Chapter 1 - Part I

ECG 3223
GEOTECHNICS
WEEK 1
Chapter 1
Earth Retaining Structures And Design
Retaining Structure
PowerPoint® Slides by
Dr. Azlinda Saadon
© LMS SEGi education group

1
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 introduced students to:
• Rankine and Coulomb earth pressure
theories on the retaining structures from
the retained soil.
• Effects of surcharge, line loads, tension
cracks, layered strata and hydrostatic
and seepage conditions.
• The design of gravity, reinforced concrete
cantilever and sheet pile.
• Semi empirical methods.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To introduce students to:
 The Rankine and Coulomb earth pressure

theories on the retaining structures from
the retained soil.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this chapter, the students should be

able to:
 Explain Rankine and Coulomb theory the earth

pressure theories on the retaining structures from
the retained soil.

1.1 EARTH PRESSURE AT
REST

Introduction

Introduction
 Retaining structures  retaining walls and
basement walls are encountered in foundation
engineering, as they support earth masses.
 Proper design and construction of these
structures  require detail knowledge of the
lateral forces that act between the retaining
structures and the soil masses being retained.

Introduction (cont’d)
 These lateral forces are caused by lateral earth

pressure.
 The magnitude and distribution of lateral earth
pressure depends on:
 Shear strength parameters of the soil being retained.

 The inclination of the surface of the backfill.
 The height and inclination of the retaining wall
at the wall backfill interface.
 The nature of wall movement under lateral
pressure.
 The adhesion and friction angle at the wall backfill
interface.

At-Rest, Active, and Passive
Pressures

At-Rest, Active, and Passive Pressures
 Consider a mass of soil. The mass is bounded by a
frictionless wall of height AB.
 A soil element located at depth z subjected to
effective vertical pressure, σ’o and horizontal
pressures, σ’h.
 There are no shear stresses on the vertical and
horizontal planes of the soil element.
 Let us define the ratio of σ’h to σ’o as a non-
dimensional quantity, K or:
Eq. 1
 Now, there are 3 possible cases may arise
concerning the retaining wall.

Case 1: At-rest earth pressure.
Case 1:
If the wall AB is static – that is,
if it does not move either to
the right of left of its initial
position, the soil mass will be
in the state of equilibrium
(Figure 1.1).
In that case, σ’h is referred to

as the at-rest earth pressure,
or :
Eq. 2
where Ko = at-rest earth

pressure coefficient.
Case 2: Active earth pressure.
Case 2:
If the frictionless wall rotates
sufficiently about its bottom to a
position of A’B, then a triangular soil
mas ABC’ adjacent to the wall will
reach a state of plastic equilibrium and
will fall sliding down the plane BC’
(Figure 1.2).
At this time, the horizontal effective

stress, σ’h = σ’a referred to as the
active pressure. Now,
Eq. 3
where Ka = active earth pressure

coefficient.

Case 3: Passive earth pressure.
Case 3:
If the frictionless wall rotates
sufficiently about its bottom to a
position of A”B, then a triangular soil
mas ABC” will reach a state of plastic
equilibrium and will fall sliding upward
along the plane BC” (Figure 1.3).
The horizontal effective stress, σ’h = σ’p

referred to as the passive pressure.
Now,
Eq. 4
where Kp = passive earth pressure

coefficient.

AT-REST LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
1. Earth Pressure At-Rest

2. Earth Pressure At-Rest for Partially
Submerged Soil

Earth Pressure at Rest To define the earth pressure coefficient, Ko
at rest, we refer to the figure, which shows
a wall AB retaining a dry soil with a unit
weight of γ (Figure 1.4).
The wall is static. At a depth z,

Vertical effective stress = σ’o = γ z
Horizontal effective stress = σ’h = Ko γ z
Therefore,
For coarse-grained soils, the coefficient of

earth pressure at rest can be estimated by
using empirical relationship (Jaky, 1994) :
Eq. 5
φ = drained friction angle.

