COMMON MORALITY

LECTURE 2
E N GI N E E RI NG E TH I CS
POINTS TO BE ADDRESSED:

This chapter provides several methods that go beyond codes of

practice, and are beneficial for analyzing and resolving moral issues

1. Dealing with problems that have a Moral Aspect (when Codes of

Practice are insufficient)
2. Categories of a Moral Problem (Diagnosis)
3. Resolving Techniques
4. Common Morality

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1. PROBLEMS WITH A MORAL ASPECT :

Sometimes, we are faced with problems

that have a moral aspect, but cannot be
solved solely by codes of practice

Example: Using cadavers in car crash tests

Tests aimed at improving public

safety/welfare
Tests adhered to laws (approvals were
obtained)

Legal, but is it ethical ?

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 2. CATEGORIES:

Problems with moral aspects can be divided to three categories:

• Facts
• Concepts
• Applications

 The solution to any moral problem starts by identifying these three

categories
 Judgement/Decision becomes easier when every category is
properly defined

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2. CATEGORIES: FACTS

Facts: What is relevant to the moral decision ?

Concerning the use of cadavers:

• Is it true that beneficial data is only possible by testing on
cadavers ?
• Is there any other option to get this data?
• Did data from tests using cadavers help in reducing causalities
from accidents ?

Answers to these questions provide the “FACTS”

that will help in resolving the moral problem
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2. CATEGORIES: CONCEPTS

Concepts: A clear understanding of key terms/concepts

Public health and safety, conflict of interest, bribery, extortion,

confidentiality, loyalty, human dignity…

Disagreement about such terms can create complications in

resolving the moral problem

Q: Regarding the use of cadavers,

which concept is relevant?
A: The “human dignity” concept

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2. CATEGORIES: APPLICATIONS

Applications: Even when we are clear about concepts & their

meaning, disagreement about their applications can also arise

Disagreements over application issues can result from:

• Disagreement over concept(s)
• Disagreement over facts to which the concepts are applied
• Disagreement over both

Ex: Disagreement over concept of “human dignity”

Is using cadavers for reducing car accident fatalities a suitable
application of the concept of “human dignity” ?

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3. RESOLVING TECHNIQUES:

Two effective resolving techniques can be used:

• Line Drawing
• Creative Middle Way Solutions

These are techniques that aid in resolving application issues

Example:

Victor is an Engineer in a large construction firm. He was assigned with

selecting rivets for a large project. He recommends ACME rivets. One
day after his decision, an ACME representative meets him and gives
him a voucher for a fully-paid trip to the ACME annual conference in
Jamaica, which also includes time for recreation.

Moral Question: Is this a BRIBE ?

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3. RESOLVING TECHNIQUES: (CONT’D)

Line Drawing Is this a

bribe?

STEP 1: List a few factors that represent the answer to the moral question, and
the opposite factors that represent the opposing answer

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3. RESOLVING TECHNIQUES: (CONT’D)

STEP 2: Summarize all these factors in a table, each row containing one
factor (ex: Bribery) and its opposite (ex. Not Bribery)

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3. RESOLVING TECHNIQUES: (CONT’D)

STEP 3: Draw “X” marks in each row in the space between the factors
depending on your “score” or judgement
STEP 4: Check your drawn line by joining the “X” marks.

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3. RESOLVING TECHNIQUES: (CONT’D)

Creative Middle Way Solutions

Devise creative alternatives that satisfy as many of the competing

factors as possible.

Some alternatives for previous example:

• Nominate another employee for the trip, especially someone that

has not participated in the decision
• Accept trip, but split/share costs

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4. COMMON MORALITY:

Common Morality

• Can be relied upon for resolving moral issues involving larger

social policies

• The basic pillars of common morality = Virtues

• In relation to Engineering, these virtues include:

 honesty (in your work)
 loyalty (to clients and employers)
 striving for excellence

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4. COMMON MORALITY: (CONT’D)

Two Common Morality Models:

• Utilitarian Model
The greatest good for the greatest number of people

• Respect for Persons Model

Actions or rules are right if they regard each person as worthy
of respect as a moral agent

Example: Plant discharging pollutant into river…

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5. APPLICATION PROCEDURES:

Utilitarian Model

1. Cost-Benefit Approach

Respect for Persons Model

1. The Golden Rule Approach

2. The Self Defeating Approach
3. The Rights Approach

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5. APPLICATION PROCEDURES: (CONT’D)

Utilitarian Model

The Cost-Benefit Approach:

• Assess Costs and Benefits in monetary terms
• Make decision that is likely to result in the greatest
benefit relative to cost
• Assumes that economic measures of cost and benefit
override all other considerations (is this true?)

