An Improved Reactive Routing Protocol over Mobile Ad-
hoc Networks
Khalid A. Darabkh and Mohammad S.E. Judeh
Department of Computer Engineering, The University of Jordan
Amman, 11942, Jordan
Corresponding Author Email: k.darabkeh@ju.edu.jo
Phone: +962-796969219
Abstract— In this article, a new reactive routing protocol is
proposed which is considered as a major extension of Ad-
hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing
protocol, namely, Mobility Aware and Dual Phase Ad-hoc
On-demand Distance Vector with Adaptive Hello
Messages. It primarily concentrates on building routes
considering nodes’ speeds and direction of motion with
respect to source nodes, thereby establishing more stable
routes and reducing the route breakages. Moreover, we
proposed an adaptive control packet announcement
mechanism, which is directly connected to the periodic
hello messages approach, with nodes’ speeds, yielding a
significant reduction in the amount of control overhead
and congestion over the network. Our protocol is
evaluated in terms of packet delivery ratio, control
overhead, end-to-end delay, and energy consumption.
Index Terms – wireless sensor networks; tracker node
selection; target tracking; clustering
I. INTRODUCTION
Recent advances in the fields of electronics, mobile computing
and wireless communication have made it possible to
manufacture portable devices with high communicating and
processing capabilities than ever [1-12]. Actually, there are
two different architectures of wireless networks, namely,
infrastructure-based [13-19] and infrastructure-less networks
[20-26]. In the infrastructure-based networks, there must be a
central point for managing and controlling the transfer
between nodes while in the other type of networks, individual
nodes cooperate altogether to provide the networking
functionalities and direct the traffic over the network [27-33].
In infrastructure-less networks, whenever the nodes that form
the network are mobile nodes, it is called a Mobile Ad hoc
Network (MANET) [34-40]. Particularly, MANETs are
mainly used in the situations that require temporary network
existence and fast deployment [41-44]. Moreover, they are
used in the cases where it is so difficult to build a network
infrastructure [45-47]. Additionally, MANETs have many
special characteristics that distinguish them from other types
of networks such as dynamic topology, self-organization,
energy limitation, bandwidth limitation, security and
scalability [48-50]. These characteristics, in addition to the
applications of MANETs that have varying requirements
978-1-5386-2070-0/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
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depending on the applications themselves and the environment
under consideration, pose unique challenges to be faced when
designing protocols and solutions for MANETs [51-52].
One of the most widely used and researched reactive protocols
over MANETs is the Ad hoc on demand Distance Vector
(AODV) routing protocol [53]. It was designed as an
enhancement to the Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
routing protocol in order to make it more applicable to the
dynamic MANETs. In this protocol, routing tables are built by
nodes on demand only. In other words, whenever a node
wants to send data, it begins a route discovery process by
flooding a route request message through the network and
starts waiting for route reply message. In this way, all nodes
that receive and forward these two control messages build
their routing tables. As soon as the source node receives the
reply message, it starts sending data packets to the proper next
hop and similarly all intermediate nodes use their recently
built routing tables to forward these packets to their
destinations. This protocol intends to build a shortest path
between any source and destination pair regardless of the
mobility status of the network. We propose, in this
manuscript, an efficient reactive routing protocol, that is
considered a major extension of AODV, called Mobility
Aware and Dual Phase AODV Protocol with Adaptive Hello
Messages (MA-DP-AODV-AHM) protocol.
The rest of this article is organized such as follows. In Section
II, we present a description of our proposed algorithm. Section
III introduces the simulation results along with comparisons
with prior relevant works. Finally, the article is concluded in
Section IV.
II. T HE PROPOSED P ROTOCOL
In our proposed protocol, we assume the following:
• All nodes are provided with GPS receivers
which are used by individual nodes to obtain
their positional coordinates and time required for
finding the speed of any node.
• Nodes are located in an open flat environment so
that the GPS receivers are able to get the spatial
position of the nodes accurately.
707
 • All nodes use omnidirectional antenna to node, then that destination or intermediate will not
transmit either data packets or control packets. immediately prepare and send back the RREP packet, but
This means that any single transmission of a rather another kind of speed and direction testing is applied. If
packet is by default a broadcast transmission and the node is the destination, it will prepare and send back the
only the destination address in the IP header of a RREP packet only if the previous hop, from which it received
packet determines whether the packet is a unicast the RREQ packet, is moving with a speed that is less than the
or broadcast type for further processing by average speed of all the neighbors of that destination node in
recipient nodes. addition that this previous hop is not diverging from the
• Unless mentioned otherwise, all the default destination node, ensuring an establishment of a more stable
values and sub-procedures of the AODV routing route despite of not being the shortest one.
protocol are used in the MA-DP-AODV-AHM
protocol. As the speed and direction parameters have been verified in
• IEEE 802.11b is the adopted medium access both the RREQ and RREP initiation procedures and to ensure
control protocol in which the carrier sense further that there is no drop for any RREP packet occurs in the
multiple access with collision avoidance media reverse direction from the destination to the source node, the
access method is used to control the media RREP packet reception and forwarding procedure in the
access and avoid collisions and interferences intermediate nodes is left unchanged and remains similar to
between different simultaneous transmissions by that in the normal AODV protocol.
different nodes.
III. S IMULATION RESULTS
In the MA-DP-AODV-AHM protocol, the route discovery
procedure is based on the involvement of speed and direction To evaluate the performance of MA-DP-AODV-AHM
of the nodes. To make this possible, two new fields are protocol, simulations have been run using the QualNet 7.1
appended to the hello message structure, which was originally simulator, which is a commercial version of GloMoSim
proposed by AODV: the location of the node and its current developed by Scalable Network Technologies. Additionally,
speed. Hence, the routing tables when considering MA-DP- the simulations have been carried out on a computer with an
AODV-AHM protocol contain mainly the following Intel Core i5 CPU working at 2.6 GHz with a 4GB RAM and
information: destination node address, destination sequence runs windows 7 Enterprise edition (32bits). The simulated
number, next hop, route cost (hop counts), route life time, version of AODV protocol is developed according to the draft
speed of the neighbor node, and a direction flag. 9 released by the IETF MANET group. The simulation
parameters are summarized in Table 1.
The route discovery procedure in MA-DP-AODV-AHM
protocol is initiated by a node that basically has no entry, in its Table I. Simulation parameters
routing table, belongs to the destination node. Therefore, it Parameter Value
broadcasts a RREQ packet. Interestingly, any neighbor node, Simulator QualNet 7.1
receives this packet, verifies its existence (i.e., being a Simulated protocols MA-DP-AODV-AHM vs. AODV
duplicate copy of a same route request) in its Seen table. If it
Simulated network area 2000 X 2000 meters,
is not there, then it will run a kind of speed and direction tests
Simulation time 300 sec.
before rebroadcasting it. In few words, this is performed as
Node placement Randomly
follows. It checks whether its speed is less than a predefined
Number of nodes 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 nodes
threshold. If so, then this intermediate node is highly likely of
not leaving the transmission range of its neighbor node when Packet rate 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 packet/sec
the RREP packet arrives later, and hence, the route is expected Traffic type CBR
to be more stable, thereby having lower probability of route Number of connections 20, 25, 30, 35, 40
loss and reconstruction process. Data packet size 512 Byte
Mobility model Random Waypoint
Interestingly, it checks further whether the two nodes are not Pause time 0 sec.
diverging from each other since if that is the case and even Minimum speed 0 m/s
worse if they are also moving with high speed, then there is a Maximum speed 20 m/s
high probability of having either an unsuccessful route Default HELLO interval 1 sec.
establishment process or a short router lifetime. Attractively, Interface queue length 150 000 Bytes per priority
if both conditions are met (i.e., the speed is lower than a Radio range 339.322m for 802.11b
threshold and both nodes are not diverging), then the RREQ Threshold value of speed 70 m/s
packet will be flooded to neighbors safely. Otherwise, it will Radio propagation model Two-ray ground reflection
be dropped. Channel Data Rate 2.0 Mbps

