1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material, it is usually
associated with Portland cement as the main component for making concrete.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is conventionally used as the primary binder to
produce concrete.
Production of Portland cement is currently exceeding 2.6 billion tons per year
worldwide and growing at 5% annually. Portland cement is a major contributor to
carbon-di-oxide emissions as an estimated 5 to 8 percentage of all human –
generated atmospheric carbon – di – oxide worldwide comes from the concrete
industry. The global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon-di-oxide , to atmosphere by human activities. Among the greenhouse gases,
carbon-di-oxide contributes about 65% of global warming. The amount of the
carbon – di – oxide released during the manufacture of ordinary Portland cement
due to the calcinations of limestone combustion of fossil fuel is approximately in
the order of one ton for every ton of ordinary Portland cement produced. In terms
of reducing the global warming, the Geopolymer technology reduce the carbon-di-
oxide emission to the atmosphere caused by cement about 80%.
1.2 Concrete
Concrete is weak in tension compared to steel. It is the most widely used
building material. This is due to versatility. It has desirable engineering properties.
It can be made on site using easily available materials. Most importantly, it is
produced cost effectively compared to other construction materials.
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1.3 Origin of Geopolymer

Geopolymer also known as ‘inorganic polymer’ has emerged as a ‘green’
binder with wide potentials for manufacturing sustainable materials for
environmental, refractory and construction applications. The term Geopolymer was
first introduced to the world by Davidovits of France in a new field of research and
technology. In 1978, Davidovits proposed that alkaline liquid could be used to
react with the silicon and the aluminium in a source material of geological origin
or in by – product materials such as fly ash and metakaolin to produce binders.
Because the chemical reaction that takes place in this case is a polymerization
process, Davidovits coined the term ‘Geopolymer’ to represent these binders.
Geopolymer are members of the family of inorganic polymers. The chemical
composition of the Geopolymer material is similar to natural zeolitic materials , but
the microstructure is amorphous instead of crystalline.
1.3.2 Geopolymerization
Geopolymeriztion is the process of polymerizing silica alumina containing
minerals using alkali solvents. The addition of sodium silicate is to enhance the
process of geopolymerization. Every materials used in Geopolymer cement have
their own function and role to create a chemical reaction and mechanism. The
atomic ratio Si : Al in the polysialate structure determines the application fields. A
low ratio Si : Al (1,2,3) initiates a 3D – network polymeric chain and ring
structure. The ultimate structure of the Geopolymer depends largely on the ratio of
Si to Al, with the material most often considered for use in transportation
infrastructure typically having an Si : Al between 2 and 3.5.
1.3.3 Properties of Geopolymer concrete
 Average density of Geopolymer concrete (GPC) was equal to that of OPC
concrete.
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 Curing is done in ambient temperature, non toxic, bleed free.

 Low drying shrinkage, low creep and good resistance against acid and
sulphate attracks.

1.3.4 Advantage of Geopolymer Concrete

 It reduces permeability and gives high life span.
 It is stronger, more resistant to chemicals and corrosion.
 Eco-friendly to environment and energy saving.
 Good Volume stability , low thermal conductivity and having high fire
resistance.
1.3.5 Applications of Geopolymer Concrete
 Fire resistance
 Insulated panels and walls
 Foamed Geopolymer panels for thermal insulation
1.4 Need for the Study
 To find an alternative for the ordinary Portland cement.
 To reduce CO2 emission and produce eco-friendly concrete.
 To reduce the usage of ordinary Portland cement.
1.5 Objectives
 To make a concrete without using cement (i.e Geopolymer Concrete)
 To study the different flexural and elastic properties of Geopolymer concrete
with percentage replacement of metakaolin.
 To evaluate the optimum mix proportion of geopolymer concrete with fly
ash replaced in various percentage by metakaoline.
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1.6 Scope of the Study

 Replacement of cement by fly ash and metakaolin can be achieved by
utilizing geopolymer matrix which in turn reduces the environmental
pollution caused due to emission of greenhouse gases in cement industries.
 The main objectives of this present investigation is to study the possibility of
adding metakaolin and fly ash in concrete.
 In order to reduce the cost of construction and make a building free from
environment pollution the natural and waste material are to be used in the
construction.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE OF REVIEW
2.1. LITERATURE OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

DjwantoroHardjito (2005) ‘Studies on Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete”.

Fly Ash was chosen as the basic material to be activated by the

geopolymerization process to be the concrete binder, to totally replace the use of
Portland cement. The binder is the only difference to the ordinary Portland cement
concrete. To activate the Silicon and Aluminium content in fly ash, a combination
of sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution was used. Nepthalene –
based superplasticiser was found to be useful to improve the workability to fresh
fly based Geopolymer concrete , as well as the addition of extra water. The main
parameters affecting the compressive strength of hardened fly ash based
Geopolymer concrete are the curing temperature and curing time, the molar H2O
to Na2O ration, and mixing time. Fresh fly ash based Geopolymer concrete has
been able to remain workable up to at least 120 minutes without any sign of setting
and without any degration in the compressive strength. Providing a rest period for
fresh concrete after casting before the start of curing up to five days increased the
compressive strength of hardened concrete. The last results showed that the elastic
properties of hardened fly ash-based Geopolymer concrete, i.e, the modulus of
elasticity , the poisson’s ratio, and the indirect tensile strength, are similar to those
of ordinary Portland cement concrete. The stress strain relations of fly Ash based
Geopolymer concrete fit well with the expression developed for ordinary Portland
cement concrete.
 6

S.J. Foster & T.S.Ng , Future in Mechanics of structure and materials (2009),
‘Development of high performance Geopolymer concrete’.
The paper concludes , the equations developed for elastic modules of
conventional concrete cannot be applied to that of GPC, the density and the
poison’s ratio of Geopolymer concrete are similar to those of OPC concrete.
Compressive strength of Geopolymer concrete of 90 MPa, and more are
achievable. The addition of slag in the fly ash based Geopolymer concrete is found
to be beneficial to its strength development. For a given compressive strength,
Geopolymer concrete has a significantly low elastic modules then a equivalent
OPC concrete. A model for calculation of the elastic based on a two phase material
approach is presented and shown to provide a good correlation.

