Bēowulf 

[ˈbeːo̯ .wuɫf]) is an Old English epic poem consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. It is one of the
most important works of Old English literature. The date of composition is a matter of contention
among scholars; the only certain dating pertains to the manuscript, which was produced between 975
and 1025.[3] The anonymous poet is referred to by scholars as the "Beowulf poet".[4]

The story is set in Scandinavia in the 6th century. Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of
Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall in Heorot has been under attack by a monster known
as Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated.
Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland (Götaland in modern Sweden) and becomes king of the
Geats. Fifty years later, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is mortally wounded in the battle. After his death,
his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory.

The poem survives in a single copy in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex. It has no title in the
original manuscript, but has become known by the name of the story's protagonist. [5] In 1731, the
manuscript was damaged by a fire that swept through Ashburnham House in London that had a
collection of medieval manuscripts assembled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton; the margins were charred,
and a number of readings were lost.[6] The Nowell Codex is housed in the British Library.

The events in the poem take place over most of the sixth century, and feature no English characters.
Some suggest that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, as the
Sutton Hoo ship-burial shows close connections with Scandinavia, and the East Anglian royal dynasty,
the Wuffingas, may have been descendants of the Geatish Wulfings.[7][8] Others have associated this
poem with the court of King Alfred the Great or with the court of King Cnut the Great.[9]
The poem blends fictional, legendary and historic elements. Although Beowulf himself is not mentioned
in any other Anglo-Saxon manuscript,[10] scholars generally agree that many of the other figures referred
to in Beowulf also appear in Scandinavian sources (specific works are designated in the section titled
"Sources and analogues").[11] This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf,
Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the
battle between Eadgils and Onela). The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is mentioned by Gregory of Tours
in his History of the Franks and can be dated to around 521.[12]
In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of
the Scyldings, i.e., Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, exactly the time
period of Beowulf.[13] Three halls, each about 50 metres (160 ft) long, were found during the excavation.
[13]

The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf are
based on historical people from 6th-century Scandinavia. [14] Like the Finnesburg Fragment and several
shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about
Scandinavian figures such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic figures such as Offa,
king of the continental Angles.
19th-century archaeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried at
Uppsala (Gamla Uppsala, Sweden) according to Snorri Sturluson. When the western mound (to the left
in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds showed that a powerful man was buried in a large
barrow, c. 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. The eastern mound was excavated
in 1854, and contained the remains of a woman, or a woman and a young man. The middle barrow has
not been excavated.[16][15]
Summary
The protagonist Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose
great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands and
Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair.
Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon, some of
whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help
of his thegns or servants, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at
Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means "remnant of valour",[a] dares
to join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded in the struggle. He is cremated
and a burial mound by the sea is erected in his honour.
Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to
prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poem also begins in
medias res or simply, "in the middle of things," which is a characteristic of the epics of antiquity.
Although the poem begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been an ongoing event. An
elaborate history of characters and their lineages is spoken of, as well as their interactions with each
other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valour. The warriors form a kind of brotherhood linked by
loyalty to their lord. The poem begins and ends with funerals: at the beginning of the poem for Scyld
Scefing (26–45) and at the end for Beowulf (3140–3170).
First battle: Grendel
Beowulf begins with the story of Hrothgar, who constructed the great hall Heorot for himself and his
warriors. In it, he, his wife Wealhtheow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating.
Grendel, a troll-like monster said to be descended from the biblical Cain, is pained by the sounds of joy.
[19]
Grendel attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep. Hrothgar
and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot.
Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and with his king's permission
leaves his homeland to assist Hrothgar.[20]
Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. Beowulf refuses to use any weapon because he holds
himself to be the equal of Grendel.[21] When Grendel enters the hall, Beowulf, who has been feigning
sleep, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.[22] Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently.[23]
Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.
[24]
Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in
the marshes where he dies.[25] Beowulf displays "the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awesome
grasp" for all to see at Heorot. This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger in revenge. [26]
Second battle: Grendel's mother
The next night, after celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's
mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. "Beowulf was elsewhere. Earlier,
after the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be absent
in this battle.[27] Grendel's mother violently kills Æschere, who is Hrothgar's most loyal fighter, and
escapes.
Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Unferð, a warrior who
had earlier challenged him, presents Beowulf with his sword Hrunting. After stipulating a number of
conditions to Hrothgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by
Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf jumps into the lake, and while harassed by water monsters gets to
the bottom, where he finds a cavern. Grendel's mother pulls him in, and she and Beowulf engage in
fierce combat.
At first, Grendel's mother appears to prevail, and Hrunting proves incapable of hurting the woman; she
throws Beowulf to the ground and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with a short sword, but Beowulf is
saved by his armour. Beowulf spots another sword, hanging on the wall and apparently made for giants,
and cuts her head off with it. Travelling further into Grendel's mother's lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's
corpse and severs his head with the sword, whose blade melts because of the "hot blood". Only the hilt
remains. Beowulf swims back up to the rim of the pond where his men wait. Carrying the hilt of the
sword and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot. Hrothgar gives
Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom. The events prompt a long
reflection by the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", in which he urges Beowulf to be
wary of pride and to reward his thegns.[28]
Third battle: The dragon
Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, fifty years after
Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at
Earnanæs. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning
everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he
will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow. Beowulf descends to do battle with
the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat
into the woods. One of his men, Wiglaf, however, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid.
The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his
side, grief-stricken. When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming
their cowardice for Beowulf's death. Afterward, Beowulf is ritually burned on a great pyre in Geatland
while his people wail and mourn him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenceless against
attacks from surrounding tribes. Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory
(Beowulf lines 2712–3182).[29]
Heroism in Beowulf
Heroism played an important role in ancient Scandinavian society. During theViking age of 800-1100 AD,
countries of Scandinavia were under invasion andbattle. Being a hero meant great honor in society.
Heroism and honor go handin hand and is what brings Beowulf to Denmark at the start of the epic
poem. In the epic poem of Beowulf, Beowulf is portrayed as a hero with more strength from his body
than from any weapon. He is strong enough to destroy a monster with his bare hands. Beowulf
performs super human actions such as surviving emerssed in water for hours battling with Grendel‟s
mother. Unferth is a jealous man and he envies Beowulf‟s fame and power.