Earth Pressure at Rest (Cont’d)
 Sherif, Fang, and Sherif (1984), on the basis of laboratory tests

showed that Jaky’s equation for Ko gives good results when
backfill is loose sand.
 For dense, compacted sand backfill, it is recommended to use:
Eq. 6
where:
γd = actual compacted dry unit of the sand behind the wall
γd(min) = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state
 The increase Ko observed in the above equation is due to over

consolidation.

 For that reason, Mayne and Kulhawy (1982), after evaluating

171 soils, recommended a modification (for over consolidated
soil):
Eq. 7
where:
OCR = over consolidation ratio
Preconsolidation pressure, σ′ c
=
Present effective overburden pressure, σ′ o

 For fine-grained, normally consolidated soils, Marssarch (1979)

suggested the following equation for Ko :
Eq. 8
 For over consolidated clays, the coefficient of earth pressure at

rest can be approximated as:
Eq. 9

Earth Pressure at Rest
(Cont’d)  Figure 1.5 shows the
distribution of lateral
earth pressure at rest on a
wall of height, H retaining
a dry soil having a unit
weight of γ.
 The total force per unit

length of the wall, Po, is
equal to the area of the
pressure diagram,
therefore :
Eq. 10

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially Submerged Soil
 Figure 1.6 above shows a wall of height H.

 The groundwater table is located at a depth H1 below the ground surface,
and there is no compensating water on the other side of the wall.
 For z < H1, the lateral earth pressure at rest can be given as σ’h = Koγz.
 The variation of σ’h with depth is shown by triangular ACE.

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially Submerged Soil (cont’d)
 However for z > H1 (below the groundwater table), the pressure on the wall
is found from the effective stress and pore water pressure components via
the equation:
 Effective vertical pressure = Eq. 11
where γ’= γsat – γw = the effective unit weight of soil.
 Therefore, the effective lateral pressure at rest is:

Eq. 12
 The variation of σ’h with depth is shown by CEGB.
 The lateral pressure from pore water is:

Eq. 13

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially Submerged Soil (cont’d)
 Hence, the total lateral pressure from earth and water at any depth z > H1
is equal to :
Eq. 14
 The force per unit length of the wall can be found from the sum of the
areas of the pressure diagrams and it is equal to:
Eq. 15
Area ACE Area CEFB Area EFG and IJK

EXAMPLE 1:
Figure below shows a 4.5 m high retaining wall. The wall is restrained from
yielding. Calculate the lateral force, Po per unit length of the wall. Also,
determine the location of the resultant force. Assume that OCR = 1.5.

Solution:
Step 1:
Given OCR = 1.5, calculate the coefficient of the earth pressure at rest, Ko:
32.92

Solution:
Step 2:
Draw the pressure diagram with regards to the retaining wall’s heights.

Solution:
Step 3:
Calculate the lateral forces for each pressure diagrams.
1  1  1 
Po    3  25.34   0.538  15.7  3  1.5    0.538  19.2  9.81  1.5 2     9.81  1.5 2 
2  2  2 

Solution:
Step 4:
Calculate the location of the resultant force  measured from the bottom of
the wall.
  1   1   1   1 
 38.01   1.5  (  3 )    38.01   3  5.68   1.5  11.04   1.5
  3    2   3   3 
z 
92.74
95.025  28.51  2.84  5.52

z 
92.74
z  1.422 m

1.2 RANKINE’S LATERAL
EARTH PRESSURE

Rankine’s Theory of Active and Passive
Earth Pressures
 In 1857, Rankine investigated the stress conditions in soil at a
state of plastic equilibrium.
 The soils taken into consideration for the Rankine
earth pressure can be cohesionless and cohesive soils.
 Plastic equilibrium in soil - the condition in which every point
in soil mass is on the verge of failure.
For Active Earth Pressure :

