conceptualizing strategically for the company
– Clarity of strategies
– Awareness of past strategic mistakes

b Strategic approach to human resource development:

– Ongoing review of organization and staff structure
– Systematic approach to performance evaluation
– Clarifying job descriptions and responsibilities

b Promoting a learning culture:

– Willingness to train middle managers
– Encouraging learning via courses/on-the-job training, mentoring and coaching
– Readiness and willingness to learn from experience
– Willingness to absorb information at the top

a
Table I.
Important areas for all growing companies Competences Generally
b Important areas for growing (still small) companies Salient for Growing
Companies
 Journal of
Flamholtz’s stages of
Management business growth and Corresponding
Development associated development Hong Kong Additional Hong Kong
13,4 areas findings findings

Stage Managing the Promoting a Concern for quality

14 four corporate learning cultureb Trust at top management levels
culture Closeness to customers
Stage Developing Strategic human Entrusting middle managers
three management resource Careful approach to growth
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systems developmentb Active selling and marketing activities

Stage Developing Systematic Gaining staff commitment
two operational financial Maintaining good working relationships
systems management a with staff
Anticipating problems
Acquiring Readiness to seize In touch with developments in the
resources relevant industry
opportunitiesa Sensitivity to political dynamics
Knowledge and management of
technology
Stage Developing Vivid visionb Introducing organizational change
one products and Ability to Willingness to experiment/take risks
services conceptualize/
formulate Desire for continuous improvement
company
strategyb
Table II.
Comparison between Identifying Analytical Knowing relevant outside legislation/
Flamholtz’s Business and defining a market approach a regulations
Development market niche Global oriented
Framework and Hong outlook a
Kong Findings for a Competence generally salient for growing companies
Small Business b Competence most salient for small but growing companies
Competences

Concluding Observations
At a time when Hong Kong businesses are expanding across the border into
China, such that they now employ more people in China than they do in Hong
Kong itself, it is perhaps ironic that the two illustrative companies in the first half
of this article have not pursued this direction. They nonetheless illustrate
competences that are required for growth by companies in Hong Kong.
At Elixir, although concern for quality and good working relationships with
staff are strong points, the top management competences that, according to our
analysis, have enabled the company to sustain its growth are a global oriented
outlook, analytic market approach and ability to conceptualize and formulate
company strategy.
At Midland Technology, while the company is close to customers and has the
ability to anticipate future business problems, our research suggests that its
 growth is likely to be sustained because of other competences. These are the Expanding
management’s vivid vision, and its ability to promote a learning culture; Small
formulate overall strategy; adopt a strategic approach to human resource
development; manage finances systematically; seize relevant opportunities; and
Businesses
analyse the market.
Around half of the companies in our sample had at some time expanded into
China, but a majority of these companies were no longer growing, either because 15
of corresponding staff reductions in Hong Kong itself or because China staffing
levels had themselves reached a peak.
We believe that management development policies can be based on
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understanding the roots of other organizations’ successes. It is vital, however, to

look critically under the surface at the management competences which make
them special rather than seeking to emulate their most obvious managerial
practices or borrowing existing competence frameworks which may have been
designed for a totally different population of companies.

References
1. Redding, S.G., The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1990.
2. Albanese, R., “Competency-based Management Education”, Journal of Management
Development, Vol. 8 No. 2, 1989, pp. 66-76.
3. American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, Outcome Measurement Project, Phase
III Report, May 1987.
4. Manpower Services Commission, Management Competencies: A Classification, MSC
Management Development Policy Section, Sheffield, 21 March, 1988.
5. Reid, R.P., “Charter Flight”, Times Higher Education Supplement, 25 March, 1988.
6. McCormick, R., “One Small Step”, Times Higher Education Supplement, 25 March, 1988.
7. Association for Management Education and Development, “The Management Charter
Initiative: Practitioners Respond”, Survey of Members, 1988.
8. Association for Management Education and Development, “Survey Highlights Concern Over
Chartered Managers”, Press Release, July 27th, 1988.
9. Chambers, C., Letter to Mr R.P. Reid, on behalf of the Association for Management Education
and Development, April, 1988.
10. Belbin, R.M., Management Teams, Why They Succeed or Fail, Heinemann, London, 1981.
11. Flamholtz, E., Growing Pains: How to Make the Transition From an Entrepreneurship to a
Professionally Managed Firm, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1990.
12. Boyatsis, R.E., The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance, Wiley, New
York, NY, 1982.

Further Reading
Snell, R.S. and Lau, A., “Competencies for Growing Small Business Organizations into Larger Ones:
A Study of Hong Kong Enterprises”, report for the Management Development Centre of Hong
Kong, 1993.
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