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Abstract: Four predictions of Mills’ Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics (GUTCP) regarding atomic hydrogen
undergoing a catalytic reaction with certain atomized elements and ions which resonantly, nonradiatively
accept integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m · 27.2 eV wherein m is an integer,
have been confirmed experimentally. Specifically, a catalyst comprises a chemical or physical process with
an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. For
He+ m = 2, due to its ionization reaction to He2+ , and two H atoms formed from H2 by collision with a third,
hot H can also act as a catalyst with m = 2 for this third H. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of
atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms” wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,…, 1/p( p6137 is an integer) replaces the
well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The predictions for
the hydrino reaction of (1) pumping of the catalyst excited states, (2) characteristic EUV continuum radiation,
(3) fast H, and (4) hydrino products were observed in multiple catalyst-hydrogen plasma systems.
PACS (2008): 32.30.Jc; 33.20.Ni; 52.25.Os; 52.50.Dg; 52.70.Kz
Keywords: helium-hydrogen and hydrogen plasmas • catalysis • pumping • q· 13.6 eV EUV continua • fast hydrogen •
molecular hydrino
© Versita Sp. z o.o.
318
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
between all of the principal energy levels of the hydrogen to form hydrogen in lower-energy states than previously
atom. Reproducing this equation was seen as validation thought possible. Specifically, the product is H(1/p),
of models proposed for the one-electron atom. The Bohr fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen wherein
theory was the first success, but failed to physically pre- n = 21 , 13 , 41 , ..., p1 ( p 6 137 is an integer) replaces the
dict the stability of the n = 1 state as well as the splitting well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equa-
of the spectral lines in a magnetic field and other atomic tion for hydrogen excited states. The excited energy states
observables beyond the Rydberg series of lines. Conse- of atomic hydrogen are given by Eq. (2) for n > 1 in Eq. (3).
quently, Schrödinger proposed that the electron charge as The n = 1 state is the “ground” state for “pure” photon
a “cloud” obeyed a three-dimensional wave equation. This transitions (i.e. the n = 1 state can absorb a photon and
model was later modified by Born who proposed a point go to an excited electronic state, but it cannot release a
electron existing everywhere at once weighed statistically photon and go to a lower-energy electronic state). How-
so that only an expectation value as a single-valued ob- ever, an electron transition from the ground state to a
servable is obtained with measurement that “collapses” lower-energy state may be possible by a resonant non-
the infinity of simultaneous values. This current model radiative energy transfer such as multipole coupling or a
is untenable physically; rather, it is purely mathematical resonant collision mechanism. Processes such as hydro-
and relies on a mathematical definition for the stability gen molecular bond formation that occur without photons
of the n = 1 state [1, 3, 5–8, 10, 11]. Consequently, it and that require collisions are common [12]. Also, some
is disproved on mathematical inconsistency grounds by commercial phosphors are based on resonant nonradiative
the existence of lower-states since the mathematics does energy transfer involving multipole coupling [13].
not allow such states. In contrast to the current point- The theory reported previously1 [1–11, 14] predicts that
particle models that are physically flawed or not based atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with
on physics at all, Mills1 [1–11] solved the structure of the certain atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides which
bound electron using classical laws. In closed-form equa- provide a reaction with a net enthalpy of an integer mul-
tions containing fundamental constants only, this solution tiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, Eh =
naturally and intuitively predicts the hydrogen-atom ob- 27.2 eV where Eh is one Hartree. Specific species identi-
servables such as the stability of the n = 1 state and fiable on the basis of their known electron energy levels
the instability of the excited states, the equation of the are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to cat-
photon and electron in excited states, the resonant line alyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiative
width and shape, the selection rules, the correspondence energy transfer followed by emission or energy transfer to
principle, the magnetic moment of a Bohr magneton, the H to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H [14–21] and
g factor, the Lamb shift, orbital and spin splitting, spin- a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted
orbit coupling (fine structure), and spin-nuclear coupling atomic hydrogen that corresponds to a fractional principal
(hyperfine structure) in agreement with observation. Mills quantum number given by
subsequently developed a unification theory based on the
1 1 1 1
n = 1, , , , ..., ; p 6 137 is an integer,
classical laws called the Grand Unified Theory of Classi-
(4)
cal Physics (GUTCP) with results that match observations 2 3 4 p
for the basic phenomena of physics and chemistry from the
scale of the quarks to the cosmos. This paper is the second in Eq. (1). The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = integer
1
in a series of three that covers two specific predictions of states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition be-
GUTCP, two involving the existence of lower-energy states tween two nonradiative states, say n = 1 to n = 1/2,
of the hydrogen atom and the transition mechanism, which is possible via a nonradiative energy transfer. Thus, a
represents a powerful new energy source, and the third catalyst provides a net positive enthalpy of reaction of
involving the existence of a fifth force1 beyond the elec- m · 27.2 eV (i.e. it resonantly accepts the nonradiative
tromagnetic, strong and weak-nuclear, and gravitational energy transfer from hydrogen atoms and releases the en-
forces. ergy to the surroundings to affect electronic transitions to
fractional quantum energy levels). As a consequence of
the nonradiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom be-
comes unstable and emits further energy until it achieves
GUTCP predicts a reaction involving a resonant, nonra-
a lower-energy nonradiative state having a principal en-
diative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hy-
ergy level given by Eqs. (2) and (4).
drogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy
He+ , 2H, Ar+ , Sr+ , Li, K, Cs, and NaH are predicted to
serve as catalysts since they meet the catalyst criterion
1
R. L. Mills, Y. Lu, Fifth Force, submitted a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change
319
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
equal to an integer multiple of the potential energy of crowave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen [36–38].
atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV.The data from a broad spec- He+ fulfills the catalyst criteriona chemical or physi-
trum of investigational techniques strongly and consis- cal process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer
tently support the existence of these states called hy- multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is
drino, for “small hydrogen”, and the corresponding di- 2 · 27.2 eV. The product of the catalysis reaction of He+ ,
atomic molecules called molecular hydrino. Some of these H(1/3), may further serve as a catalyst to lead to tran-
prior related studies supporting the possibility of a novel sitions to other states H(1/p). These results also have
reaction of atomic hydrogen, which produces hydrogen in further implications for the resolution of many celestial
fractional quantum states that are at lower energies than mysteries such as the paradox of the identity of dark mat-
the traditional “ground” (n = 1) state, include extreme ul- ter, the identity of the radiation source behind the obser-
traviolet (EUV) spectroscopy, characteristic emission from vation that diffuse H α emission is ubiquitous throughout
catalysts and the hydride ion products, lower-energy hy- the Galaxy and widespread sources of flux shortward of
drogen emission, chemically-formed plasmas, Balmer α 912 Å are required, the solar corona problem, the cause of
line broadening, population inversion of H lines, elevated sunspots and other solar activity, and why the Sun emits
electron temperature, anomalous plasma afterglow dura- X-rays [38].
tion, power generation, and analysis of novel chemical The highly energetic hydrino transition gives rise to six
compounds [14–44]. corresponding predicted characteristic signatures: (1) ex-
cess power, (2) emission of broad-band q · 13.6 eV ra-
Recently, there has been the announcement of some un-
diation, (3) pumping of the catalyst excited states, (4)
expected astrophysical results that support the existence
characteristic EUV continuum radiation, (5) fast H, and
of hydrinos. In 1995, Mills published the GUTCP pre-
(6) hydrino products. The first characteristic was re-
diction [45] that the expansion of the universe was accel-
ported on previously [31, 32]. For a sufficiently high kinet-
erating from the same equations that correctly predicted
ics, the transitions to form hydrinos will produce measur-
the mass of the top quark before it was measured. To the
able power. As predicted, water bath calorimetry showed
astonishment of cosmologists, this was confirmed by 2000.
He/H2 (10%) (500 mTorr) plasmas generated with an Even-
Mills made another prediction about the nature of dark
son microwave cavity consistently yielded on the order of
matter based on GUTCP that may be close to being con-
firmed. Based on recent evidence, Bournaud et al. [46, 47]
50% more heat than the plasma control of He under identi-
cal conditions of gas flow, pressure, and microwave operat-
suggest that dark matter is hydrogen in dense molecular
ing conditions corresponding to an excess power density of
form that somehow behaves differently in terms of being
about 10 W · cm−3 . In addition to unique vacuum ultravio-
unobservable except by its gravitational effects. Theoreti-
let (EUV) lines [36–38], He/H2 plasmas also demonstrated
cal models predict that dwarfs formed from collisional de-
broadening of the hydrogen Balmer series lines [14–21].
