If you ever have eaten a carrot, a radish, or a sweet potato, then you have

eaten part of a plant root. The root usually is the first structure to grow out of the
seed when it sprouts. For most plants, roots take in water and dissolved minerals
that are transported to the rest of the plant. If you have tried to pull a weed, you
experienced another function of roots they anchor a plant in soil or to some other
plant or object. Roots also support a plant against the effects of gravity, extreme
wind, and moving water. In some plants, the root system is so vast that it makes
up more than half of the plant’s mass. The roots of most plants grow 0.5 to 5 m
down into the soil (Biggs, 2008: 639).

Two types of root systems, a taproot system and a fibrous root system,
occur in plants. A taproot system consists of one main root that formed from the
seedling’s enlarging radicle, or embryonic root. Many lateral roots of various
sizes branch out of a taproot. Taproots are characteristic of many eudicots and
gymnosperms. A dandelion is a good example of a common herbaceous plant
with a taproot system. A fibrous root system has several to many roots of similar
size developing from the end of the stem, with lateral roots branching off these
roots. Fibrous root systems form in plants that have a short-lived embryonic root.
The roots originate first from the base of the embryonic root and later from stem
tissue. The main roots of a fibrous root system do not arise from pre-existing roots
but from the stem; such roots are called adventitious roots. Adventitious organs
occur in an unusual location, such as roots that develop on a stem, or buds that
develop on roots. Onions, crabgrass, and other monocots have fibrous root
systems (Solomon, 2008: 749).

Cells formed in the region of cell division either become part of the root
proper or form the root cap. The root cap is composed of rather large cells that
protect the region of cell division. It also provides a sort of lubrication as its cells
are eroded by the root growing through the soil. Cells of the root are enlarged in
the region of elongation, and this accounts for the greatest increase in the linear
growth of the root. As the cells become older, they develop their specialized
characteristics in the region of differentiation, where the primary root tissues are
formed (Gunstream, 2012: 398).

Some root epidermal cells produce root hairs that absorb water and
dissolved minerals. The layer below this epidermal layer is the cortex. It is
composed of ground tissues made of parenchyma cells that are involved in
transport and storage of plant substances. The cortex is between the epidermis and
the vascular tissues of the root. To reach vascular tissues, all water and nutrients
that are taken in by the epidermal cells must move through the cortex. At the inner
boundary of the cortex is a layer of cells called the endodermis. The layer of cells
directly next to the endodermis toward the center of the root is called the
pericycle. It is the tissue that produces lateral roots. In dicots, most eudicots, and
some monocots, a vascular cambium develops from part of the pericycle (Biggs,
2008: 639-640).

Soil types significantly influenced density, size and distribution of stomata

as well as guard and subsidiary cells. The results of the present study confirmed
that S. nigrum leaves possess hypo amphistomatous and anisocytic stomata. This
study also observed the occurrence of glandular and non-glandular trichomes on
the leaves, whose heads were either sharp, point or knob-like. The occurrence of
glandular and non-glandular trichomes was on both abaxial and adaxial surfaces
of the mid-vein of the leaves. The presence of glandular trichomes might be
responsible for the therapeutic importance of S. nigrum, since glandular trichomes
are known for secreting bioactive compounds. However, soil types did not have
any influence on root and stem characteristics of S. nigrum cultivated on them
(Ogundola, 2017).

Root hairs are short-lived tubular extensions of epidermal cells located just
behind the growing root tip. Root hairs continually form in the area of cell
maturation closest to the root tip to replace those that are dying off at the more
mature end of the root-hair zone. Each root hair is short (typically less than 1 cm,
or 0.4 in, in length), but they are quite numerous. Root hairs greatly increase the
absorptive capacity of roots by increasing their surface area in contact with moist
soil. Soil particles are coated with a microscopically thin layer of water in which
minerals are dissolved. The root hairs establish an intimate contact with soil
particles, which allows efficient absorption of water and minerals (Solomon,
2008: 749).

The tissues found in a root of a herbaceous dicot (Ranunculus) as viewed

in cross section. Note the three major divisions: epidermis, cortex, and stele. The
epidermis is the outermost layer of cells. It provides protection for the underlying
tissues and reduces water loss. The cortex composes the bulk of the root and
consists mostly of large, thin-walled cells used for food storage. The endodermis,
the innermost layer of the cortex, is composed of thick-walled, water-
impermeable cells and a few water-permeable cells with thinner walls. The stele is
that portion of the root within the endodermis. It is sometimes called the central
cylinder. The outer layer of the stele is composed of thin-walled cells, the
pericycle, from which branch roots originate (Gunstream, 2012: 399).

Xylem, the centermost tissue of the stele, often has two, three, four, or
more extensions, or “xylem arms”. Phloem is located in patches between the
xylem arms. The xylem and phloem of the root have the same functions and kinds
of cells as in the rest of the plant: Water and dissolved minerals are conducted in
tracheids and vessel elements of xylem, and dissolved sugar (sucrose) is
conducted in sieve tube elements of phloem. After passing through the
endodermal cells, water enters the root xylem, often at one of the xylem arms
(Solomon, 2008: 752).

This study showed that tree species exhibited better soil–root interactions
than shrub species. When trees grow in the middle of slope, its extensive
morphological and mechanical properties would ultimately result in a more
reinforced and stable soil. Root architecture and magnitude of root tensile strength
can be used as indicators of individual plant performance for soil reinforcement,
especially in selecting potential slope plants. Species selection and planting at
appropriate positions on slope will prominently improve slope stability. The
obtained results can be useful in improving soil bioengineering techniques, in
order to prevent shallow mass movement (Saifuddin, 2016).