 Conversion Christianity in  The Viking age was an age of great change in ancient Scandinavian
society. At the Scandinavia beginning of 800 AD, most Vikings were paganistic, and believed in many
gods. Harald Bluetooth  The Vikings inherited chrisitan ideas quite rapidly through many• Harald
bluetooth was son of Gorm The Old and of their raids and attacks. Queen Thyra who ruled Denmark.
Harald is thought to have died around 980 AD.  Germanic and Anglo-Saxon missionaries traveled
Scandinavia to covert countries to christianity. Beginning with Denmark—christianized in the 10th
century—Sweden was the last to christianized in the late 11th century AD.• This jelling stone is incripted
with christian writing and symbols. The last three lines state„Harald who won the whole of Denmark,
and all http://www.fortidensjelling.dk/jellinge5.htmNorway, and turned the Danes to Christianity.‟
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/religion _01.shtml
 There are many christian elements found in Beowulf; man survives Christianity in through protection
of god, and that wealth must be shared. Beowulf  During Beowulfs fight with Grendel‟s mother "The
fight would have ended straightaway if God• In the poem, Grendel is had not guarded me" (1.4)
considered an ancestor of  During the poem, Hrothgar tells Cain- a large biblical reference. Beowulf
that being king is achieve• Cain killed his through god. The story of king brother, Abel, and was
Heremond is about a king who falls because of greed and selfishness. banished from the Garden of Eden
by God. In Ancient “angry-hearted he covets, no plated rings does Scandinavia, fratricide is the he give in
men‟s honor, and then he forgets and regards not his destiny because of what worst crime one can
commit. God, Wielder of Heaven, has given him Anglo-Saxon society was very before, his portion of
glories" (5.13) much structured around  “he covets” is form the Christian ten brotherhood and kinship.
commandments.

Religion in Beowulf Christianity Paganism Christianity says that we  Superhuman powers are
shouldn‟t let greed and wealth portrayed by Beowulf in take over ourselves, this is swimming
underwater for what Hrothgar teaches to hours, and his supernatural Beowulf. human strength.
Grendel‟s connection to Cain in  Concept of fame and the bible. heroism. During Beowulf‟s battle
with  Fate that comes with death Grendel‟s mother he believes it or greatness throughout the is god
who has brought him the poem. sword.