bris of massive galaxies should be free of nonbaryonic dark
In this paper, we report on the nature of the latter four
matter. So, their gravity should tally with the stars and
signatures of the hydrino transition and the conditions to
gas within them. By analyzing the observed gas kinemat-
ics of such recycled galaxies, Bournaud et al. [46, 47] have
reproducibly observe them.
measured the gravitational masses of a series of dwarf The basis of each signature can be understood from a more
galaxies lying in a ring around a massive galaxy that has detailed understanding of the mechanism of the hydrino
recently experienced a collision. Contrary to the predic- transition. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states
tions of Cold-Dark-Matter (CDM) theories, their results given by Eqs. (2) and (4) wherein the corresponding radius
demonstrate that they contain a massive dark component of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by
amounting to about twice the visible matter. This baryonic
aH
dark matter is argued to be cold molecular hydrogen, but r= , (5)
it is distinguished from ordinary molecular hydrogen in p
that it is not traced at all by traditional methods, such as
emission of CO lines. These results match the predictions where p = 1, 2, 3, . . .. In order to conserve energy, energy
of the dark matter being molecular hydrino. must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst
in units of
Emission lines recorded on cold interstellar regions con-
taining dark matter matched H(1/p), fractional Rydberg
states of atomic hydrogen given by Eqs. (2) and (4) [38]. m · 27.2 eV, m = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , (6)
Such emission lines with energies of q · 13.6 eV, where
aH
q = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 11 were also observed by ex- and the radius transitions to m+p
. Thus, the general re-
treme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy recorded on mi- action is given by
320
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
321
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
−
54.4 eV + 2H + H → 2H+fast + 2e
ha i
+ H∗ + [32 − 12 ] · 13.6 eV, −
H
3
(18) 27.2 eV + H (1/3) + H → H+ fast (K E=13.6 eV) + e
h a i
+ Hfast (K E=13.6 eV) ∗
H
+ 27.2 eV, (24)
1+3
h a i ha i
H∗ →H
H H
+ 54.4 eV, (19)
2+1 3
h a i
− Hfast (K E=13.6 eV) ∗
H
fast + 2e → 2H + 54.4 eV.
2H+ (20) 1+3
ha i
→ Hfast (K E=13.6 eV)
H
And, the overall reaction is + 54.4 eV, (25)
4
ha i
H→H + [32 − 12 ] · 13.6 eV.
H
(21)
3
aH h a i
Since the H∗ 2+1 intermediate of Eq. (18) is equivalent Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) ∗
H
1+3
to that of Eqs. (10) and (13), the continuum emission is ha i
→ Hfast (K E=27.2 eV)
H
predicted to be the same as that with He+ as the cata- + 40.8 eV. (26)
4
lyst. The energy transfer to two H causes pumping of the
catalyst excited states, and fast H is produced directly as And, with thermalization, the overall reaction is
given by Eqs. (18)–(20) and by resonant kinetic energy
ha i
transfer as in the case of He+ as the catalyst. The EUV H (1/3) → H
H
+ [42 − 32 ] · 13.6 eV. (27)
continuum radiation, pumping of H excited states, and fast 4
aH
H were also observed with hydrogen plasmas wherein 2H In general, the transition of H to H m+1 due by the ac-
served as the catalyst. ceptance of m· 27.2 eV gives a continuum band with a
The predicted product of the helium-ion and 2H catalyst short wavelength cutoff at energy E(H→H[ aH ]) given by
m+1
reactions given by Eqs. (10)–(16) and Eqs. (18)–(21), re-
spectively, is H(1/3). In the case of a high hydrogen atom E(H→H[ aH
]) = m · 13.6 eV,
2
(28)
m+1
concentration, the further transition given by Eq. (17) of
H(1/3) (p = 3) to H(1/4) (m+p = 4) with H as the catalyst corresponding to a wavelength of 91.2 / m2 nm and extends
(p0 = 1; m = 1) can be fast: to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. In
322
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
addition, the collision of the intermediate of Eq. (23) with lack of substantial fast H to support the 2H catalyst reac-
a helium atom to excite the dominant transition, He 1s2 + tion. The low rates were further evidenced by the Balmer
21.21 eV → He 1s1 2p1 , gives rise to 63.3 nm emission line intensities of pure H2 microwave plasmas that did not
via the following mechanism: deviate substantially from the NIST ratios. However, we
found a large increase in the catalysis rate with the use
of water-vapor microwave plasmas that showed a large
h a i
Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) ∗
H increase in H emission and a subsequent characteristic
+ He 1s2
1+3 pumping of excited H states.
