- Carries fluid in one direction from tissues

Lymphatic -
to circulatory system
Fluid moves from blood capillaries into
tissue spaces

System and
- Tiny, close-ended vessels
- Fluid moves easily into
- In most tissues
- Join to form lymphatic vessels

Immunity Lymphatic Vessels

Functions of the Lymphatic System - resemble small veins
1. Fluid balance - where lymphatic capillaries join
2. Fat Absorption - one-way valves
3. Defense  Right Lymphatic duct
- where lymphatic vessels from right upper
limb and right head, neck, chest empty
- empties into right subclavian vein
 Thoracic Duct
- rest of body empties from lymphatic
vessels
- empties into left subclavian vein

Lymphatic Organs

 Tonsils
- palatine tonsils on each side of oral
cavity
- pharyngeal tonsils near internal opening
of nasal cavity (adenoid)
- lingual tonsils posterior surface of tongue
- form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue
around nasal and oral cavities

Components of the Lymphatic System

 Lymph
- Fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries
composed of water and some solutes
- Lymphocytes, Lymphatic vessels, Lymph
nodes, Tonsils, Spleen, Thymus gland

Lymphatic Capillaries
 Lymph Nodes
- rounded structures that vary in size
 - located near lymphatic vessels
- groin, armpit, neck
- lymph passes through lymph nodes before
entering blood
- lymph moves through and immune system
- is activated (lymphocytes produced) if
foreign substances are detected
- removal of microbes by macrophages
 Spleen
- size of clenched fist
- located in abdomen
- filters blood
- detect and respond to foreign substances
- destroy old red blood cells
- blood reservoir
- White pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding
arteries
- Red pulp: contains macrophages and red
blood cells that connect to veins
 Thymus Gland
- bilobed gland
- located in mediastinum behind the
sternum
- stops growing at age 1
- at age 60 decreases in size
- produces and matures lymphocytes
Overview of the Lymphatic System
1. Lymphatic capillaries remove fluid from
tissues. The fluid becomes lymph.
2. Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels
which have valves that prevent the
backflow of lymph
3. Lymph nodes filter lymph and are sites
where lymphocytes respond to
infections
4. Lymph enters the thoracic duct or the
right lymphatic duct
5. Lymph enters the blood
6. Lacteals in the small intestine absorb
lipids which enter the thoracic duct
7. Chyle, which is lymph containing lipids,
enters the blood
8. The spleen filters blood and is a site
where lymphocytes respond to
infections
9. Lymphocytes (pre-B and pre-T cells)
originate from stem cells in the red bone
marrow. The pre-B cells become mature
B cells in the red bone marrow and are
released into the blood. The pre-T cells
enter the blood and migrate to the
thymus.
10. The thymus is where the pre-T cells
derived from the red bone marrow
increase in number and become mature
T cells that are released into the blood.
11. B cells and T cells from the blood enter
and populate all lymphatic tissues.
These lymphocytes can remain in
tissues or pass through them and return
to the blood. B cells and T cells can also
respond to infections by formed cells
enter the blood and circulate to other
tissues.
Immunity
- is the ability to resist damage from foreign
substances.
- can protect against microbes, toxins, and
cancer cells.
Types of Immunity:
1. Innate Immunity
- present at birth
- defense against any pathogen
- accomplished by physical barriers,
chemical mediators, cells, inflammatory
response
2. Adaptive Immunity
- is defense that involves specific
recognition to a specific antigen.
- is acquired after birth
- reacts when innate defenses don’t work
- slower than innate immunity
- has memory
- uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
- 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-
mediated
Terms related to Adaptive Immunity:
 Antigen
- substance that stimulates an immune
response
- E.g. bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs
 Self-Antigen
 -
molecule produced by the person’s body
that stimulates an immune system
response
 Antibody
- proteins the body produces in response to
an antigen
Types of Adaptive Immunity:
Naturally Acquired Immunity
 Active
- natural exposure to antigens causes
production of antibodies
- can be lifelong immunity
- E.g.mononucleosis
 Passive
- transfer of antibodies from mother to child
- E.g breast milk or placenta
Artificially Acquired Immunity
 Active
- injection of antigens using vaccines which
cause the production of antibodies
- immunization is a process of introducing
killed, live, or inactivated pathogen
 Passive
- injection of antibodies from another person
or animal
Physical Barriers
- First line of defense
- Skin and mucous membranes to act as
barriers
- Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens
Chemical Mediators
-
are chemicals that can kill microbes and
prevent their entry into cells
 Lysozyme
- found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria
 Mucous Membranes
- prevent entry of microbes
 Histamine
- promote inflammation by causing
vasodilation
 Interferons
- proteins that protect against viral infections
by stimulating surrounding cells to produce
antiviral proteins
Cells of the Immune System
 White Blood Cells
- produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic
tissue that fight foreign substances
 Phagocytic Cells
- ingest and destroy foreign substances
- E.g. neutrophils and macrophages
 Neutrophils
- first to respond to infection but die quickly
 Eosinophils
- produced in red bone marrow
- release chemicals to reduce inflammation
 Basophils
- made in red bone marrow
- leave blood and enter infected tissues
- can release histamine
 Macrophages
- initially were monocytes
- leave blood and enter tissues
- can ingest more than neutrophils
- protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in
- spleen and liver
- given specific names for certain areas of
body (Kupffer cells in liver)
 Mast Cells
- made in red bone marrow
- found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract
- can release leukotrienes
 Natural Killer Cells
- type of lymphocyte
- produce in red bone marrow
- recognize classes of cells such as tumor
cells or virus infected cells
- release chemicals to lysis cells
Inflammatory Response
1. involves chemical and cells due to injury
2. signaled by presence of foreign
substance
3. stimulates release of chemical
mediators

