Lec 1

Settlement Analysis
Compressibility of Soil (Settlement Analysis)
• Why Soil Compresses?
A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other
loads compresses soil layers.
The compression is caused by
(a) Deformation of soil particles
(b) Relocations of soil Particles
(c) Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces.
Types of Settlements
• Elastic Settlement
It is also known as immediate settlement. which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of
moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. Elastic settlement calculations
generally are based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity.
• Primary consolidation settlement
It is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soils because of expulsion of the water that
occupies the void spaces
• Secondary consolidation settlement
It is observed in saturated cohesive soil and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an
additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective stress.
So Total Settlement
S = Se + Sc + Ss
Note: When foundations are constructed on very compressible clays, the consolidation settlement can be
several times greater than the elastic settlement.
Elastic Settlement
• Elastic settlement of foundations (Se) occurs directly after the
application of a load.
• The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the flexibility
of the foundation and the type of material on which it is resting.
Elastic settlement profile

Elastic settlement
profile and contact
pressure in clay:
(a) flexible foundation;
(b) rigid foundation
Relations for Elastic Settlement Calculation

Elastic settlement of flexible

and rigid foundations
Cont.
• Figure shows a shallow foundation subjected to a net force per unit
area equal to Δσ. Let the Poisson’s ratio and the modulus of elasticity
of the soil supporting it be µs and Es, respectively.
• Theoretically, if the foundation is perfectly flexible, the settlement
may be expressed as
Cont.
Location factors.
Variation of F1 with m’ and n’
Variation of F2 with m’ and n’
Variation of If with L/B and Df/B
Numerical 1 (Example Braja.M.Das)
Primary Consolidation Settlement
• When a saturated compressible clay layer is subjected to a stress
increase, elastic settlement occurs immediately. Because the
hydraulic conductivity of clay is significantly smaller than that of sand,
the excess pore water pressure generated by loading gradually
dissipates over a long period.
• Thus, the associated volume change (that is, the consolidation) in the
clay may continue long after the elastic settlement. The settlement
caused by consolidation in clay may be several times greater than the
elastic settlement.
Spring Cylinder Model
Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress in a
clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress,Δσ
Calculation of Settlement from
One-Dimensional Primary Consolidation
Settlement for NCC
Settlement for OCC
Numerical 2
• A soil profile is shown in previous Figure. If a uniformly distributed
load, ΔϬ’, is applied at the ground surface, what is the settlement of
the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if
• a. The clay is normally consolidated
• b. The preconsolidation pressure ( Ϭ’c) 190 kN/m2
• c. Ϭ’c =170 kN/m2

• Note: Calculate effective stress till middle of clay layer

Numerical 3
• A new building is planned upon the site shown below. Assume the clay solids
have a specific gravity of 2.67. Find the primary consolidation settlement if the
clay is NCC.
Secondary Consolidation Settlement
• Previous section showed that at the end of primary consolidation
(that is, after complete dissipation of excess pore water pressure)
some settlement is observed because of the plastic adjustment of soil
fabrics. This stage of consolidation is called secondary consolidation.
During secondary consolidation the plot of deformation against the
log of time is practically linear. The variation of the void ratio, e, with
time t for a given load increment will be similar to that shown in
figure shown on next slide.
Variation of e with log t under a given load increment and definition of
secondary
compression index
Secondary compression index
Total Magnitude of Secondary Settlement

Where C’a

ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation

H = thickness of clay layer
Numerical 4
 Numerical 5

Estimate the settlement.

Use Es/N = 14 where Es
is in ksf
Df = 4 ft
The creep factor should
be calculated for 5 years
Differential Settlement
• After a building has been constructed, some settlement is quite
normal. Differential settlement, however, is when a building’s piers or
foundation settles unequally. Differential settlement can result in
damage to the structure, and is therefore, of concern.
• Differential settlement occurs when the soil beneath the structure
expands, contracts or shifts away. This can be caused by drought
conditions, the root systems of maturing trees, flooding, poor
drainage, frost, broken water lines, vibrations from nearby
construction or poorly compacted fill soil
Differential Settlement
Precompression
• When highly compressible, normally consolidated clayey soil layers lie
at a limited depth and large consolidation settlements are expected
as a result of the construction of large buildings, highway
embankments, or earth dams, pre-compression of soil may be used
to minimize post construction settlement.
Principles of pre-compression
• The principles of precompression are best explained by referring to
previous Figure. Here, the proposed structural load per unit area is
Δσ(p) and the thickness of the clay layer undergoing consolidation is
H. The maximum primary consolidation settlement caused by the
structural load, S(c) = S( p) ,then is
• Note that at the end of consolidation, Δσ’ = Δσ(p)
• The settlement–time relationship under the structural load will be like
that shown in figure (b). However, if a surcharge of Δσ(p) + Δσ (f) is
placed on the ground, then the primary consolidation settlement will
be
b