 Figure 1.7 shows a soil mass is bounded by a frictionless wall,
AB, that extends to an infinite depth.
 The vertical and horizontal effective principal stresses on a soil
element at a depth of z are σ’o and σ’h respectively.
Earth Pressures (cont’d)
 In Figure 1.7(a), if the wall is not allowed to move, the σ’h = Ko
σ’o. The stress condition in the soil element can be
represented by Mohr circle’s a in Figure 1.7(b).
 If the wall AB is allowed to move away from the soil mass
gradually, the horizontal principle stresses, σ’h will decrease.
Ultimately, a state will reach when the stress condition in the
soil element by the Mohr circle b  the state of plastic
equilibrium and failure of the soil.
 This condition refers to Rankine’s active state, and the
effective pressure, σ’a on the vertical plane (principal plane)
is Rankine’s active earth pressure.
Rankine’s Theory of Active Earth Pressures
(For Cohesionless Soils)
 In Figure 1.7(b), the failure planes in the soil makes +
(45+φ’/2) – degree angles with the direction of the major
principal plane  horizontal.
 These are call potential slip planes (Figure 1.7(d)).
Eq. 16
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure.
σa = lateral soil pressure at base of the wall.
Pa = resultant force per unit length of wall.
σa = Ka  H
Pa = ½ Ka  H2
• Assumptions made by Rankine:

• No adhesion or friction between wall & soil.
• Lateral pressure computed to vertical wall.
• Lateral earth pressure varies linearly with depth
• Resultant pressure act at the distance up from the base of
the wall = ⅓ the vertical distance from the heel at the wall
base.
• Resultant direction is parallel to the backfill surface.
Earth Pressures
For Passive Earth Pressure :
 Rankine passive state can be explained in the figure below. AB
is a frictionless wall that extends to an infinite depth (Figure
1.8(a)).
 If the wall is gradually pushed into the soil mass, the effective
principal, σ’h will increase.
 Ultimately, the wall will reach to a condition where the stress
condition of the soil can be expressed by the Mohr’s circle b.
 At this time, failure of soil will occur. This condition 
Rankine’s passive state.
 The lateral earth pressure, σ’p, which is the major principal
stress  Rankine’s passive earth pressure.
Earth Pressures
Rankine’s Theory of Active Earth Pressures
(For Cohesionless Soils)
 Figure 1.8(c)  the variation of passive pressure varies with
depth.
 For cohesionless soil (c’=0), the coefficient of Rankine’s
passive earth pressure:
Eq. 17
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure.

σp = lateral soil pressure at base of the wall.
Pp = resultant force per unit length of wall.
σp = Kp  H
Pp = ½ Kp  H2
Rankine Active and Passive Pressure
with Sloping Backfill (for Granular soil)
 In previous section, we consider
retaining walls with vertical
backfill and horizontal backfills.
However, in some cases, the
backfill may be continuously
sloping at an angle α.
 In such cases, the direction of
Rankine’s active or passive
pressures are no longer horizontal.
 Rather, they are inclined at an
angle α with the horizontal.
 If the backfill is a granular soil
with a drained friction angle, φ’,
and c’ = 0, then, Figure 1.9: Frictionless vertical retaining
wall with sloping backfill.
Eq. 18
where,
Eq. 19
 Ka = Rankine’s active pressure coefficient

 The active force per unit length of the wall can be given as:
Eq. 20
 The line of action of the resultant acts at a distance of H/3 measured from
the bottom of the wall.
 Table 1 gives the value of Ka for various combination of α and φ’.

Table 1: Value of Ka for various combination of α and φ’.
25
 In a similar manner, the Rankine active earth pressure for a wall of a

height H with a granular sloping backfill can be represented by the
equation:
Eq. 21
 Kp = Rankine’s passive pressure coefficient
Eq. 22
 As in the case of the active force, the resultant force, Pp is inclined at an

angle α with the horizontal and intersects the wall at a distance of H/3
measured from the bottom of the wall.
 The values of Kp for various values of α and φ’ are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Value of Kp for various combination of α and φ’.

with Sloping Backfill (for Cohesive soil)
 The preceding analysis can be extended to the determination of the active
and passive Rankine earth pressure for an inclined backfill with a c’ – ϕ soil.
 The details of the mathematical derivation are given by Mazindrani and
Ganjali (1997). For a c’ – ϕ backfill, the active pressure is given by
Eq. 23
Eq. 24
Eq. 25
Eq. 26
Eq. 27
Eq. 28
1.3 DIAGRAMS FOR LATERAL
EARTH-PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION AGAINST
RETAINING WALLS

