Chapter 5 - Part I - Ground Improvement

Course Module:
ECG3223 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICS AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 5
Part I
Soil Improvement and
Ground Modification
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Last Updated: April 2020 © LMS SEGi Education Group Dr. Azlinda Saadon
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 5: Soil Improvement and Ground
Modification introduced students on the:
1. Types of ground improvement methods.

2. Mechanism and techniques.
3. Application of ground improvement techniques.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce the importance of ground monitoring

techniques.
2. To understand the types of ground improvements.
3. To understand the mechanisms or processes of
ground improvements.
4. To understand the application of ground
improvement techniques at the field site.
CONTENTS
This chapter consist of the following topics:
1. Introduction to soil improvement and ground modification.
2. Types of soil improvement and ground modification techniques.
3. Mechanical ground improvement: Techniques, mechanisms and

applications.
4. Chemical soil improvement : Techniques, mechanisms and applications.
5. Hydraulics ground improvement: Techniques, mechanisms and

applications.
5.1. Introduction
 The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for
supporting structures such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams.
 For example, in granular soil deposits, the in-situ soil may be very loose
and indicate a large elastic settlement.
 In such a case, the soil needs to be densified to increase its unit weight and
thus its shear strength.
 Sometimes the top layers of soil are undesirable and must be removed
and replaced with better soil on which the structural foundation can be
built.
 The soil used as fill should be well compacted to sustain the desired
structural load. Compacted fills may also be required in low-lying areas to
raise the ground elevation for construction of the foundation.
 Soft saturated clay layers are often encountered at shallow depths below
foundations.
 Depending on the structural load and the depth of the layers, unusually
large consolidation settlement may occur.
 Special soil-improvement techniques are required to minimize
settlement.
As mentioned before, the ground improvement techniques are useful for:
i. Reduce the settlement of the building.
ii. Improve the shear strength of the soil and thus increase the bearing
capacity of a shallow foundation.
iii. Increase the factor of safety against possible slope failure of earth
dams and embankments.
iv. Reduce the shrinkage and swelling of soils.
Figure 5.2 Ponding of excavated soil (not suitable

Figure 5.1 Soil improvement using compaction.
for commencement of construction works)
5.2 Types of Soil Improvement and Ground
Modification Techniques
Types of Ground Modification / Soil

Improvement Techniques
Mechanical Ground Chemical Soil Hydraulic Ground

Modification Techniques Improvement Techniques Improvement Techniques
1. Gravity drainage
1. Compaction, Impact and 2. Pumping from wells /
Dynamic
1. Lime stabilization sumps
2. Vibro-flotation / Vibro-
2. Cement stablization 3. Preloading vertical
replacement
3. Stone column 3. Fly-ash stabilization drain (PVD)
4. Explosive / blasting 4. Electro-osmosis
5. Dewatering
(Electrokinetic)
5.3 Mechanical Ground Improvement
 Mechanical ground improvement involves the usage of various machineries
to improve the soil strength and increase the bearing capacity of a
shallow foundation.
Several types of mechanical ground improvement techniques are:

1. Compaction, Impact and Dynamic
2. Vibro-flotation / Vibro-replacement
3. Stone column
4. Explosive / blasting
The choice of methods depending on the following:

1. Type & degree of improvement required
2. Type of soil, geological structure
3. Cost
4. Equipment availability
5. Time
6. Damage to adjacent structures
7. Durability (whole life considerations)
5.3.1 Compaction, Impact and Dynamic
 Compaction means pressing the soil particle close to each other by mechanical
methods. Air during compaction is removed from the void space in the soil mass,
and therefore the mass density is increased.
 The soil compaction is a method of mechanically increasing the density of soil. It is

a simple ground improvement method, where the soil is compact through
external compaction effort.
 Soil compaction is the process of applying external energy to a loose soil to

consolidate it and remove air voids from the soil and thereby improving the
physical properties of the soil. If performed improperly, settlement of the soil can
occur and may result in unnecessary maintenance costs or even a structural failure.
Last Updated: April 2020 © LMSsoil
Figure 5.3 Loose SEGiand
Education Groupsoil.
compacted Dr. Azlinda Saadon
Objective of Compaction
The main purpose of soil compaction is to improve engineering properties of

soil by increasing its density, and to make it strong enough to resist
displacement or movement under loads that may be applied to it.
 Improve the load bearing capacity of soil