h a i
→ Hfast (K E=27.2 eV)
H
+ He 1s1 2p1 In order to achieve a 2H catalyst reaction involving a bi-
1+3
+ hν (19.59 eV, 63.3 nm) .
nary collision, it is necessary to first form a large pop-
(29)
ulation of fast H. It was reported previously that a high
concentration of atomic H is formed in a water vapor ra-
And, with thermalization and relaxation, the overall reac- dio frequency (RF) cell [19] wherein several monolayers
tion is given by Eq. (27). of atomic H can initially form on the cathode surface to
H(1/4) and the corresponding molecular hydrino H2 (1/4) initiate the catalysis reaction [52–55]. On the contrary,
are favored products as shown previously [14]. The NMR the prevention of the formation of surface atomic hydro-
of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the gen prevents the catalysis reaction [56]. Furthermore, it
theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2 (1/4). In gen- is known that water vapor may be added to the plasma
eral, the 1 H NMR resonance of H2 (1/p) is predicted to to increase the hydrogen concentration [57]. Fast H in
be upfield from that of H2 due to the fractional radius in the gas phase can then advance the rate, and in addition
elliptic coordinates [1, 5] wherein the electrons are sig- to H, hydrinos undergoing increasingly energetic transi-
nificantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift, ∆BBT , tions to lower states can increase the energy of the fast H.
for H2 (1/p) derived previously [1, 5] is given by the sum of From the width of the emitted 656.3 nm Balmer α line, it
that of H2 and a term that depends on p = integer > 1 was previously found that capacitively coupled RF water
for H2 (1/p): vapor plasmas in static mode (no-flow condition) showed
two populations of atomic hydrogen. A typical slow pop-
√ ! ulation was observed that was independent of time, and a
∆BT √ e2 new phenomenon, an extraordinary fast population (130–
2 ln √
2+1
= −µ0 4− (1 + παp),
B 2 − 1 36a0 me 150 eV) that was initially zero, but increased to a signifi-
(30) cant portion of the Balmer α emission with time, was also
observed. This phenomenon matched the production of a
∆BT
= −(28.01 + 0.64p) ppm, (31)
B
high concentration of H from OH as evidenced by the dis-
appearance of the OH bands and the dramatic increase in
where for H2 p = 0. The experimental absolute H2 gas-
the H emission [19]. Thus, RF water vapor plasmas were
batch-mode run in a cell with a diode configuration hav-
phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm [48–51] is in excellent
ing two parallel large circular stainless steel electrodes.
agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of
Fast H was recorded by the broadening of the Balmer α
-28.01 ppm (Eq. (31)).
line, and H2 (1/4) gas was directly collected by liquefac-
Thus, in this paper, we report on the experimental confir-
tion in an NMR solvent at 4 K. Fast H and production of
mation of the four additional predictions of the physical
H2 (1/4) gas were also achieved in static-mode RF plasmas
mechanism to form hydrinos and means to readily repro-
of pure hydrogen. Moreover, a similar temporal behavior
duce them. We found a dependence of each signature on
of the fast population was observed as in the case of H2 O
the plasma conditions with the observation of the pump-
RF plasmas, but the increase in the fast population was
ing of the catalyst states in highly collisional, weakly ion-
faster in the pure H2 RF plasmas, and the production of
ized microwave plasmas, fast H in weakly ionized plasmas
H2 (1/4) was also faster. This was attributed to the ab-
having a high-energy electron component to excite fast H
sence of OH as a temporary sink of H with the concentra-
before it cooled, and the characteristic EUV continuum ra-
tion of H initially high due to the effectiveness of the RF
diation in pinched, highly ionized pulsed discharge plas-
cell to dissociate H2 in the cathode fall region and at the
mas. Helium-hydrogen microwave plasmas have substan-
cathode.
tial He+ and H emission and served as sources of H2 (1/4)
that was liquefied by a liquid helium trap that collected it A further signature of the energetic hydrino process was
over time. Pure hydrogen microwave plasmas were found the observation of the formation of a plasma called a
to produce H2 (1/4) at a slower rate possibly due to the resonant transfer- or rt-plasma at low temperatures (e.g.