Pof.M.A.Bhosale and Pof N.N.Sinde (2012), ‘Geopolymer concrete by using

Fly ash in construction’.
In this paper , the mechanism of activation of a fly ash (no other solid
material was used) with highly alkaline solution is described. These solutions,
made with NaOH, Na2Sio3. This paper , report on the study of the processing of
Geopolymer using f fly ash and alkaline activator with geopolymerization process.
The factors that influence the early age compressive strength such as molarities
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) have been studies. Sodium hydroxide and sodium
silicate solution were used as an alkaline activator. These studies comprise the
comparision of the ratios of Na2Sio3 & NaOH at the values 0.39 & 2.51. The
Geopolymer paste samples were cured at 60oC for 1 day and keep in room
temperature until the testing days. The compressive strength was done at 7 and 28
days. The result showed that the Geopolymer paste with NaOH concentration,
compressive strength increase with molarities increases.
 7

Vijaya Rangan, B., “Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete”, available at:

This publication addresses fly ash-based geopolymer concrete design
methodologies and the factors that influence its fresh and hardened mechanic
properties. The testing regime was based upon both short and long-term
evaluations and conducted using reinforced geopolymer specimens on a large-scale
basis.
Testing was conducted upon 100 x 200 mm cylinders that had been both dry
and steam cured in 60 °C temperatures from four to 96 hours and first compression
tested at 21 days. It was stated that longer curing times resulted in greater
compressive strengths. As well, the first 24 hours produced rapid strength gain,
while curing beyond 24 hours resulted in a slower strength gain per unit time. It
was also noted that dry curing resulted in 15 percent greater compressive strength
than steam curing for the same time period.
The aggregate mixture consisted of coarse, SSD aggregates (7-20 mm) and
fine sands. Low calcium, class F fly ash was added to the aggregates and mixed for
three minutes. A super plasticizer was added to the sodium hydroxide/sodium
silicate activator to improve workability. Final testing concluded that the fresh
concrete could be worked for up to 120 minutes without affecting the overall
compressive strength of the specimen. Furthermore, the alkaline/fly ash ratio for
the binder design was recommended to be 0.30-0.45 and the sodium
silicate/sodium hydroxide ratio (by mass) was suggested to be 2.5 for best results.
The compressive test results for the elevated cure showed 7-day values of 58
MPa and 45 MPa for the dry cured samples. The steam cured specimens (of
elevated temperatures) yielded 56 MPa and 36 MPa, respectively; almost 10 MPa
less for mix 2. The ambient cured material produced strength values over 50 MPa.
It was noted, however, that batches were mixed during a five month period in
which ambient temperatures varied. The following summarizes the recorded
 8

temperatures for each batch: May 2005 (18-25 °C), July 2005 (8- 18 °C),
September 2005 (12-22 °C). The relative humidity for each batch was within the
range of 40-60 percent. The material with the greatest recorded compressive
strength was molded from the May batch.
Creep and dry shrinkage testing was also performed on 150 x 300 mm
cylinders which were both dry- and steam-cured at 60 °C for 24 hours. Testing
commenced after one week of cure time and the recorded stress was 40 percent of
the compressive strength. Test results illustrated that both cure methods yield
similar results. Little shrinkage was observed in the geopolymer specimens after a
one year time period. The measured value for geopolymer was 100 micro strains,
as compared to 500-800 micro strains for Portland cement concrete. One year
creep coefficients were calculated at 0.6-0.7 for specimens possessing compressive
strength values between 40 MPa and 57 MPa. It was noted that these values are
only 50 percent of the recommended coefficients for Portland cement concrete (per
Australian Standard AS3600).
Testing regimes for chemical resistance to sulfates and sulfuric acids were
also conducted. Geopolymer specimens were immersed in a 5 percent sodium
sulfate bath for up to one year. Factors evaluated were mass and length change and
variances in compressive strength characteristics. Other samples were placed into
sulfuric acid solutions of varying concentrations: 0.5 percent, 1 percent, and 2
percent (by volume). Factors investigated here were based upon mass losses and
changes in overall compressive strength. It was reported that specimens subjected
to the sulfate immersion exemplified excellent resistance to the chemical. Visual
observation at one year of exposure reflected no sign of erosion or cracking of the
specimens. As well, no changes in mass or compressive characteristics were
noticed and the change in overall length was less than 0.015 percent.
 9

The sulfuric acid tests revealed slight erosion to the specimen surface and it
was noted that the degradation is increased with increased acid concentrations.
Maximum mass loss was reported to be 3 percent after one year, which was stated
to be far less than that of similar Portland cement specimens. Compressive strength
values were also compromised by the acid bath. As with the degradation, the
compressive limits were affected by increases in acid solution concentration.
Finally, the geopolymer material was tested for practical applications by
creating and loading column and beam specimens. The test parameters investigated
were longitudinal reinforcement ratios, load eccentricity values, and compressive
strength. Additional information regarding these tests is defined in detail within the
publication body.

McDonald, Mike and LaRosa Thompson, Judy, “Sodium Silicate: A Binder

for the 21st Century, The PQ Corporation, Industrial Chemicals Division,
The effectiveness of soluble silicates used as cementitious binders for
agglomerated materials was investigated and discussed. The manufacturing process
of these silicate products was described and it was stated that they may represent
several types of binder scenarios. The most important property of silicates was said
to be it weight ratio of SiO2 to Na2O, with the value of 3.2 being the most widely
adopted ratio providing for the necessary polymerization reactions to occur.
Four chemical phases were stated to exist in consecutive order during
silicate reaction with agglomerated materials: hydration/dehydration, gelation,
precipitation, and surface charge modification. During hydration, a glassy film is
created as water is removed from the liquid silicate, leaving it increasingly more
viscous over time, but additional heat is required for full hydrate evacuation and
proper curing of the hardened product. Polymerization occurs within the fresh
paste as the pH level falls below 10.7 and silicates begin to form crosslinks with
 10

the existing pozzolans. It was noted that while the bonds of polymerization are not
as strong as those created through dehydration, they boast increased water
resistance once formed.Precipitation of formed metal silicates occurs as available
multivalent cations (Ca+, Mg+2,Zn+2, Cu+2, Fe+3) react with the added silicates
to form solids and drop out of solution as a chemical binder. Pozzolans such as
commercial fly ash, blast furnace slag and cement kiln dust contain many of these
required elements needed for precipitation and offer an economic and
environmentally safe alternative to the energy intensive manufacture of Portland
cement. It was found that unlike other available materials, pozzolans require the
introduction of heat and/or chemicals to activate the binder solution and allow for
crucial crystalline formations. As well, they tend to set slower (allowing for
increased reaction degrees) and they are less susceptible to foreign substances in
the matrix. For pozzolan activation, a silicate ratio of 2.0 is recommended.