1.3.1 Backfill – Cohesionless Soil with Horizontal
Ground Surface
For Active Case:
 Figure 1.10(a) below shows a retaining wall with cohesionless soil backfill
that has a horizontal ground surface.
 The unit weight and angle of friction are γ and φ.
 For Rankine’s active state  the
earth pressure at any depth against
the retaining wall can be given by:
Eq. 29
 Note that σ’a increases linearly with

depth, and the bottom of the wall is:
Eq. 30
 The total force per unit length of the

(a) Pressure distribution against a retaining wall for
wall is equal to the area of the
cohesionless soil backfill with horizontal ground surface – pressure diagram, therefore:
Rankine’s Active State.
Eq. 31

1.3.1 Backfill – Cohesionless Soil with Horizontal
Ground Surface (cont’d)
For Passive Case:
 The lateral pressure distribution against a retaining wall of height H for
Rankine’s passive state is shown in Figure 1.10(b).
 The lateral pressure at any depth z

for c’=0 is:
Eq. 32
 The total force per unit length of the

wall is equal to the area of the
pressure diagram, therefore:
Eq. 33
(b) Pressure distribution against a retaining wall for
cohesionless soil backfill with horizontal ground surface –
Rankine’s Passive State.

1.3.2 Backfill – Partially Submerged Cohesionless Soil
Supporting a Surcharge
For Active Case:
 Figure 1.11(a) shows a frictionless retaining wall with a cohesive soil backfill.
 The groundwater table is located at a depth of H1 below the ground surface, and
the backfill is supporting a surcharge pressure of q per unit area.
Figure 1.11: Rankine’s active earth-pressure distribution against a retaining wall with partially
submerged cohesionless soil backfill supporting a surcharge.

Supporting a Surcharge (cont’d)
 The effective active earth pressure at any depth can be obtained as:
Eq. 34
 where σ’o and σ’a = the effective vertical pressure and lateral pressure,
respectively.
Eq. 35
 At z = 0, and
Eq. 36
 At depth z = H1, and
 At depth z = H, and Eq. 37
 Where γ’ = γsat – γw. The variation of σ’a with depth is shown in Figure (b).
 The lateral pressure on the wall from the pore water between z = 0 and H1 is 0, and
z > H1, it is increases linearly with depth.
 At z = H, Eq. 38

 The total lateral pressure diagram (Figure (d)) is the sum of the pressure diagram
from Figure (b) and Figure (c).
 The total active force per unit length of the wall is the area of the total pressure
diagram.
 Thus,
Eq. 39

For Passive Case:
 Figure 1.12 shows a retaining wall similar to the active case.
 Rankine’s passive pressure at any depth against the wall can be given as:
Eq. 40
Figure 1.12: Rankine’s passive earth-pressure distribution against a retaining wall with partially
submerged cohesionless soil backfill supporting a surcharge.
 Using the preceding equation, we can determine the variation of σ’p with depth
(Figure 1.12(b)).
 The variation of pressure on the wall from water with depth is shown in Figure
1.12(c).
 Figure 1.12(d) shows the distribution of the total pressure, σp with depth.
 The total lateral passive force per unit length of the wall is the area of the diagram
given in Figure 1.12(d):
Eq. 41

1.3.3 Backfill – Cohesive Soil with Horizontal Backfill
For Active Case:
 The active pressure against the wall at any depth below the ground surface can be
expressed as:
Eq. 42
Figure 1.13: Rankine’s active earth-pressure distribution against a retaining wall with cohesive soil
backfill.
1.3.3 Backfill – Cohesive Soil with Horizontal
Backfill (cont’d)
 The variation of Kaγ z with depth is shown in Figure 1.13(b), and the variation of
𝟐 𝑲𝒂𝒄′ with depth is shown in Figure 1.13(c).
 Note that 𝟐 𝑲𝒂𝒄′ is not a function of z; hence Figure 1.13(c) is a rectangle.
 The variation of σ’a with depth is plotted in Figure 1.13(d).
 Due to the effect of cohesion, σ’a is negative in the upper part of the retaining wall,
the depth, zo at which the active pressure becomes equal to 0 can be found that:
Eq. 43
 or,
Eq. 44
 For the undrained condition, φ = 0, Ka = tan2 45 = 1, and c = cu

(undrained cohesion):
Eq. 45
 With time, tensile cracks at soil-wall interface will develop up to depth zo.