323
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
its ionization energy is about 27.2 eV. The catalyst reac- Parameter Experimental Conditions
tion of Ar+ to Ar2+ forms H(1/2) which may further react to
Electron Beam Energy 1-2 kV
form H(1/4) and H2 (1/4) [1]. Since the ionization energy of
Electron Beam Pulse Duration 0.5-20 ms
Sr+ to Sr3+ has a net enthalpy of reaction of 2 · 27.2 eV,
Pulse Repetition Rate 5 Hz
Sr+ may also serve as catalyst alone or with Ar+ cata-
Cathode Bias Voltage 12 kV
lyst to form H2 (1/4). It was reported previously that an
rt-plasma formed with a low field (1 V/cm), at low temper-
atures (e.g. ≈103 K), from atomic hydrogen generated at a
tungsten filament plus strontium which was vaporized by
heating the metal [25–29, 40]. Strong VUV emission was
observed that increased with the addition of argon, but
The wavelength resolution was about 0.05 nm (FWHM)
not when sodium, magnesium, or barium replaced stron-
with an entrance slit width of 4 µm. The increment was
tium or with hydrogen, argon, or strontium alone. Time-
0.02 nm and the dwell time was 10 s. The light was de-
dependent line broadening of the H Balmer α line was
tected by a CEM.
observed corresponding to extraordinarily fast H (25 eV).
An excess power of 20 mW · cm−3 was measured calori-
metrically on rt-plasmas formed when Ar+ was added to
Sr+ as an additional catalyst [29]. Characteristic continua 2.2. Pulsed-plasma emission spectra
emission to longer wavelengths with edges at 45.6 nm and
91.2 nm [40] were recorded. The mechanism of the con-
tinua was assigned, and the predicted molecular hydrino EUV spectroscopy was recorded on argon, helium-
product H2 (1/4) was confirmed in this study by recording hydrogen (98/2%), and hydrogen high-voltage pulsed dis-
the NMR of rt-plasma gases collected by liquefaction in charge plasmas with the McPherson grazing incidence
an NMR solvent at 4 K. EUV spectrometer (Model 248/310G) using the same pa-
rameters as those of the microwave plasma spectra. The
experimental set up is shown in Fig. 1. A summary of high-
2. Experimental voltage pulsed plasma parameters to observe the EUV
continuum from hydrino transitions is given in Table 1.
2.1. Microwave emission spectra An electron gun (Commercial TV gun, Clinton Electron-
ics Corporation, Model 3-659), driven by a high voltage
The experimental set up comprised a microwave discharge pulse generator (DEI, GRX high voltage pulse generator),
gas cell light source and an EUV spectrometer which was provided a pulsed electron beam with a beam voltage of
differentially pumped as described previously [36–38]. Ex- 1-3 kV and a duration of 0.5-20 ms. The electron beam
treme ultraviolet emission spectra were obtained on mi- triggered a high voltage pulsed discharge at a repetition
crowave plasmas of helium alone, helium-hydrogen (5% rate of 5 Hz. A negative high voltage power supply (Uni-
to 17%) mixtures, helium-nitrogen (5% to 17%) mixtures, versal Voltronics Corp., Model 1650R2) was used to apply
and water vapor [43, 44]. The microwave generator was a ∼12 kV to the cathode of the main discharge. The main
Sairem (GMP03KS, 2.45 GHz, 300 W). The output power discharge cell comprised a tapered hollow anode (3 mm
was set at 40 watts. Each gas was flowed through a half- bore) and a hollow cathode (3 mm bore). Cathodes of
inch diameter quartz tube at 1 Torr. The gas pressure molybdenum, tungsten, and tantalum were each run to
inside the cell was maintained by flowing the gas while eliminate cathode metal emission as the source of con-
monitoring the pressure with a 10 Torr MKS Baratron ab- tinuum radiation. The electrodes were separated by a
solute pressure gauge. The tube was fitted with a Sairem 4 mm gap. Ultrahigh purity hydrogen, argon, helium, and
coaxial microwave cavity (Evenson cavity). The EUV spec- helium-hydrogen (98/2%) mixture were flowed at rates be-
trometer was a McPherson grazing incidence EUV spec- tween 1 to 10 sccm and pressures between 100 mTorr and
trometer (Model 248/310G) equipped with a grating hav- 900 mTorr controlled by a mass flow controller (MKS). On-
ing 600 lines/mm. The angle of incidence was 87°. The line mass spectroscopy and high-resolution visible spec-
wavelength region covered by the monochromator was 5– troscopy using the Jobin Yvon Horiba 1250 M spectrome-
65 nm. An aluminum filter (150 nm thick, band-pass 17– ter described infra ruled out contaminants in the plasma
80 nm) was used to eliminate longer wavelength photons. gasses.