 Increase soil strength
 Reduction in the flow of water (Water seepage)
 Decrease future settlement of foundation (Lower Compressibility)
 Increase the shear strength of soil
 Increase Soil Stability
 Reduction in soil swelling (Expansion) and collapse (Soil Contraction)
Improper compaction leads to:

 Cracking of pavements, floors and basements
 Structural distress from excessive differential and total settlements
 Structural damage to structures, water and sewer pipes and utility conduits
 Soil Erosion
Types of Basic Mechanism in Soil Compaction
The process of soil compaction is merely removing the air from the voids or reducing air
voids from the soil particles, causing more reduction in volume, which will result in
adding more soil and hence the dry density will also increase accordingly.
Four (4) types of basic mechanisms on which different types of compaction equipment
work are:
1. Impact: It is a large force acting for a very short interval of time.
2. Pressure: It is a force acting on the unit contact area.
3. Vibration: It is a shaking force applied on the surface.
4. Kneading: It is manipulating or Rearrangement of the soil particles.
Field Compaction
 Ordinary compaction in the field is done by rollers. Of the several types of roller
used, the most common are:
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers
Smooth-wheel rollers
(or smooth drum rollers):
 Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for

proof-rolling subgrades and for
finishing the construction of fills with
sandy or clayey soils.
 They provide 100% coverage under
the wheels, and the contact pressure
can be as high as 300 to 400 kN/m2
(=45 to 60 lb/in2).
 However, they do not produce a
uniform unit weight of compaction
when used on thick layers. Figure 5.4 Typical smooth-wheel rollers.
Pneumatic rubber rollers
 Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are

better in many aspects than smooth-
wheel rollers.
 Pneumatic rollers, which may weigh as
much as 2000 kN (450 kip), consist of
a heavily loaded wagon with several
rows of tires.
 The tires are closely spaced - four to
six in a row.
 The contact pressure under the tires
may range up to 600 to 700 kN/m2, and
they give about 70 to 80% coverage.
 Pneumatic rollers, which can be used
for sandy and clayey soil compaction,
produce a combination of pressure and
kneading action.
Figure 5.5 Pneumatic rubber roller.

Sheepsfoot rollers
 Consist basically of drums with large

numbers of projections.
 Rollers are most effective in
compacting cohesive soils.
 During compaction in the field, the
initial passes compact the lower
portion of a lift.
 Later, the middle and top of the lift
are compacted. Figure 5.6 Sheepshoot roller.
Vibratory rollers
 Vibratory rollers are efficient in

compacting granular soils.
 Vibrators can be attached to smooth-

wheel, pneumatic rubber-tired or
sheepsfoot rollers to send vibrations
into the soil being compacted.
Last Updated: April 2020 © LMS SEGi Education
Figure Group
5.7 Vibratory-Sheepshoot roller. Dr. Azlinda Saadon
Impact Compaction
 Rapid impact compaction is a

high-frequency controlled
energy soil compaction
technique used to densify
surface layers of soils (to a
depth of 5 to 7 metres in most
cases) with minimum impact on
the immediate worksite
environment.
 A compaction plate is placed on

the ground to be treated and a
hydraulic hammer, generally
weighing less than 10 to 15
tonnes, is fitted to an excavator
and used to transmit compaction
energy to the soil via repeated
impact.
 Rapid impact Compaction is

widely used to densify loose
granular soils (sand or gravel)
as well as loam fill and industrial
brownfield sites.
Figure 5.8 Rapid impacter.