As soon as the RREQ packet arrives at the destination or any

intermediate node that has a valid route to the destination

708
To evaluate the efficiency of our proposed protocol, the Figure 1 show the results of PDR, routing overhead, end-to-
following performance metrics have been adopted: end delay, and energy consumed versus node density at a
maximum speed of 20 m/s. The performance metrics are
• Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), described on subplots (a, b, c, and d) in the sequence they are
• End-to-End Delay, introduced, respectively. It is notices from all of these subplots
• Routing Overhead, that the MA-DP-AODV-AHM achieves significant results and
• Consumed Energy. hence outperforms AODV.

60 600000

Routing Overhead (Packets)

50 500000
40 400000
PDR (%)

AODV
30 AODV 300000
20 200000 MA-DP-
MA-DP- AODV-AHM
10 AODV-AHM 100000
0 0
40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
No. of Nodes No. of Nodes

(a) (b)

9 1200
End-to-End Delay (Seconds)

Consumed Energy (mWh)

8 1000
7
6 800
AODV
5 AODV
600
4
3 MA-DP- 400 MA-DP-
AODV-AHM AODV-AHM
2
1 200
0 0
40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
No. of Nodes No. of Nodes

(c) (d)
Figure 1. Density-based simulation results at maximum speed of 20 m/s (20 CBR connections, 4 packets/second)

performance superiority of the proposed protocol over AODV

IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS
In this paper, we propose a new reactive routing protocol,
namely, Mobility Aware and Dual Phase AODV Protocol with
Adaptive Hello Messages (MA-DP-AODV-AHM) which is
considered as a major extension of AODV protocol. One of
the major findings of our protocol is the efficient
incorporation of nodes’ speeds and nodes’ directions (with
respect to each other) into the route discovery procedure
which interestingly results in establishing more stable routes,
among those intermediate nodes located in the path of source
and destination nodes, than those in AODV protocol.
Interestingly, the simulation results have proved the
protocol.
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