324
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
325
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
326
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
327
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
328
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
329
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
atomic and ionic emission is possible at these energies And, the overall reaction is
corresponding to line emission, and no continuum emission
is possible even for Doppler broadened lines. From Wien’s ha i
H [aH ] → H
H
+ 27.2 eV + 13.6 eV. (37)
displacement law, blackbody radiation at 24 nm wave- 2
lengths would correspond to a temperature of 1.2 × 105 K,
an absolutely impossible scenario. Thus, the lines are as- The emission may be in the form of an extreme-ultraviolet
signed to predicted q · 13.6 eV continua with thresholds continuum radiation having an edge at 13.6 eV (91.2 nm)
at 54.4 eV (q = 4) and 40.8 eV (q = 3) for He+ catalyst. and extending to longer wavelengths. Alternatively, reso-
nant kinetic energy transfer from H∗ a2H to background H
Similarly as in the case of He+ , argon ions can provide a
net enthalpy of a multiple of the potential energy of the to form fast H may occur. Subsequent excitation of these
hydrogen atom, but the transition is to a different state. fast H(n = 1) atoms by collisions with the background
Rather than 54.4 eV, the second ionization energy of ar- H2 followed by emission of the corresponding H(n = 3)
gon is 27.63 eV. Then, the reaction Ar+ to Ar2+ has a net fast atoms gives rise to broadened Balmer α emission.
enthalpy of reaction of 27.63 eV, which is equivalent to Extraordinary (>100 eV) Balmer α line broadening is ob-
m = 1 in Eqs. (6)–(9). served consistent with predictions [14–21].
A secondary continuum band is also predicted for Ar+
arising from the subsequently rapid transition of the
Ar+ catalysis product a2H (Eqs. (34)–(37)) to the a3H
27.63 eV + Ar+ + H [aH ]
h a i state wherein atomic hydrogen accepts 27.2 eV from
→ Ar2+ + e− + H∗
H a
+ 27.2 eV, (34) H
2
. The corresponding two hot intermediates are
1+1 a
Hfast (K E=13.6 eV) ∗ 1+2
H
having a kinetic energy (KE) of
aH
13.6 eV and Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) ∗ 1+2 having a kinetic en-
h a i ha i
H∗ →H
H H ergy (KE) of 27.2 eV. The intermediates having 27.2 eV and
+ 13.6 eV, (35)
1+1 2 13.6 eV of remaining energy can each further emit this en-
ergy as a continuum band starting at 45.6 nm and 91.2 nm,
Ar2+ + e− → Ar+ + 27.63 eV. (36) respectively, and continuing to longer wavelengths.
h a i
27.2 eV + H (1/2) + H → Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) + Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) ∗
H
+ 27.2 eV, (38)
1+2
h a i
− ∗
27.2 eV + H (1/2) + H → H+
fast (K E=13.6 eV) + e + Hfast (K E=13.6 eV)
H
+ 27.2 eV, (39)
1+2
h a i ha i
Hfast (K E=27.2 eV) ∗ → Hfast (K E=27.2 eV)
H H
+ 13.6 eV, (40)
1+2 3
h a i ha i
Hfast (K E=13.6 eV) ∗ → Hfast (K E=13.6 eV)
H H
+ 27.2 eV. (41)
1+2 3
And, with thermalization, the overall reaction is
ha i
H (1/2) → H + [32 − 22 ] · 13.6 eV.