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5. APPLICATION PROCEDURES: (CONT’D)

Respect for Persons Model

1. The Golden Rule Approach:

• What if it was me, would I accept my actions/judgments ?

2. The Self-Defeating Approach:

• To judge an action, universalize it. If it defeats its purpose,
then it would not have been a good action
• Ask yourself: “If everyone else did what I am doing, would
this undermine my ability to do the same thing?” If YES then
universalizing the action becomes self-defeating

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5. APPLICATION PROCEDURES: (CONT’D)

Respect for Persons Model

3. Rights Approach:
• Emphasizes prioritizing rights and right infringements

Example: Plant that discharges pollutants into a river

The right to life > the right to acquire wealth for one’s
benefit

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 GIFTS VS BRIBES

When is a gift a bribe ?

There is a fine line between a gift and a bribe.
• Gifts of nominal value such as mugs and simple things
that could be affordable by everyone are not
considered as bribe.
• Also, dining with a costumer will make the relation
between the two parties better as long as each one of
them pays his own bill.
• When the gifts become unaffordable and with a very
high value, or the restaurant for example is expensive
and not everybody pays his own bill then the gift
becomes a bribe.
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 GIFTS VS BRIBE
EXAMPLES
• During a sales visit, a sales representative offers you a coffee
mug with his company’s name and logo on it. The value of
the mug is five dollars. Can you accept this item? Does the
answer to this question change if this item is a $350 crystal
bowl with the name of the company engraved on it? How
about if there is no engraving on it?
• Your meeting with a sales representative is running into the
lunch hour. She invites you to go out for lunch. You go to a
fast-food restaurant and pay for your own lunch. Is this
practice acceptable? Does the answer to this question
change if you go to an expensive French restaurant? If she
pays for lunch?

The facts will be obvious: who offered a gift, what its value was,
and what its purpose was.

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 AVOIDING BRIBERY ISSUES

Look at the company policy : For example, some

companies say that employees are not allowed to
accept anything from a vendor and that any social
interaction with vendors or customers must be paid for
by your company. Any deviation from this rule requires
approval from appropriate supervisors.
The “New York Times Test”: Could your actions withstand
the scrutiny of a newspaper reporter? Could you stand
to see your name in the newspaper in an article about
the gift you received? If you couldn’t easily defend your
action without resorting to self-serving rationalizations,
then you probably shouldn’t do it.

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 ANALYSIS OF ISSUES IN ETHICAL
PROBLEMS

The first step in solving any ethical problem is to

understand all the issues involved and then the
problem becomes apparent.
The issues to be understood are the:

Factual, Conceptual, and Moral issues.

These issues help put an ethical problem in the proper

framework and point the way to a solution.

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 ANALYSIS
FACTUAL ISSUES

Factual Issues involve what is actually known about a case—

i.e., what the facts are. Although this concept seems
straightforward, the facts of a particular case are not always
clear and may be controversial.
In engineering, there are controversies over facts as well. For
example, global warming is of great concern to society as we
continue to emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat in the
atmosphere. This is thought by climate scientists to lead to a
generalized warming of the atmosphere as emissions from
automobiles and industrial plants increase the carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere.
This issue is of great importance to engineers since they might
be required to design new products or redesign old ones to
comply with stricter environmental standards if this warming
effect indeed proves to be a problem.
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 ANALYSIS
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

Conceptual Issues have to do with the meaning or applicability

of an idea. In engineering ethics, this might mean defining what
constitutes a bribe as opposed to an acceptable gift, or
determining whether certain business information is proprietary.
In the case of the bribe, the value of the gift is probably a well-
known fact. What isn’t known is whether accepting it will lead
to unfair influence on a business decision.
For example, conceptually it must be determined if the gift of
tickets to a sporting event by a potential supplier of parts for
your project is meant to influence your decision or is just a nice
gesture between friends.
Of course, like factual issues, conceptual issues are not always
clear-cut and will often result in controversy as well.
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 ANALYSIS
MORAL ISSUES

Moral Issues, once the factual and conceptual issues

have been resolved, at least to the extent possible, all
that remains is to determine which moral principle is
applicable to the situation.
Resolution of moral issues is often more obvious. Once the
problem is defined, it is usually clear which moral concept
applies, and the correct decision becomes obvious.
In our example of a “gift” offered by a sales
representative, once it is determined whether it is simply a
gift or is really a bribe, then the appropriate action is
obvious. If we determine that it is indeed a bribe, then it
cannot ethically be accepted.

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