Khale, Divya, Chaudhary, Rubina, “Mechanism of Geopolymerization and

Factors Influencing Its Development: A Review”, Journal of Materials Science
42, pp.729-746, 2007.

This paper discusses the fundamentals of geopolymerization and the

empirical evidence that supports its development. It investigates chemical reactions
within the matrix, source materials used to induce polycondensation, alkali
concentration, curing temperatures and times, water/solid ratios and pH balance.
Geopolymers are polymeric structures of the order Al-O-Si and possess great
mechanical strength as a result of alkali-activated polycondensation and pozzolanic
reactions within the formed matrix. The rate of these reactions and the mechanical
properties of the hardened material are effected by several factors.
 11

High concentrations of alkalis are required to begin chemically interacting

with the added pozzolanas. Activating agents such as NaOH, Na2SO4, waterglass
and KOH are common additives to the pozzolanic substances. Blast furnace slag or
commercially available, class F fly ash materials are widely used as the base
ingredient. Kaolin is often heated and converted into metakaoline at temperatures
between 600-900 °C for use in geopolymer pastes in lieu of traditional fly ash. To
improve workability of the resulting paste, superplasticizers are often added,
increasing the density and final strength of the mix.
Curing temperature and curing time both increase unconfined compressive
strength. Longer curing times result in increased compressive strength values;
however, periods beyond 48 hours produce negligible strength increases.
Temperature regulation in the 2-5 hour cure period is critical to potential strength
development. It was stated that curing temperatures in the range of 30-90 °C are
required for adequate chemical reaction. Overall strength of the geopolymer can
also be affected by ingredient ratios and pH levels of the activating solution. Tests
concludes that increased water-to-solid ratio decreases strength, while high ratios
of Si:Al or Na:Al increase the geopolymer mechanics. Empirical data has shown
that a pH level of the activating paste greater than 13 (5-10 M alkali solution)
promotes increased reactions and increased strength.
Furthermore, geopolymer cement differs greatly from PCC as related to
shrinkage and creep. It has been shown that characteristics regarding Poisson's
Ratio, Young's modulus and tensile strength are similar, while geopolymer cement
bears little to none of the dry shrinkage and creep characteristics of Portland
cement. As well, geopolymer cement has been tested froman environmental
perspective and it retains 90 percent of heavy metals within its hardened matrix. It
was concluded that geopolymer cement products are cost effective and
environmentally sensitive.
 12

Sofi, M., van Deventer, J.S.J., Mendis, P.A., Lukey, G.C., “Engineering
Properties of Inorganic Polymer Concretes (IPC’s)”, Cement and Concrete
Research 37, pp. 251-257, 2007.
Structural comparisons between inorganic polymer concretes (IPC’s) and
PCC-based concrete were studied. Few published studies on the engineering
properties of IPC’s exist; therefore, the following IPC tests were conducted:
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, static chord
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio. For IPC densities similar to Portland
cement concretes, the average compressive strengths of the IPC mixes were close
to the design strength of 52.4-MPa. The splitting tensile and flexural strength IPC
models compared to those of PCC. The static chord modulus and Poison’s Ratio
evaluations yielded results similar to high-strength PCC.

Fernandez-Jimenez, A., I., Palomo, A., Lapez-Hombrados, C., “Engineering

Properties of Alkali—Activated Fly Ash Concrete”, ACI Materials Journal,
available at:
This research focuses upon the mechanical properties of alkali-activated fly
ash concrete. Experimental testing was conducted to determine the following:
compressive and bending strengths, modulus of elasticity, pull-out bond strength
and mass shrinkage. Specimens of ordinary Portland cement concrete were also
tested as a control group.
The compression testing was performed on 15 cm3 cubes and the bending
strength testing on 15 x 10 x 70 cm prisms. The modulus of elasticity specimens
were constructed as 15 cm2 x 20 cm cylinders per Spanish standard UNE 83316.
Pull out tests were performed on 20 cm2 cubes and the mass shrinkage tests on 2.5
cm2 x 23 cm prisms.
 13

Two separate designs of alkaline activators were prepared: 'Solution N' (8 M

NaOH solution) and 'Solution W' (85 percent 12.5 M NaOH solution, 15 percent
sodium silicate solution). Each paste received coarse siliceous aggregate (6-12
mm) and fine river sand (0-5 mm) in a 1.26:1 ratio. The PCC design (Type HA3)
utilized the same aggregate dosage, but differed in their water/cement ratios and a
lignosulphonate-based admixture was added at 0.84 percent (by binder weight).
Curing for the PCC specimens were conducted at different temperatures: 20
hours at 22 °C and 20 hours at 40 °C. The AAFA mortars were cured using the
same criteria: 20 hours at 85 °C and then stored in the lab at 21 °C and 50 percent
relative humidity (RH). For all specimens, shrinkage measurements were observed
at one, three, seven, 14, and 28 days from time of initial cure end.
Mechanical testing of the alkali-activated specimens (N/W) yielded
values of 45 MPa after 24 hours of cure time. It was found that the compressive
strength continued to increase thereafter, but at a slower rate than the first 24 hour
period. It was also noted that the addition of soluble silica increased the strength,
yet decreased the workability of the material mix.Flexural testing results indicated
an initial strength acquisition with gradual strengthening over time.
The modulus of elasticity testing was performed with equipment
conforming to Spanish standard UNE 83304 which is capable of applying and
maintaining simultaneous rate and interval loading. Results confirmed that the
Portland cement-free specimens achieved lower elasticity values than the Portland
cement control group.
Pull out tests were performed by embedding steel bar of diameters 8 and 16
mm by 70 cm in length into the center of the 20 cm3 concrete specimen. Both ends
were plastic coated to prevent bonding outside of the intended length. A 156 kN
hydraulic jack was used at a rate of 72 N/s until failure occurred. Testing
 14

observation revealed that the bonding within the AAFA materials caused the 8 mm
bars to break prior to bond sheer. Conversely, the bars embedded in the PCC
material slipped prior to bar damage. It is noted that the Solution 'W' reached an
ultimate stress of 12.5 MPa, while Solution 'N' achieved 17 MPa; each higher than
the 9.7 N/mm beam test requirement per the Spanish concrete code (EHE).
Finally, shrinkage analysis for the AAFA materials (both N and W) showed
less than 0.025 percent reduction after 90 days, versus 0.09 percent for the PCC
samples. It was noted that these results illustrate the dimensional stability of alkali-
activated fly ash concretes.