Beowulf was composed in Old English, which uses a caesura, or rhythmic pause, to create unity.
Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty Hills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred, Grendel came, hoping
to kill Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot. Punctuation reproduces pause effect of the
caesura.
The Anglo-Saxon oral poet also used the poetic device of alliteration.
lines 1-5: Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty Hills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred, Grendel
came, hoping to kill Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot.
The kenningis another poetic device that was used by the oral poet. Examples of kennings from Beowulf:
gold-shininghall= Herot guardian of crime= Grendel strong-hearted wakeful sleeper= Beowulf cave-
guardandsky-borne foe= dragon BeowulfThe Poetry of Beowulf

Alliteration- two initial consonant sounds repeated

A. Used in modern poetry, but more extensive in Anglo-Saxon literature B. In Beowulf, alliteration exists
in almost every line, with at least one alliterative word in each hemi-stiche. C. Double alliteration: two
initial consonant sounds that are repeated Examples: Wyrm wobogen wealden ne moste Geaf me sine
ond symbel, sibbe germunde
kennings a metaphorical compound word used as a poetic device
Signifies a person or thing by a characteristic or quality A noun renamed in a creative way, generally
compounding two words Examples Bone-house = body Whale-road = ocean Gold friend of men =
generous prince / king Ring-giver = lord Flashing-light = sword

Simile A figure of speech involving a direct comparison, using the words “like” or “as” between two
basically unlike things that have something in common Not usually found in Anglo Saxon poetry, but
there are a few in Beowulf Examples Our love is like a forest fire (compares love with fire; commonality
= burning, out of control) Like sands through the hour glass, so are the days of our lives
Diction author’s choice of words and phrases in a literary work
In Beowulf, the diction is elevated and generalized, like the diction of other epic poetry Number of
repetitions , number of circumlocutions—use of many words where a few would do) Used to help the
poet memorize lines and as a guide when telling the story EXAMPLE = Boasts
Another Litote Example
When Grendel’s mother makes a revenge attack and murders a king’s man the poet observes “no good
bargain that they had to pay with the life of a friend.” “bargain” and “pay” are mild terms in comparison
to the horror of what happened

In the novel Beowulf; literary devices are used. These literary devices are alliteration, assonance,
caesura, and kenning. Each literary device contributes to the passage and what the readers interpret
from reading these particular literary devices.

Literary devices are used to aid in conveying a message in the passage as a whole. Alliteration helps
emphasize what is being described. Assonance helps draw a connection to the words. Caesura is used to
pause for a moment and emphasize something. Kenning is used to aid in describing someone.

Kenning : A compound expression in Old English and Old Norse poetry with metaphorical meaning.

An example of kenning is, "And all as once the greedy she-wolf," in "The Battle of Grendel's Mother."
This kenning is used to give a trait of Grendel's mother personality. It informs the listener why she wants
to smite Beowulf. Grendel's mother is demonstrating traits of a female wolf that is protecting her pup,
Grendel. The listener can then easily infer that she is getting revenge for her son.

A kenning is a metaphorical phrase or compound word used to name a person, place, thing, or event
indirectly.

 Examples from Beowulf:

 “whale-road” = the sea

 “shepherd of evil” = Grendel

Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in words (usually at the beginning of the word) that
are close together.

 Example from Beowulf:

 “…Grendel went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors would do in the hall once
their drinking was done.”

Assonance Helps draw a connection to the words

An example of assonance is "By God, punished forever for the crime," in "The Wrath of Grendel." This
helps show that Grendel is being punished in the passage. This assonance gives an explanation as to why
Grendel continues to show his fury on the city. All of this portrays an image of Grendel being a cruel
individual. The listener gets this image of an evil beast that is being punished for all eternity. The
assonance is significant because it show how the monks' perceived Grendel. The monks' saw Grendel as
a murderous creature just like Cain and that he must be punished by God

Caesura is used to pause for a moment and emphasize something

An example of caesura is, "Then, when darkness had dropped," in "The Wrath of Grendel." It is stressing
the setting by emphasizing that it just became night. This aids in the passage by setting the stage of
Grendel's arrival. The caesura gives an image of the setting as well. The caesura helps show motion in
the passage which is, now that it is night, Grendel is coming.

A caesura is a pause or break within a line of poetry, usually indicated by the natural rhythm of the
language.
 Example:
 “Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty
 Hills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred,
 Grendel came, hoping to kill…”

 Beowulf is the oldest surviving epic poem in the English language.

 It was written in Old English, the language of the Saxons.
 Originally untitled, in the 19th century the poem began to be called by the name of its
Scandinavian hero, whose adventures are its primary focus.
 Historical elements run through the poem, yet both the hero and the story are fiction.