Origin and Development of Lymphocytes
 Stem Cells
- red bone marrow
- give rise to all blood cells
- give rise to some pre-T cells and pre B
cells
Lymphocytes
- type of white blood cell
- involved in adaptive immunity
- develop from stem cells
- differentiate into specific lymphocytes such
as B or T cells
 B Cells
- type of lymphocytes
- involved in antibody-mediated immunity
- originate from stem cells
- mature in red bone marrow
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature
- lead to production of antibodies
 T Cells
- type of lymphocyte
- involved in cell-mediated immunity
primarily and antibody-mediated immunity
- mature in thymus gland
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature
- 4 types
Antigen Recognition
- Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on
their surface
- Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-
cell receptors on T cells
- Each receptor only binds with a specific
antigen
- When antigen receptors combine with the
antigen, the lymphocyte is activated and
adaptive immunity begins
The MHC Molecule
- Major Histocompatibility Complex
Molecule (MHC)
- contain binding sites for antigens
- specific for certain antigens
- hold and present a processed antigen on
the surface of the cell membrane
- bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells
and stimulate response
Cytokines
- proteins secreted by a cell that regulates
neighboring cells
- E.g. interleukin 1 released by
macrophages stimulates helper T cells
Proliferation of Helper T Cells
1. Antigen-presenting cells such as
macrophages, phagocytize, process and
display antigens on the cell’s surface
2. The antigen are bound to MHC class II
molecules, which present the processed
antigen to the T-cell receptor of the
helper T cell
3. Costimulation results from interleukin-1,
secreted by the macrophage and the
CD4 glycoprotein of the helper T cell
4. Interleukin-1 stimulates the helper T cell
to secrete interleukin-2 and to produce
interleukin-2 receptors
5. The helper T cell stimulates itself to
divide when interleukin-2 binds to
interleukin-2 receptors
6. The “daughter” helper T cells resulting
from this division can be stimulated to
divide again if they are exposed to the
same antigen that stimulated the
“parent” helper T cell. This greatly
increases the number of helper T cells
7. The increased number of helper T cells
can facilitate the activation of B cells or
effector T cells
Lymphocyte Proliferation
1. After antigen is processed and present
to helper T cells, helper T cell produces
interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and
stimulates more helper T cells
production
3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B
cells
 4. B cells produce antibodies Antibody Structure
- Letter Y shape
 Variable region
Proliferation of B cells
- V of Y
1. Before a B cell can be activated by a - bind to epitopes of antigen using antigen-
helper T cell, the B cell must binding site
phagocytize and process the same  Constant region
antigen that activated the helper T cell. - stem of Y
The antigen binds to a B-cell receptor - each class of immunoglobulin has same
and both the receptor and antigen are structure
taken into the cell by endocytosis
2. The B cell uses an MHC class II
molecule to present the processed
antigen to the helper T-cell
3. The T-cell receptor binds to the MHC
class II/antigen complex
4. There is costimulation of the B cell by
the CD4 and other surface molecules
5. There is costimulation by the
interleukins (cytokines) released from
the helper T cell
6. The B cells divides, the resulting
daughter cells divide, and so on,
eventually producing many cells that
recognize the same antigen
7. Many of the daughter cells differentiate
to become the plasma cells which
produce antibodies. Antibodies are part
of the immune response that eliminates
the antigen.  Antigen-binding site:
- site on antibody where antigen binds