Fernandez-Jimenez, A., Palomo, J.G., Puertas, F., “Alkali-Activated Slag

Mortars:Mechanical Strength Behavior”, Cement and Concrete Research 29,
pp. 1313-1321, 1999.
This research considers factors such as slag specific surfaces, activator
concentrations and curing temperatures and their effect on the mechanics of alkali-
activated slag cement mortars. Specimens were developed using Na2SO3 + NaOH
as the activator chemical base and then evaluated at specified intervals from three
to 180 days. Each factor was rated from greatest to least influence on the resulting
strength value through utilization of statistical analysis via STATGRAPHICS Plus
computer software. Details of the analysis and final model equations derived from
the flexural and compressive behavior data are presented in the final report.

The mortar used in testing was prepared in accordance with the Spanish
standard UNE-80-101-88 with Spanish blast furnace slag from local industry.
Specimen prisms were constructed using a 2:1 aggregate/slag ratio and an
alkaline/slag ratio of 0.51 for the 450 m2/kg slag material and 0.61 for the 900
m2/kg batch. Curing time was 20 hours at two differing temperatures: 25 °C and
 15

45 °C. Compressive and flexural testing regimes were conducted at three, seven,
28, 90 and 180 days.
A combination of test data and statistical analysis revealed that the
slag specific surface used in the batch mix is least relevant to the resultant
mechanical properties of the geopolymer. The second most relevant factor was
found to be the curing temperature, followed immediately by the activator
concentration. Thus, the factor determined to hold the greatest significance as
related to mechanical strength was the nature of the alkaline activator. The highest
mechanical strengths recorded during this research (6-8 MPa for flexural and 40-60
MPa for compressive) resulted from an activator mix of Na2SO3, NAOH and
H2O.

Songpiriyakij, S., “Alkali-Activated Fly Ash Concrete”, Mongkut's Institute of

Technology
This research investigates alkali-activated fly ash concrete using seven
different ratios of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SO3) as the
binding activators. The geopolymer material was diluted with water until the slump
reached approximately 200 mm.Cubed specimens (100 mm3) were molded and
cured at two separate temperatures: one mix at 60 °C for 24 hours and the other at
ambient (25 °C).
All mix designs consisted of class F fly ash with a specific surface area of
2120 cm2/g and saturated surface dry river sand/limestone of 3/8 inch maximum
size. The differences in each mix was in the amount of fly ash added, the
Na2O:SiO2 ratio and various chemical ratios. Compressive strength testing of
mixes 1-3 revealed values unsuitable for structural concrete, however, mixes 4-7
yielded much higher results. Mixes 4-7 were designed using a higher fly ash
percentage and a greater sodium oxide to silicate ratio. It was noted that as the
 16

Na2O/SiO2 ratio increases, the compressive strength of the resulting concrete

specimen increases. However, it was shown that each chemical activator
maintained an optimum ratio; increasing the ratio above the optimum level resulted
in a decline of compressive strength.

Lee, W.K.W., van Deventer, J.S.J., “Chemical Interactions Between Siliceous

Aggregates and Low-Ca Alkali-Activated Cements”, Cement and Concrete
Research 37, pp.844-855,2007.
Chemical interaction between natural siliceous aggregates and low-Ca
alkali-activated,geopolymer cement was investigated. Various aluminosilicate
materials (kaolinite and albite) were leached in alkaline solutions with or without
soluble silicates and aluminum enriched aluminosilicate formed on the surface
level, facilitating soluble silicate depositions and formations of a dense
aluminosilicate gel interfacial layer. The gel can be used to bind various mineral
aggregates (sand/natural rock) producing mortars and concretes. The deposited
aluminosilicate (Si/Al ratio of 3), resembles the real interface between natural
siliceous aggregate (basalt, siltstone) and a low-Ca alkali-activated cement. The
cement was activated by high solution alkalinity ([OH-]0=10M) and soluble
silicates ([SiO2]0=2.5M). Without soluble silicates, no deposited aluminosilicate
interface was observed. It was concluded that both high concentrations of solution
alkalinities and soluble silicates are essential for the formation of a strong interface
between siliceous aggregates and low-Ca alkali-activated cements.
 17

Xie, Zhaohui, Xi, Yunping, “Hardening Mechanisms of an Alkaline-Activated

Class F Fly Ash”, Cement and Concrete Research 31, pp. 1245-1249, 2001.
This paper addresses the mechanisms by which fly ash-based geopolymer
cements obtain their hardened properties. Low calcium, class F fly ash paste was
formed by employing water glass (1.64 modulus) as the activating agent in a fly
ash/water glass/water ratio of 26:15:1.XRD and SEM-EDS analysis was conducted
to closely inspect the paste infrastructure for evident hardening mechanisms.
Specimen molds were cast and cured for 24 hours at 60 °C prior to testing. The fly
ash product used was found to be high in reactive oxide content, thus was expected
to react aggressively with the alkaline water glass and produce a cement matrix
of high strength in a short time period.
Reaction products formed were found to be of type Na2O-Al2O3-SiO2 in an
amorphous state or low-order crystalline structure. This product worked together
with the hydrolysis-formed silica gel to harden the binder and create strength
within the matrix. The decrease of water glass modulus to 1.0 (NaOH addition)
produced excessive sodium silicate crystals and thus, resulted in a more dense,
higher strength material. It was found that reducing the modulus results in an
increase of unreacted fly ash particles within the matrix leading to a higher strength
material.