1.3.3 Backfill – Cohesive Soil with Horizontal
Backfill (cont’d)
 The total active force per unit length of the wall can be found from the area of the
total pressure diagram, or,
Eq. 46
 For the ϕ = 0 condition,

Eq. 47
 For the calculation of total active force, common practice is to take the tensile
cracks into account.
 In this case,
Eq. 48
Eq. 49
 For the ϕ = 0 condition,

Eq. 50

(cont’d)
For Passive Case:
 The active pressure against the wall at any depth below the ground surface can be
expressed as:
Figure 1.15: Rankine’s passive earth-pressure distribution against a retaining wall with cohesive
soil backfill.
(cont’d)
For Passive Case:
 Figure 1.15(a) shows the same retaining wall with backfill similar to that considered
in Figure 1.14(a).
 Rankine’s passive pressure against the wall at depth z can be given by:
Eq. 51
 At z = 0,
Eq. 52
 And at z = H,
Eq. 53
 The variation of σ’p with depth is shown in Figure 1.15(b).

 The passive force per unit length of the wall can be found from the are of the
pressure diagram as:
Eq. 54
 For the ϕ = 0 condition, Kp = 1, and,

Eq. 55

REFERENCE
 Das, B.M., (2014). Fundamentals of

Geotechnical Engineering, 8th Edition, Cengage
Learning, Inc., USA.
 Das, B.M., (2009). Principles of Geotechnical
Engineering, 7th Edition, CL-Engineering, New
York.
 Whitlow, R., (2004). Basic Soil Mechanics, 4th
Edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson Education South
Asia Pte Ltd.

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ECG 3223

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

To introduce students to:

 The Rankine and Coulomb earth pressure

© LMS SEGi education group

On completion of this chapter, the students should be

 Explain Rankine and Coulomb theory the earth

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

 These lateral forces are caused by lateral earth

 Shear strength parameters of the soil being retained.

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

In that case, σ’h is referred to

where Ko = at-rest earth

At this time, the horizontal effective

where Ka = active earth pressure

© LMS SEGi education group

The horizontal effective stress, σ’h = σ’p

where Kp = passive earth pressure

© LMS SEGi education group

1. Earth Pressure At-Rest

© LMS SEGi education group

The wall is static. At a depth z,

For coarse-grained soils, the coefficient of

© LMS SEGi education group

 Sherif, Fang, and Sherif (1984), on the basis of laboratory tests

 The increase Ko observed in the above equation is due to over

© LMS SEGi education group

 For that reason, Mayne and Kulhawy (1982), after evaluating

© LMS SEGi education group

 For fine-grained, normally consolidated soils, Marssarch (1979)

 For over consolidated clays, the coefficient of earth pressure at

© LMS SEGi education group

 The total force per unit

© LMS SEGi education group

 Figure 1.6 above shows a wall of height H.

© LMS SEGi education group

 Effective vertical pressure = Eq. 11

where γ’= γsat – γw = the effective unit weight of soil.

 Therefore, the effective lateral pressure at rest is:

 The variation of σ’h with depth is shown by CEGB.

 The lateral pressure from pore water is:

© LMS SEGi education group

Area ACE Area CEFB Area EFG and IJK

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

95.025  28.51  2.84  5.52

© LMS SEGi education group

© LMS SEGi education group

For Active Earth Pressure :

• Assumptions made by Rankine:

Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure.

 Ka = Rankine’s active pressure coefficient

 Table 1 gives the value of Ka for various combination of α and φ’.

 In a similar manner, the Rankine active earth pressure for a wall of a

 Kp = Rankine’s passive pressure coefficient