Impact Roller
 Impact compaction rollers
consist of noncircular modules
rotating due to the frictional
force on the ground surface and
falling to impact the ground
dynamically.
 It provides deeper layer
compaction because they travel
at a relatively high speed
compared to conventional
machines and impart larger
impact energy into the ground.
 Provides deeper (2-3m)
compaction. e.g., air field.
Dynamic Compaction
 Dynamic compaction is a method that is used to increase the density of the

soil when certain subsurface constraints make other methods inappropriate.
It is a method that is used to increase the density of soil deposits.
 The process involves dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground
at regularly spaced intervals.
 The drop weight, typically steel, is lifted by a crane and repeatedly
dropped onto the ground surface. Vibrations transmitted below the
surface improve soils at depth. The drop locations are typically located on
a grid pattern, the spacing of which is determined by the subsurface
conditions and foundation loading and geometry.
It is normally used under the following circumstances:

1. To increase in-situ density and in this way improve the bearing
capacity and consolidation characteristics of soils (or waste materials)
to allow conventional foundation and surface bed construction to be
carried out.
2. To increase in-situ density and in this way improve in-situ

permeability and / or reduce liquefaction potential.
Dynamic Compaction
Advantages:
 Capable of compacting a
wide variety of weak soils.
 Treated granular soils and

fills have increased density,
friction angle, and
stiffness.
 Can improve soil

conditions on marginal
sites to extent that shallow
foundations can be used
without deep excavation
or piling.
 Removal of compressible,
contaminated fills can
sometimes be avoided.
Last Updated: April 2020 Figure
© LMS 5.9 Application
SEGi Education Group of dynamic compaction. Dr. Azlinda Saadon
 Dynamic Compaction (DC) technique is well suited for a wide range of applications and
projects with different sizes up to several million sq.m, covering Industrial buildings, Oil &
Gas facilities, Infrastructure constructions, Platforms and logistics facilities, commercial
and residential buildings, tanks, artificial islands, road and railway embankments, land
reclamations.
 Dynamic Compaction (DC) technique was implemented as value engineering alternative to deep
foundation or soil replacement for a large number of structures throughout the world.
5.3.2 Vibroflotation / Vibro-replacement
 Vibroflotation is a technique developed in Germany in the 1930s for in

situ densification of thick layers of loose granular soil deposits.
 Vibroflotation was first used in the United States about 10 years later. The
process involves the use of a vibroflot (called the vibrating unit). The
device is about 2 m (6 ft) in length.
 This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and can develop a
centrifugal force.
 The weight enables the unit to vibrate horizontally. Openings at the

bottom and top of the unit are for water jets.
 The vibrating unit is attached to a follow-up pipe. Figure 5.10 shows the
vibroflotation equipment necessary for compaction in the field.
The entire compaction process can be divided into four steps (Figure
5.11):
Step 1. The jet at the bottom of the vibroflot is turned on, and the
vibroflot is lowered into the ground.
Step 2. The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil, which allows
the vibrating unit to sink.
Step 3. Granular material is poured into the top of the hole. The water
from the lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the
vibrating unit. This water carries the granular material down the
hole.
Step 4. The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3-m (1-ft) lifts
and is held vibrating for about 30 seconds at a time. This
process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.
Figure 5.10 Vibroflotation unit (Based on Brown, 1977.) Figure 5.11 Vibroflotation unit (Based on Brown, 1977.)
Vibro Compaction Mechanism
Vibro Replacement Mechanism
Vibro Replacement is a method of constructing densely compacted stone columns using a depth vibrator to
densify the aggregate backfill and surrounding granular soil. The technology is used to treat clays, silts and
mixed stratified soils and improve their load bearing and settlement characteristics. Stone is introduced either
down the side or from the tip of the vibrator and is compacted bottom-up in controlled stages. The stone columns
reinforce soft soil, accelerate drainage and mitigates liquefaction due to a seismic event.
Typical applications for stone columns include settlement and stability improvement below embankments and
stockpiles; foundations for all type of building especially warehousing and industrial buildings; wind turbines
and liquid storage tanks.
5.3.43 Explosive / Blasting
 Blasting is the use of buried explosives to cause the densification of loose