Puertas, F., Fernandez-Jimenez, A., “Mineralogical and Microstructural

Characterization of Alkali-Activated Fly Ash/Slag Pastes”, Cement and
Concrete Composites 25, pp. 287-292, 2003.
This research focuses upon the microstructural aspects of fly ash and/or slag-
activated geopolymer concretes. Testing analysis was carried out using XRD,
FTIR, MAS-NMR, and SEM/EDX devices. As well, atomic absorption and ion
chromatography were studied in depth. It was reported that two reaction products
 18

were realized through this research: a calcium hydrate rich in aluminum and an
alkaline aluminosilicate hydrate with threedimensional structure.
The slag obtained for use was found via XRD to consist mainly of a glassy
phase, absent of crystalline phase. The fly ash was analyzed similarly and found to
consist of a glass phase, quartz and mullite. Further testing of the slag material
confirmed a composition near that of Akermanite and Gehlenite.
Mechanical testing was conducted on 1 x 1 x 6 cm prisms with a fly ash/slag
ratio of 1.0. The proprietary activator used was NaOH at a concentration of 10M.
Curing was conducted for five hours at two separate temperatures for comparison:
22 °C and 60 °C. Each specimen then remained at ambient temperature with 98
percent relative humidity for seven and 28 days prior to testing. Compressive
testing results at seven days cure time were recorded at 30 MPa for each mix
design. It was surprisingly revealed that the specimens cured at ambient developed
over 60 MPa of compressive strength within a 28 day cure period; higher than the
samples cured at 65 °C.
It was discovered that the degree of silicate polymerization varies directly
with reaction time; thus, longer cure times allow for greater polymerization and
greater overall concrete strength.

Dattatreya J.K. Rajamane NP, Sabitha D, Ambily P S, Nataraja MC,

‘Flexural behavior of reinforced Geopolymer concrete beams.
Studies carried out on the behavior of room temperature cured reinforced
GPC flexural. Three conventional concrete mixes and six GPC mixes of target
strength ranging from 17 to 63 MPa and having varying combinations of fly ash
and slag in the binder phase were considered. The reinforcement was designed
considering a balanced section for the expected characteristic strength. All the
specimens were tested under two point static loading the studies demonstrated that
 19

the load carrying capacity of most of the GPC beams was in most cases marginally
more than that of the corresponding conventional OPCC beams. The deflections at
different stages including service load and peak load stage were higher or GPC
beams. However , the ductility factor was comparable to that of OPCC beams. The
studies showed that the conventional RC theory could be used for reinforced
GPCC flexural beams for the computation of moment capacity, deflection, and
crack width within reasonable limits the GPC mixes developed compressive
strength of 17 to 63 MPa compared to 35 to 52 MPa of OPCC. The flextural
strength o GPC mixes is found to be close to that predicted from IS : 456 formula
and compares well with the strength of OPCC specimens. The elastic modules is
significantly lower for GPCs and ACI 318 prediction seems to be closer to
measured elastic modulus compared to IS : 456. This is attributed to the lower
aggregate volume fraction on the GPC mixes used.

DjwantororHardjito, Steele E. Wallah , B.Vijayarangan and Dody

M.J.Sumajouw, ACI materials journal (2013), ‘ On the development of Fly
ash based Geopolymer concrete’.
The proper presents the higher concentration (in terms of Molar) of sodium
hydroxide solution result in a higher compressive strength of Geopolymer
concrete. Higher the ration of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide liquid ratio by
mass, higher is the compressive strength of the Geopolymer concrete. Longer
curing time in the range of 6 to 96 hours (4 days) produces larger compressive
strength of the geopolymer concrete. As the ratio of water to Geopolymer solids by
mass increases, the compressive strength of the concrete decreases.
 20

A Review on use of mekakaolin in concrete – Aiswarya S, Prince Arulraj G,

Dilip C – June 2013.
Concrete is the most commonly used material for construction. The
worldwide production of cement results in a lot of environmental pollution as it
involves the emission of CO2 gas. Supplementary cementitious materials are finely
ground solid materials that are used to replace a portion of the cement in a concrete
mixture. These supplementary materials maybe naturally occurring, manufacturing
or mamade waste. Various types of pozzolanic materials that improve cement
properties have been used in cement industry for a long time. Metakaloin is a
dehydroxide aluminiums silicate. It is an amorphous non crystallized material,
constituted of lamellar particles. From the recent research works using metakaolin,
it is evident that it is a very effective pozzolanic material and it effectively enhance
the strength parameters of concrete.

R.B. Khadiranikar and Shankar H.Sanni (2014), ‘Stress Strain Characteristic

for Geopolymer Concrete.
This study focus the experimental work done in determining the stress,
strain, Poisson’s ratio and modulus of elasticity for Geopolymer concrete. The
molarity used for the preparation of Geopolymer specimens was 12. The grade
chosen for the investigation were M 30, M40, M50, M60. The alkaline solution
used for present study is the combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide
solution with the ratio of 2.50. The test specimens were 150 x 150 x 150 mm
cubes, 100 x 200 mm cylinders cured in ambient room temperature. The
experiemental results reveal that the poisson’s ratio was in the range of 0.20 to
0.24 and modulus of eleasticity was in the range of 27 to 29 N/mm2. The obtained
values are hence in par with the equations developed for ordinary Portland cement
concrete in compression.
 21

D.P.Piya Rachel (2015) ‘Study on Geopolymer Concrete Block’

An experimental investigation was conducted to study the durability
properties of fly ash – based Geopolymer concrete and also to crtically assess a
stress – strain model using masonry prisms constructed from different bricks.
Behaviour of unreinforced Geopolymer masonry prism is compared with ordinary
clay brick masonry prism. Unreinforced clay brick prism and Geopolymer brick
prism using brick size of 225 x 105 x 70 mm were cast with 10 M and 12 M NaOH
concentration for different aspect ratio. The test results showed that residual
compressive strength of GPC specimen after immersion in acide solution for both
curing condition was found to vary from 15.09 MPa to 20.14 MPa and 20.09 MPa.
The residual split tensile strength for GPC specimen after immersion in 3%
sulphuric acid for both cuing condition was found vary from 1.81 MPa to 3.36
MPa ad from 2.45 MPa to 3.99 MPa. Using linear regression analysis a simple
relationships have been identified for obtaining the modulus of elasticity of bricks
and masonry prism from their corresponding compressive strength. It was observed
from the results that Geopolymer brick masonry prism possess higher load carrying
capacity.