H
(42)
3
With the additional insight into the nature of hydrino of about 1-2 V/cm when a catalyst is present with atomic
transitions, the primary and secondary EUV continua pre- hydrogen. As shown in Figures 17 and 31 of Ref. [40]
dicted by Eqs. (35) and (41) are reasonably identifiable continua bands starting at 45.6 nm and 91.2 nm and con-
in previously reported spectra [40]. A signature of the tinuing to longer wavelengths were recorded on an rt-
energetic hydrino transition process is the formation of plasma having Ar+ as the catalyst. Other sources of con-
a plasma called a resonant transfer- or rt-plasma at low tinua can be eliminated. Molecular hydrogen bands were
temperatures (e.g. ≈103 K) and very low field strengths not observed in the 90 nm to 130 nm region, nor were
330
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
331
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
332
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
333
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
a)
Figure 16. The statistical curve fit of the Balmer α line width pro-
file recorded on water-vapor plasmas in the static mode
(no-flow mode) after 4 hours at 100 mTorr and 200 W.
The data best matched two Gaussian profiles having the
P (C alculated−Measured)2
χ2 = C alculated and R2 (correlation coef-
ficient squared) values indicated. A fast population of
137 eV as well as a slow population of 1.5 eV were ob-
served only for the water vapor plasmas.
334
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
a)
∆BT
= −30.6 ppm − (−31.5 ppm) = 0.9 ppm, (43)
B
4. Conclusion
indicated the presence of an energetic reaction that meets
the requirement of a source of Doppler energy other than In this study, we made specific theoretical predictions
that provided by the electric field. Water vapor plasmas based on the GUTCP and tested them with standard, eas-
were found to support a high rate of the 2H catalyst reac- ily interpretable experiments wherein experimental con-
tion wherein the predicted fast H due to the hydrino tran- ditions and methods were determined for readily repro-
sition reaction was observed. Similar results were also ducing the results. Specifically, the characteristic sig-
observed when Ar+ served as the catalyst as predicted natures of the reaction involving a resonant, nonradia-
and reported previously [15–18, 20, 21]. tive energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydro-
gen to the catalysts He+ and 2H capable of accepting
3.4. NMR of product H2 (1/4) from liquid- the energy to form hydrinos, H(1/p), were sought. The
335
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
a)
a)
b)
b)
Figure 19. 1
H NMR relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) of water-
Figure 18. 1
H NMR relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) of He/H2 mi- vapor RF plasma gases collected at 4K and dissolved
crowave plasma gases collected at 4K and dissolved in in CDCl3 showing isolated H2 (1/4) at 1.25 ppm. (a) 0
CDCl3 showing isolated H2 (1/4) at 1.25 ppm. (a) 0 ppm ppm to 8 ppm region showing the major peaks, the sol-
to 8 ppm region showing the major peaks, the solvent vent peak at 7.26 ppm, the H2 peak at 4.62 ppm, and
peak at 7.26 ppm, the H2 peak at 4.62 ppm, and the the broad H2 O peak at 1.54 ppm. (b) 0 ppm to 4 ppm re-
broad H2 O peak at 1.54 ppm. (b) 0 ppm to 1.3 ppm re- gion showing a broad singlet peak upfield of H2 at 1.25
gion showing the sharp CH4 singlet at 0.22 ppm and a ppm. The 1.25 ppm peak was the only peak in the spec-
broad singlet peak upfield of H2 at 1.25 ppm. The 1.25 trum that could not be assigned to common species. It
ppm peak was the only peak in the spectrum that could matched the theoretical position of H2 (1/4).
not be assigned to common species. It matched the the-
oretical position of H2 (1/4).
336
Randell L. Mills, Ying Lu, Kamran Akhtar
Figure 22. 1
H NMR relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) of strontium-
Figure 20. 1
H NMR relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) of hydrogen argon-hydrogen rt-plasma gases collected at 4K and dis-
RF plasma gases collected at 4K and dissolved in DMF- solved in DMF-d7 showing isolated H2 (1/4) at 1.28 ppm.
d7 showing isolated H2 (1/4) at 1.28 ppm. The solvent The solvent peaks are indicated as well as the broad H2 O
peaks are indicated as well as the H2 peak at 4.55 ppm, peak at 3.51 ppm and a background solvent peak at 0.88
the broad H2 O peak at 3.50 ppm, a background solvent ppm.
peak at 0.88 ppm, and the sharp CH4 singlet at 0.14
ppm.
337
Spectroscopic observation of helium-ion- and hydrogen-catalyzed hydrino transitions
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