cohesionless ground.
 The principal  the blasting of explosives in a predetermined pattern
causes liquefaction, followed by the expulsion of pore water and
subsequent densification of the ground.
 Blast densification is being utilized for more than 80 years to densify loose,
saturated sand deposits.
 The aim of this ground-improvement technique is to densify and
improve the engineering characteristics of loose sand deposits and thus
prevent or minimize the effects of liquefaction during an earthquake.
Procedure of the blasting for ground improvement:
 Series of boreholes are drilled and pipe of 7.5 to 10 cm is driven to the required
depth.
 The detonator and the dynamic sticks are both enclosed in a water proof bundle and
is lowered through casings.
 Casing is withdrawn and a wad of paper or wood is placed against the charge of
Explosive (To protect it from misfire).
 Boreholes are backfilled with sand to obtain full force of blast.
 The charge is fired in definite pattern.
Figure 5.10 Materials needed for blasting such as dynamite sticks, and detonator.
 The energy released by the explosives
creates compressive radial stresses in
the soil mass as the shock wave
approaches and generates tensile stress
as the shock wave passes.
 The resulting cyclic stress increases the
pore pressure, and the effective stresses
acting on the soil are gradually
reduced. As the pore water pressure
dissipates, the grain particles rearrange
into a denser and more stable
configuration.
 Blast densification offers an economical
approach, when compared with other Figure 5.11 Charge being placed in the borehole.
alternatives, to densify large areas since
it is a relatively rapid process and heavy
construction equipment is not needed,
making it possible for work to be carried
out in remote or difficult areas.

Chapter 5 - Part I - Ground Improvement

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Course Module:

ECG3223 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

1. Types of ground improvement methods.

1. To introduce the importance of ground monitoring

This chapter consist of the following topics:

1. Introduction to soil improvement and ground modification.

2. Types of soil improvement and ground modification techniques.

3. Mechanical ground improvement: Techniques, mechanisms and

4. Chemical soil improvement : Techniques, mechanisms and applications.

5. Hydraulics ground improvement: Techniques, mechanisms and

Figure 5.2 Ponding of excavated soil (not suitable

Types of Ground Modification / Soil

Mechanical Ground Chemical Soil Hydraulic Ground

Several types of mechanical ground improvement techniques are:

The choice of methods depending on the following:

 The soil compaction is a method of mechanically increasing the density of soil. It is

 Soil compaction is the process of applying external energy to a loose soil to

The main purpose of soil compaction is to improve engineering properties of

 Improve the load bearing capacity of soil

Improper compaction leads to:

1. Impact: It is a large force acting for a very short interval of time.

2. Pressure: It is a force acting on the unit contact area.

3. Vibration: It is a shaking force applied on the surface.

4. Kneading: It is manipulating or Rearrangement of the soil particles.

 Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for

 Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are

Figure 5.5 Pneumatic rubber roller.

 Consist basically of drums with large

 Vibratory rollers are efficient in

 Vibrators can be attached to smooth-

 Rapid impact compaction is a

 A compaction plate is placed on

 Rapid impact Compaction is

Figure 5.8 Rapid impacter.

 Dynamic compaction is a method that is used to increase the density of the

It is normally used under the following circumstances:

2. To increase in-situ density and in this way improve in-situ

 Treated granular soils and

 Can improve soil

 Vibroflotation is a technique developed in Germany in the 1930s for in

 The weight enables the unit to vibrate horizontally. Openings at the

 Blasting is the use of buried explosives to cause the densification of loose

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