Katz, A., “Microscopic Study of Alkali-Activated Fly Ash”, Cement and

Concrete Research,Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 197-208, 1998.
This paper researches fly ash reactivity within an alkaline environment and
means by which to improve polymerization methods. The activator used for testing
was a strong sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution of variant concentrations and
water/fly ash ratios. The maximum temperature of cure was 90 °C and 4 M NaOH
was the highest concentration level utilized.
 22

Testing was completed in three phases which addressed the following

effects: NaOH concentration, water/fly ash ratio, curing temperatures. Test
specimens consisted of 25mm3 molds immersed in 1-4 M NaOH solution baths.
Compressive testing for all concentration specimens was conducted on day seven
and yielded results proving a direct relationship between alkalinity and
compressive strength: the 4 M NaOH solution provided compression values of
nearly 6 MPa (at 7 days), while the 1 M solution samples yielded at 0.2 MPa.
SEM analysis was also reviewed for all concentration levels. No fly ash
reactions were evident in the 1 M solution, but the higher concentrations (3M
NaOH) resulted in surface etching and needle-like crystals had formed. The 4 M
solution was observed to have undergone microstructural change, bearing cubic
crystalline formations unlike those found in the 3 M solution. It was concluded that
the given matrix had become less porous and densification had occurred at the
higher concentrations.

Lee, C.Y., Lee H.K., Lee, K.M., “Strength and Microstructural

Characteristics of Chemically Activated Fly Ash-Cement Systems”, Cement
and Concrete Research 33, pp. 425-431, 2003.
This paper reports the findings of an investigation into the strength and
microstructural properties of fly ash systems activated with different alkaline
solutions. Thermal gravitation analysis, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron
microscopy and mercury intrusion porosimetry were utilized to observed and
document the early stages of development within each system.
The materials used included Type I Portland cement and low-calcium fly ash
obtained in South Korea. Washed river sand was also incorporated as the fine
aggregate in the mortar mix. Activators involved were Na2SO4 and K2SO4, with a
third organic activator,thiethanolamine. Mortars were mixed in a water/cement
 23

material ratio of 0.485 and a fine aggregate/cement material ratio of 2.45. The
fresh paste and mortar mixes were formed into 10 cm3 steel molds and allowed to
remain for 24 hours before being demolded, and water bath cured for up to 28 days
at 20 °C. Compressive testing regimes were conducted at 1, 3, 7 and 28 days and
the tested samples were then crushed and immersed in acetone to prevent further
hydration and freeze-dried prior to micro-analysis.
Compression analysis at one day of cure revealed greater strengths in the
activated pastes than those receiving no alkaline activation. Of all activator
solutions evaluated, the potassium-based alkaline (K2SO4) was found to be most
effective in promoting early strength development and reducing porosity, while
those containing triethanolamine maintained the lowest results of compressive
strengths. N2SO4 was found to efficiently decrease the levels of Ca(OH)2 in the
paste mixes and promoted growth of ettringite within seven days of cure, aiding
the high strength development.
It was concluded that while the activators employed for this experiment
promoted early strength development, the measured strength values at 28 days
were comparable to the fly ash/Portland mixes absent of alkaline activators. It was
stated that further testing would be required to fully understand the affects related
to activation in both early and late stage development.
 24

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The methodology explains about the step by step procedure that is going to be
done in the project. The methodology is explained in the following figure.

Literature Collection

Collection of Material

Trial Mix Design (M25)

Experimental Analysis

Testing of Specimen

Result and Discussion

Conclusion
 25

CHAPTER 4
MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The utilization of waste in the construction industry has two glaring
dividends, one ,environmental impact is addressed by disposal of the waste and
second , the economic impact and this waste has the edge of being available large
quantity, everywhere and at low value. The materials used for this investigation
were fly ash, M Sand, Metakaloin, and sisal fibre. In this project is replacement by
fly ash in clay soil and its strength is studied. In this chapter the material
characteristics, properties used in brick in brick are discussed.

4.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a by – product of the combustion of finely ground coal used as
fuel in the generation of electric power. Coal with an ash content of around 40% is
mostly used in India for thermal power generation. As a consequence, a large
amount of fly ash is generated in thermal power plants causing several
disposalrelated problems. In spite of initiatives taken by the government, several
non-governmental organizations and research and development organizations, the
total utilization of fly ash is only about 50%. India produces 130 Million tons of fly
ash is currently used for applications like concrete, the remaining being used for
land filling.
 26

Figure 4.1 fly ash

Table 4.1 Physical properties of Fly Ash
S.No Properrty Value obtained
1 Specific Gravity 2.44
2 Fineness 2.5

4.3 Metakaolin
Metakaloin is a de hydroxide form of the clay mineral kaolinite. Stone that
are rich in Kaolinite are known as china clay or kaolin, traditionally used in the
manufacture of porcelain. The particile size of metakaolin is smaller than cement
particles, but not as fine as a silica fume. Kaolinite chemical composition is Al 2O3.
2 SiO2. 2H2O.
It is white in color and acts as a pozzolanic material. Kaolin is a flaky, white
clay rock, essentially composed of Kaolinite. Kaolin is formed by hydrothermal or
meteoric degradation of minerals, and other silicates. This kaolin clay is ground
and then calculated at 750oC, which causes disorganization of the crystalline
structure.
 27

Figure 4.2 Metakaoline.

4.3.1 Sources
 High purity Kaolin Deposits
 Kaolinite deposits or tropical soils of lower purity
 Paper sludge waste
 Oil sand tailings

4.3.2 Advantages
 Increased compressive and flexural strengths
 Reduce permeability
 Increased resistance to chemical attack
 Increased durability

Table 4.2 Physical Properties of Metakaloin

1 Specific gravity 2.5
1 Colour White
2 Physical Form Powder
 28

Table 4.3 Chemical properties of Metakaolin

1 Silicon dioxide 62.62%
2 Aluminium oxide 2.63%
2 Sodium oxide 1.57%

4.4 SISAL FIBER

Sisal fiber is one of the most widely used natural fibre and is very easily
cultivated. It is obtain from sisal plant. The plant , known formally as Agave
sisalana. These plants produce rosettes of sword – Shaped leaves which start out
toothed, and gradually lose their teeth with maturity. Sisal fibre is fully
biodegradable, green compsites were fabricated with soy protein resin modified
with gelatin.

Figure 4.3 sisal fibre

4.4.1 Properties of sisal fiber
 It has high tensile strength
 Sisal fiber is exceptionally durable with a low maintenance with minimum
wear and tear.
 It exhibits good sound and impact absorbing properties.