Dual Nature of the Immune System  Valence

- number of antigen-binding sites on
- Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of antibody
immune responses: antibody-mediated - 5 classes of immunoglobulins used to
and cell-mediated destroy antigens: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD
- Antigens can trigger both types of
responses
- Both types are able to recognize self
versus nonself, use specificity, and have
memory

Antibody-Mediated Immunity
- effective against antigens in body fluids
(blood and lymph)
- effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins
- uses B cells to produce antibodies
  Plasma Cells
- produce antibodies
Antibodies
- 3 to 14 days to by effective against antigen
 IgG - person develop disease symptoms
- 80 to 85% in serum  Secondary Response
- activates compliment and increases - Memory Cells: occurs when immune
phagocytosis system is exposed to antigen that has
- can cross the placenta and provide been seen before
protection to the fetus - B memory cells quickly divided to form
- responsible for Rh reactions, such as plasma cells which produce antibodies
hemolytic disease of the newborn - produces new memory cells
 IgM
- 5 to 10% in serum
- activates compliment Cells-Mediated Immunity
- acts as an antigen binding receptor on the
- Cell-mediated immunity is used against
surface of B cells
antigens in cells and tissues.
- responsible for transfusion reactions in the
- It is effective against intracellular bacteria,
ABO blood system
viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
- often the first antibody produced in
- It uses different types of T cells.
response to an antigen
 IgA
- 15% in serum
- secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto Types of T Cells for Cell-Mediated Immunity
mucous membranes  Helper T cells (TH)
- protects body surfaces -activate macrophages
- found in colostrum and milk to provide -help form B cells
immune protection to the newborn -promote production of Tc
 IgE  Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc)
- 0.002% in serum - precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes
- binds to mast cells and basophils and (CTL)
stimulates the inflammatory response 
 IgD  Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
- 0. 2% in serum - destroys antigen on contact
- functions as an antigen-binding receptor
 Regulatory T cells (Tr)
on B cells
- turn off immune system response when
antigen is gone

Effect of Antibodies
- Inactivate antigen Proliferation of Cytotoxic T Cells
- Bind antigens together
1. An MHC class I molecule displays an
- Active complement cascades
antigen, such as a viral protein, on the
- Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
surface of a target cell
- Facilitate phagocytosis
2. The activation of a cytotoxic T cell
begins when the T-cell receptor binds to
the MHC class I/antigen complex
Antibody Production 3. There is costimulation of the cytotoxic T
 Primary Response cells by CD8 and other surface
- 1st exposure of B cell to antigen molecules
- B cell undergoes division and forms
plasma cell and memory cells
4. There is costimulation by cytokines,
such as interleukin-2, released from
helper T cells
5. The activated cytotoxic T cell divides the
resulting daughter cells divide, and so
on, eventually producing many cytotoxic
T cells