Table 4.4 Chemical composition of sisal fiber

1 Cellulose 65%
 29

2 Hemicelluloses 12%
3 Lignin 9.9%
4 Waxes 2%

4.5 Aggregates
The aggregate are the main components of the concrete which greatly varies
the strength , density and other properties of the concrete. Different types of
aggregates used are discussed.
4.5.1 Fine Aggregate
Sand is used as a fine aggregate in mortars and concrete. Due to the scarcity
of river sand, the manufactured sand is used as fine aggregates in concrete. M Sand
is an eco-friendly and economical which has become widely popular for use in all
constructional purposes. The fine aggregate used in the project was locally
supplied and conformed to grading zone II as per IS 383:1970. It was first sieved
through 4.75 mm sieve to remove any particles greater than 4.75 mm. Properties of
the fine aggregate are tabulated below in Table 4.4.

Figure 4.4 M – sand

Table 4.5 Properties of fine aggregate

S.No Characteristics Values
1 Type Uncrushed (natural)
2 Specific Gravity 2.64
 30

3 Fineness modules 2.76

4 Grading zone Zone II

4.5.2 Coarse aggregate

Aggregates are defined as inert, granular and inorganic materials consist of
stone or stone – like solids. Coarse aggregates are the important ingredients of
concrete and they provide the volume to the concrete. Aggregate impart stability
and durability to the concrete. Crushed stone and natural gravel are the common
material used as a coarse aggregate for concrete. Locally available coarse
aggregate having the maximum size of 10 – 20 mm was used in the project. The
aggregates were washed to remove dust and dirt and were dried to surface dry
condition. Properties of the coarse aggregate are tabulated in Table 4.5.

Figure 4.5 coarse aggregate

Table 4.6 Properties of Coarse aggregate

S.No Characteristic Values
1 Type Crushed
2 Specific Gravity 2.7
3 Fineness modulus 6.45
 31

4 Maximum Size 20 mm

4.6 Alkaline Liquid

A combination of alkaline silicate solution and alkaline hydroxide solution
was chose as the alkaline liquid. Sodium based solutions were chosen because they
were cheaper than potassium based solutions.

Figure 4.6 Alkaline solution

4.6.1 Sodium Hydroxide
The sodium hydroxide solids were of a laboratory grade in pellets form with
99% purity, obtained from local suppliers. The sodium hydroxide solution was
prepared by dissolving the pellets in water.
The mass of sodium hydroxide solids in a solution varied depending on the
concentration of the solution expressed in terms of molar, M. For instance, sodium
hydroxide solution with a concentration of 8 M consisted of 8 x 40 = 320 grams of
sodium hydroxide solids per liter of the solution, where 40 is the molecular weight
of sodium hydroxide.
 32

Figure 4.8 Sodium hydroxide

4.6.2 Sodium Silicate

Sodium silicate solution obtained from local suppliers was used. The
chemical composition of the sodium silicate solution was Na2O = 8%, SiO2 = 28%
and water 64% by mass. The mixture of sodium silicate solution and sodium
hydroxide solution forms the alkaline liquid.

Figure 4.8 Sodium silicate

4.7 Super Plasticizer

 33

The superplasticizers are referred to as high range water reducing admixture

by ASTMC 494, which mainly disperses the water in concrete matrix. This
property is some time called as dispersion fludification property of concrete
admixture. Super plasticizer permitted a significant water reduction while
maintaining the same workability. Super plasticizers are used in all important
projects across the world in highraise buildings, pre stressed concrete, slender
components with congested and densely packed reinforcement, beams and slabs
pre cost elements and long slender column. The super plasticizer affect the various
properties of concrete both in fresh and handered forms mainly due to the
following facts as commented by M.Collperdi in concrete admixtures hand book.

i. Reduction in interfacial tension

ii. Multilayered adsorption of organic module
iii. Release of water trapped amongst the cement particles
iv. Retarding effect of cement hydration
v. Change in morphology of hydrated cement.

Superplasticizer improves consistency of cement paste at lower water –

cement ratio. The most water reduction is observed for polycarboxylat and poly car
boxylate other. Superplasticizer increases the compressive strength, workability ,
water reduction , cement saving requirements of concrete. The workability of
concrete can be increased by superplasticizer. However , very high dosages of
superplasticizer and to impaire the consiveness of concrete. Slump loss can be
reduced by using the chemical admixtures. However , effectiveness is higher for
superplasticizer concrete.

CHAPTER – 5
 34

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

5.1 GENERAL
This method is recommended for designing mixed for general types of
construction. Using the ingredients of concrete normally available. The design is
carried out for specified compressive strength and workability of concrete using
continuously graded aggregate. The method can be for both reinforced and pre-
stressed concrete.

5.2 MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE OF M25

Grade designation : M25
Type of Cement : OPC 53 grade confirming to ISI2269
Minimum cement content : 240kg/M3
Maximum cement content : 0.45 (Table 5 of IS 456:2000)
Workability : 100 mm slump
Exposure condition : Severe
Degree of supervision : Good
Type of aggregate : Crushed angular aggregate
Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
Size of aggregate : 12.5 mm
Specific gravity of fine aggregate: 2.64
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate: 2.7
Water absorption of CA : 0.5%
Water absorption of FA : 1.0%

5.3 TEST DATA FOR MATERIALS

 35

Cement used : PPC 53 grade conforming to IS 8112

Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate : 2.7 fine aggregate : 2.64
Water absorption : Coarse aggregate : 0.5% fine aggregate : 1.0%

5.3.1 TARGET MEAN STRENGTH

Fck’ = fck + 1.65s
Where,
F’ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days,
Fck = characterisitic compressive strength at 28 days,
S = standard deviation from IS 456 : 2000 Table 1, standard deviation,
S= 4 N / mm2 Therefore,
Target strength = 25 + 1.65 x 4 = 31.6 N/ mm2
5.3.2 Water - Cement Ratio
From the Table 5 of IS 456 : 2000 maximum water – cement ratio = 0.45
based on experience , adopt water cement ratio as 0.45 , hence ok.
5.3.3 Water Content
From code book maximum water content = 186 kg (for 25 mm to 50 mm
slump) for 20 mm aggregate Estimated water content for 100 mm slump = 197 litre
/ m3.
5.3.4 Calculation of Cement
Water – cement ratio cement content = 0.45
= 197/0.45
= 394 kg/m3

From Table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for ‘very sever’ exposure
condition = 240 kg/m3.
 36

394 kg /m3 > 240 kg / m3, hence OK.

5.3.5 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE

AGGREGATE CONTENT
From volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20mm size aggregate
and fine aggregate (zone 1) for water – cement ratio of 0.50 = 0.60 in the present
case w/c = 0.4 (The volume of coarse aggregate is required to be increased to
decrease the fine aggregate content.
As w/c ratio is lower by 0.10, increase the coarse aggregate volume by 0.01
at the rate of -/+ 0.01 for every +/- 0.05 change in water cement ratio.
Therefore corrected volume of coarse aggregate for w/c of 0.4 = 0.61 for
pumpable concrete these values should be reduced by 10 percent therefore volume
of coarse aggregate = 0.60 m3.
Volume of fine aggregate content = 1-0.60 = 0.40 m3.

5.3.6 MIX CALCULATION

The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:

a. Volume of Concrete - 1 m3
mass of cement / specific gravity of cement
b. Volume of cement - ---------------------------------------------------- x 1/1000
Specific gravity of cement
- 394 x 1
----- ----
3.15 1000
- 0.125 m3
 37

mass of water
c. Volume of water - ---------------------------------------------------- x 1/1000
Specific gravity of cement
- 197 x 1
----- ---- = 0.197
1 1000

d. Volume of all in aggregate (E) = a-(b+c)

= 1-(0.125+0.197)
= 0.678 kg/m3

e. Mass of Coarse aggregate (C.A)

= D x Volume of C.A x specific gravity of C.A x 1000
= 0.678 x 0.60 x 2.7 x 1000= 1.099 kg / m3

f. Mass of Fine Aggregate (F.A)

= D x Volume of F.A x Specific gravity of C.A x 1000
= 0.67 x 0.4 x 2.64 x 1000 = 0.799 kg/m3

5.3.7 Mix Proportions for Trial:

Cement = 394 kg/m3
Water = 197 kg/m3
Fine Aggregate = 799 kg/m3
Coarse Aggregate = 1099 kg/m3
Water- Cement Ratio = 0.45
1. Cement / Cement = 394 / 394
= 1
 38

2. FA / Cement = 799 / 394

= 1.8
3. CA / Cement = 1099 / 394
= 2.78
Mix ratio = M25 = 1 : 1:8 = 2.78

5.4 GEOPOLYMER MIX PROPORTION

Table 5.1 Geopolymer Mix proportion
Sodium
Percentage of Sisal Fibre Sodium
S.No Specimen Hydroxide
Material (g) Silicate (lit)
(kg)
1 I 75% FA, 20% MK, 0.59 5.14 5.01
5% SF
2 II 50% FA, 40% MK, 1.17 5.14 5.01
10% SF
3 III 25% FA, 60% MK, 1.75 5.14 5.01
15% SF

FA = Fly ash, MK = Metakaolin, SF = Sisal Fibre

5.5 Quantities Required for 1 Mould

5.5.1 Cement
Size of mould = 150 x 150 x 150 mm
PCC Unit Weight = 2400 kg/m3
Volume of cube = 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 x 2400
= 8.1 kg
= 8.1 / 5.58 x 8.1
Weight of Cement = 1.45 kg
Weight of FA = 1.8 / 5.58 x 8.1
 39

= 2.61 kg
Weight of CA = 2.78 / 5.58 x 8.1
= 4.03 kg
5.5.2 Cylinder
Size of mould = 300 x 150 mm
PCC Unit Weight = 2400 kg/m3
Volume of cylinder = 3.14 / 4 x 0.152 x 2400
= 12.24
Weight of Cement = 1.5.58 x 12.72
= 2.27 kg
Weight of FA = 1.8 / 5.58 x 12.72
= 4.1 kg
Weight of CA = 2.78 / 5.58 x 12.72
= 6.33 kg
5.5.3 Prism
Size of mould = 500 x 100 x 100 mm
PCC Unit Weight = 2400 kg/m3
Volume of cylinder = 0.5 x 0.1 x 0.1 x 2400
= 12
Weight of Cement = 1/5.58 x 12 = 2.15 kg
Weight of FA = 1.8 / 5.58 x 12
= 3.87 kg
Weight of CA = 2.78 / 5.58 x 12
= 5.97 kg

CHAPTER – 6
CONCLUSION
 40

6.1 GENERAL
 The main objective and the background of this research project are
outlined in the initial chapters of this thesis.

 The experimental program and the analytical study performed during the
research project to achieve the objective are explained and discussed in
Chapters 1 to 5 in general.

 The main objective as indicated in Chapter 1 have been achieved. This

chapter will conclude the research study with the view to design an
effective strengthening material for reinforced concrete beams.

 Due to time and resource constraints, it was not possible to address all of
the issues associated with the current topic and therefore a number of
possible scenarios are listed at the next chapter for researchers who are
interested in this area.

 In upcoming chapter Designing process and Test are conducted.

 41

CHAPTER 7
PHASE I & II SCHEDULE

7. 1 WORK SCHEDULE FOR PHASE I & II

Work DEC JAN FEB MAR

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Mix design &
collection of
materials
Casting, curing
and testing of
conventional
concrete
Casting , curing
and testing of rice
husk ash concrete
Project report
preparation
Report
Submission
 42

REFERENCE
1] E.Sreenivasulu & A. Ramakrishnaiah “Experimental Investigation On
Durability Properties Of Geopolymer Concrete By Partial Replacement
Of Fly Ash And MK”

2]R.Anuraag & B. Muralikrishna “Experimental Study Of SCC Using MK As A

Admixture At Various Percentages For Standard Concrete”

3]G.Pavan kumar & N.R.Gowthami “Experimental Investigation On Mechanical

Properties Of Geopolymer concrete By Partial Replacement Of Fly ash And MK”

4]B.Mangamma&Dr N.Victor babu,P.hD “ An Experimental Study on

Behavior of Partial Replacement of Fly ash with MK”

5]Kasu naveena&K. Anantha lakshmi“ Partial Replacement of Fly ash

with MK in Concrete”

6] Kuruba Anil&P. Lakshmaiah Chowdary“ Study on Strength Properties of

Geopolymer Concrete using Fly ash and MK as Mineral Admixtures
43